Research for Orienteering Carried out in the Universities in Shanxi Province
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Research for Orienteering Carried out in the
Universities in Shanxi Province
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Wang Tong
(Shanxi Normal University, Shanxi, China)
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Abstract
As colleges and universities in Shanxi Province the size of the growing number of
students, student activities, the per capita area of less than, virtually to the smooth
development of the work of school physical education has brought a lot of
inconvenience. How effective and rational use of limited sports venue to raise interest
in physical training students to become college physical education first and foremost
consideration. Through Orienteering opened in a public gym feasibility analysis, want
to be able to carry out physical education in public colleges and universities in Shanxi
Province to provide assistance, which ease the successive years of increased enrollment
caused by a relative shortage of sports facilities, etc. are very important significance
Key Words : orienteering, public sports, feasibility;
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Introduction
Directional Movement which is originated in Sweden and introduced into China in
1983 is full of adventure and excitement of sports wisdom, being focusing on
promoting the project between 2002 and 2003 in china. In order to conform to the trend
of college physical education reform, updating to expand physical education teaching
idea courses, some national universities have opened this course. Nowadays, the
orienteering has become an official event in 2004 World University Games. The
method of organization is simple and
science and the use of the equipment are
light. It both have valuable in fitness and increasing the geographical knowledge, when
it was carried out in nature, besides, at the same time sets fitness of sexual and popular,
athletic, entertainment as a whole is simple, effective and strong [1], and therefore the
majority of teachers and students welcome. In this text, we analyze some favorable
factor and constraints factor, according the reality of Shanxi Normal University in
physical education, for starting our school orienteering course provides a theoretical
basis
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Object and Method
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Object: several students from Shanxi Normal University, Jinzhong College, Datong
College
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Method
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Send questionnaire to students in Shanxi Normal University, Jinzhong
College, Datong College, 100 copies of each. Recycling 286 by the end with the
percentage of 95.3
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1. Literature method
According the demands of the research, we consult a plenty of relative literature
between 2004 and 2008, in order to command the trends of the orienteering study with
the analysis
2. Survey method
3. Mathematical Statistics method
Deal with the questionnaire by statics.
Colleges and Universities in Shanxi Province Start the Exist of
Feasibility Analysis of Orienteering.
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Colleges and Universities in Shanxi Province's own "congenital" favorable
conditions provide a basis for carrying out orienteering.
College has great potential of space resources for orienteering
In recently tears ,with the expanding of college and the number of the students, the
activities of school students per capita area is less than average. The number in table 1
has indicated that 46.9% of students think ground in school can’t appease normal use;
48.2% of students think that it’s less of equipments. Effective and rational use of
existing sports venues and equipment so that students can walk away from the
playground has become the first issue to consider. The orienteering can be installed on
the campus, parks, forests, and fields, which is less demanding for facilities, which can
be carried out in campuses, parks and an outdoor area directly[7]. Orienteering, carried
out in school, make the school sports resources full utilize. Put the traditional physical
education move into nature, which solve the problem of tension of my school sports
and sport equipments. For example, our Shanxi normal university campus covers an
area of 2143 meters, in which the construction area of 500,000 square meters, is not
complex in physiognomy, which is very much in line of site conditions to carry out
orienteering because the north campus has a wide distribution of parks and lakes.
Table 1 field used
Field
use
Percentage
Equipment
use
Percentage
Research for Orienteering Carried out in the Universities in Shanxi Province
（N）
Able to be used
Unable to be
used
Not clear
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（%）
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30.8
46.9
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16.1
48.2
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22.3
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35.7
Orienteering meets the needs of students’ interested in sports
From table 2, we could see that students are not interested in traditional physical
classes while a number of interesting games and sports of interest to 32.1%.
Orienteering is an anecdote of sport, which its ground, map, compass are full of
interesting. When you are running, you can follow the directions on maps, give full
play to their wisdom to choose a best way, find checkpoints so that between points of
the surface features and topography are not the same. This race is more interesting than
simple running. If you leave student running alone on the ground, he will feel dull and
inactive. But orienteering exactly meets the needs of students interested in sports.
Table 2 Interesting for P.E
Track and field
Ball game
Aerobics
Anecdote of the game
Percentage（%）
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32
46
8.4
37.1
22.4
32.1
From the table 3, we could see, only 28.7% students take part in orienteering; the
vast majority of students did not take part. But through the table 4, it can be seen the
value of the movement that they have a more comprehensive understanding of
orienteering. Directional movement of students that is conducive to stimulate interest
in sports training and growth of the professional sports knowledge. It is conducive to
physical activity, develop physical fitness, health promotion; will help improve student
creativity, initiative, independence and field survivability; also develop teamwork,
enhance their overall sense of. From table 2 we could see that 32.1% students are
willing to take part in the orienteering. It provides a basis for orienteering carried out in
college.
Table 3 understanding in students
Participated
Know something
Never heard
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（%）
(N)
Number（N）
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Number（N）
Percentage（%）
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28.7
51.0
20.3
Table 4 understanding on the value of the orienteering
Number（N）
Percentage
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（%）
Large area on campus conducive to directional
movement
Relieve the press of equipment
Train interesting
Take exercise for health
Improve the ability of independence
Develop the team spirit
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45.5
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37.1
61.5
39.2
27.9
25.2
Orienteering Course opened to ease the pressure of the shortage of college sports
The increasing number of student in college cause the sports facilities are far from
lagging behind, and teaching results are not satisfactory so as to students have no place
to carry out after-school sports activities. The orienteering events which did not require
the ground, can be carried out anywhere, in which point it greatly eased the pressure of
a shortage of college sports. Orienteering which a project called "campus orientation"
that means that the entire campus as a competition venue for the conduct of a complete
game. But for the education, this place is large enough, in which any part of it can
complete. Besides, each education won’t be repeated, it can transform many different
ways, won’t be bored. So we could say the orienteering carried out alleviates the
pressure of a shortage of university space.
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The vale of orienteering itself plays a positive role in promotion
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Because of the complex orienteering Venues, Participants must keep moving fast
and identify the map and in the field of information and control, choose a best way and
make the decision by themselves. So, no matter intelligence and physical force, it’s a
huge development.
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1. The breadth of participants
The orienteering is a sport including intelligence and physical force, which only is
completed both by mental work and physical force. It combines fitness, intelligence
and anecdotes as one, easy to promote. Not professional athletes could take part in, but
anybody who like. According to the literature, the youngest is 8 years old, while the
oldest is 80 years old. So this is a sport who wants to play which is different from other
that only can be seen, but can’t join in. You only can feel interesting when you join in[3].
The rule is straightforward, no matter who you are, just a map and a compass.
2. Equal emphasis on intellectual and physical exercise
The athletes need to go across the forests, parks, and fields to the end point. This
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feature requires not only athletes, ability to have an accurate knowledge about map, the
ability to skillfully use the compass, as well as the starting point of the inspection
points to select the best route also requires lasting endurance athletes, and good
physical fitness. In the game players must be received in the physical and mental
circumstances, under the dual pressures of rapid response to a resolute decision to
make their perfect combination of mental and physical strength to achieve their goals
as quickly as possible.
3. Orienteering with the anecdote
During the competition, the athletes, according to orientation on the map marked
contrast with the field direction of movement, select the best route to find a checkpoint
to complete the race. Site could be located in the campus, park, forest and field, when
you decide a route, the first thing you must consider the safe as well as physical
exertion in the line for at least[2]. While the athlete from one point to reach another
point, he will feel very excited to continue to search for the next until the finish. This
track is more interesting than running, athletes can enjoy the natural beauty, get funny
from this campaign.
4. Competition
As other sports, orienteering is full of competition. It’s not only for physical force,
but for intelligence and skill, from one point to another, need running, deciding
direction and rout. Running speed by strength, athletes need to be run under full
throttle, physical 90% of the oxygen required to maximize the participation in sports;
choose the direction of the road running through intelligence, the ability to identify
map and use map, relying on intelligence from the point of origin to destination
demands equal emphasis on physical and intellectual.
5. Episteme and social significance
Orienteering is a first military activity, along with the development of society, it in
the promotion and popularization of the broad masses, and it needs athletes’ ability to
interpret blueprints, using a compass to identify the direction of the map in line with
the field direction. Enhance the national quality and raise people's self-survival by
analyzing maps.
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Policy guidelines for directional movement in Shanxi Province
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In 1999, the State made the decision to promote quality education across the country
after the directional movement began to develop rapidly; in 2001, the Ministry of
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Education officially orienteering, field survival courses in six major universities as
curriculum; in September 2002 the Ministry of Education issued a "National Colleges
and Universities Physical Education Curriculum Teaching Instruction Program," article
22 requires each local colleges and universities to fully benefit extra-curricular and
holidays, to carry out family education community sports, sports, summer camps and
other sports outings, development extra-curricular and after-school sports resources[10].
August 2004 Shanghai, organized by the Seventh National University Games [12], the
directional movement as an official sport. This series of policies and regulations to
carry out for my school Orienteering provides policy support.
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Constraining factor of directional movement in Colleges and
Universities
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Orienteering is still part of the new sports in our country .Although the
EducationSector supports this game adequate enough ,there’s still a certain
constraint .For example ,the theoretical system of teaching is not so perfect ,some of
the orienteering players’ lack of related teaching experience ,and orientation skills
which the players mastered are poor .The prerequisite to prepare should be full among
the teaching of the orienteering .Either the road or the map should be designed
advanced .The check point must be set before the course whose hours are limited in a
certain number .So the effects of the education must be in a low level with out the short
hours .All of these conditions will restrict the development of the orienteering in high
school . But with the development of the sport, as well as the College of Physical
Education on the importance of the campaign, some of the problems will be
Solution
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Conclusions and Recommendations
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1. The surrounding environment of the high schools in Shanxi Province is ideal for the
orienteering to carry out .The orienteering can be opened on physical education so that
it can expand curriculum content and space of the physical education, enrich the
cultural life on campuses, make the students’ health promotion, and also can help the
students to achieve their fitness and social values. At the same time, through the extracurricular training in the formation of the orienteering teams and the participating in
the qualitative cross-country races to improve the level of orienteering to promote and
increase the popularity of the orienteering in our school.
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2. There is only 51% of the students around the high schools in Shanxi Province have
learned the orienteering currently .We can publicity the introductions of the
orienteering relevant knowledge through the newspaper, radio and other forms to
enable more students to understand the methods and rules of this movement and to
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develop students interest.
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3. The orienteering which is carried out both in schools and out fields need a further
research of either the directional movement forms of the organization or the
instructional design and the safety issues of this game.
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4. The orienteering can effectively exercise the will of the quality of the students’ as a
new physical education curriculum .The students’ spirit of solidarity can also be
improved by the orienteering .It can even enable the students to develop a love of the
nature and the awareness of protecting the ecological environment.
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References
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[4] Zhang Xiaowei. Orienteering [M] Beijing: Planet Map Publishing House, 2003.20～35.
[5] Zhao Kaier, Huang Yongliang. Campus orientation [M] Beijing: Hua Yi Publishing House,
2003.102～28.
[6] Shao Yongxiang. Feasibility of Orienteering and Countermeasures in college [J]. Xiangtan
Normal University Journal, 2005，27(4)：100～101.
[7] Pan Huashan, Huangsen. Investigation and analysis of the situation of orienteering in
Chinese Universities to carry out [J]. Guangzhou Institute of Physical Education Journal
2003，23(2)：51～53.
[8] Zhang Huihong, etc. Field survival training course, as the significance of college sports [J].
Journal of Physical Education 2002,(11).
[1] Wangcong. Exploration and Practice in Orienteering’ Curriculum [J] Sichuan Sports
Science 2001(3) : 59～61.
[2] He Xiaozhi. Orienteering [J] Chengdu P.E Journal, 2000 (2):96.
[3] Luo Hongbin. Schools Orienteering Teaching Practice and Discussion [J]. Zhejiang Sports
Science 2004（1）：84～87.
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Exercise: Preventing from Senior Osteoporosis
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Myung Wha Kim
(Woo-song University, S.Korea)
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Abstract
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Osteoporosis is a major public health problem because it leads fractures with
resultant morbidity, loss of independence, chronic suffering, and increased mortality.
Also osteoporosis is a condition of reduced bone density and increased susceptibility
tofractures, with out other recognizable causes of bone loss. Osteoporosis affects an
estimated 35% of korean women from age 50. Perhaps 90% of all hip and spine
fractures among elderly women are attributed to osteoporosis. Bone strength and
health are related to many factors including genetics, nutrition, hormones,
environmental influences and physical activity. Physical activity may be specially
important. The bones appear to change either as a result of direct impact from the
weight bearing activity or of the action of the muscles attached to bone. High levels of
physical activity and loading can increase bone mass, while low levels may be lead to
less bone, but very high repetitive strains can lead to damage and fractures. Although
the mechanism are unclear, it appears that mechanical loads stimulates bone
cells(osteoblasts and osteocytes) in the loaded bones to change calcium fluxes to
increase production of prostacyclin, prostaglandine E2, nitric oxide and glucose -6phosphate dehydrogenase(G6PD) andto increase RNA synthesis, with subsequent
release of growth factors.
Key words : osteoporosis, weight bearing exercise, bone strength and health
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Introduction
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Osteoporosis is a condition of reduced bone density and increased susceptibility to
fractures, with out other recognizable causes of bone loss. Osteoporosis affects an
estimated 35% of Korea women from age 50. Perhaps 90% of all hip and spine
fractures among elderly women are attributed to osteoporosis (Melton LJ. 1990, Bauer
RL, 1991). Bone strength and health are related to many factors including genetics,
nutrition, hormones, environmental influences, and physical activity.
Physical activity may be specially important. The bones appear to change either as a
result of direct impact from the weight bearing activity or of the action of the muscles
attached to bone. High levels of physical activity and loading can increase bone mass,
while low levels may be lead to less bone, but very high repetitive strainscan lead to
damage and fractures. Measures taken at several critical periods in the life cycle, long
Exercise: Preventing from Senior Osteoporosis
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before fractures occur, have the potential to prevent osteoporosis and its consequences
(Melton LJ,1988). Therefore exercise physiologists are in a key position for preventing
osteoporosis.
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The Osteoporosis of Pathophysiology
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Normal bone metabolism involves a continual process of bone reabsorption by
osteoclasts, which stimulates deposition of new bone matrix by osteoblasts, followed
by mineralization. Bone metabolism is influenced by a variety of hormones. The
skeleton acts as a reservoir for calcium, with bone reabsorption occurring when
calcium is needed. High levels of physical activity and loading can increase bone mass,
while low levels may be lead to less bone, but very high repetitive strains can lead to
damage and fractures(Licata AA, 1991). Although the mechanism are unclear, it
appears that mechanical loads stimulates bone cells(osteoblasts and osteocytes) in the
loadedbones to change calcium fluxes to increase production of prostacyclin,
prostaglandine E2, nitric oxide and glucose - 6- phosphate dehydrogenase(G6PD) and
to increase RNA synthesis, with subsequent release of growth factors (Avioli Lv. 1983).
The strength of a bone is largely determined by its size and mineral density as well
as its crystal structure and trabecular architecture. A particularly important determinant
of susceptibility to fracture in osteoporosis is the loss of horizontal bridges between
weight-bearing trabeculae. Usually, once trabeculae are lost they are not replaced
(Cummings SR, 1990). Some writers refer to a "fracture threshold"-a bone mineral
density (BMD) above which fracture is unlikely and below which the risk
progressively increases (Stevenson JC.1989).
This threshold is approximately two standard deviations below the mean BMD for
young adult women. Body mass index (height and weight) should be assessed. In male
patients the size and consistency of testicles should be examined. The size of bones
(wrist width). and muscle strength are highly correlated with bone mass, but their
clinical usefulness has not been determined(Ostleve SJ. 1991). A decrement in height
and dorsal kyphosis may indicate previous vertebral compression fractures (Patel U.
1991). Osteoporosis of the spine is characterized radiographically by radiolucency of
the vertebrae, accentuation of the vertical trabeculation, biconcavity of the vertebral
bodies, wedging. and finally compression of the vertebrae.
Laboratory tests to look for secondary causes of osteoporosis may include an
automated biochemical profile, complete blood count, thyroid function tests, serum
protein immuno electrophoresis, luteinizing hormone level, total testosterone(in men),
and 24-hour urine calcium, cortisol, and creatinine. Markers of bone formation include
serum alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin (a sensitive and specific marker of osteoblastic
activity), and type l collagen propeptides. Markers of bone reabsorption include urinary
calcium and hydroxyproline, pyridinoline, and deoxypyridinoline (specific breakdown
products of bone and cartilage collagen).
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Secondary causes of osteoporosis resulting from decreasing bone mass with age,
secondary or accelerated osteoporosis has been attributed to a number of drugs and
medical conditions affecting bone metabolism. Causes of secondary osteoporosis are
most common and glucocorticoids, excessive thyroid medication, hypogonadism, and
subtotal gastrectomy. Hypogonadism of any etiology, including oophorectomy,
gonadotropin inhibitors, intensive exercise, or starvation, results in accelerated bone
loss. Paralysis or disuse of a body part can cause localized osteoporosis. Reflex
sympathetic dystrophy is before attainment of peak bone mass can have a lifelong
effect.
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Prevention from senior osteoporosis
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Because osteoporosis is usually asymptomatic until fractures appear, and treatment
is of limited effectiveness once osteoporosis is established, prevention is the most
important strategy available to exercise physiologists attempting. Minimize morbidity
and mortality due to osteoporosis. Options for prevention involve efforts to maximize
the peak bone mass (present during early adulthood) and interventions to minimize the
bone loss that occursin all people after middle age, particularly the rapid
postmenopausal bone loss in women (Grisso JA. 1989).
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1. Calcium and Vitamin D intake
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Calcium does not prevent loss of "estrogen-dependent" bone soon after menopause
but may help to conserve bone in the elderly and has a permissive effect with estrogen
during the climacteric. Inadequate dietary calcium intake is widespread (Rifat SF.1992).
Those with lactose intolerance or otherwise low intake of dairy products are at risk of
calcium deficiency and may require supplementation (Tilyard MW.1992). Patients can
be instructed to monitor and augment their dietary calcium intake, taking prepared
supplements when their dietary intake is below their age and sex recommended level.
For maximum effectiveness, calcium supplements should be taken with an evening
meal. Vitamin D is required for optimal intestinal calcium absorption; the requirement
is greater in the elderly. Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin after exposure to sunlight,
so those with little sun exposure, especially during winter, require supplementation.
In the United States, milk is fortified with vitamin D. Pregnant, lactating, and
possibly elderly people who do not eat dairy products should receive supplemental
vitamin D 400IU (10㎍) daily. Consumption of more than 800 IU (20㎍, twice the
recommended daily allowance) per day is not recommended, as large doses of vitamin
D have not proved beneficial in preventing or treating osteoporosis and can cause
toxicity (Heidrich F. 1987).
2. Lifestyle and Exercise
Sustained, weight-bearing exercise increases the size and density of bone, whereas
immobilization results in osteoporosis of the immobilized part. Although intense
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exercise to the point of amenorrhea can precipitate rapid bone loss, there is some
evidence that moderate exercise can conserve bone mass. No studies of the effect of
intervention for smoking or alcoholism on osteoporosis havebeen reported.
Moderate weight-bearing exercise, moderation in use of alcohol, and avoidance of
tobacco should be recommended for preventing a number of medical conditions, and
these measures are likely to decrease the risk of osteoporosis as well(Dequeker J.1990).
Although the mechanisms are unclear, it appears that mechanical loads stimulate bone
cells in the loaded bones th change calcium fluxes to increase production of
prostacyclin, prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G6PD) and to increase RNA synthesis, with subsequent release of growth factors
(American College of Sports Medicine 1995).
The most dramatic example of the effect of physical activity on bone is the rapid,
dramatic, and extensive loss of bone seen withany type of immobilization and disuse
(Giangregorio and Blimkie 2002). Krolner and Toft (1983) reported that BMC of the
spine decreased 0.9% per week in 34 patients aged 18 to 60 years who were
hospitalized with low back pain due to protrusion of a lumbarintervertebral disk.
Reambulation resulted in a gain in BMC, with restoration to nearly normal levels after
four months. Goemaere et al. (1994) studied 53 patients with complete traumatic
paraplegia of at least one year's duration. Compared to controls, the BMD of paraplegic
patients was preserved in the lumbar spine but was markedly decreased in the proximal
femur(-33%) and femoral shaft(-25%). In those performing passive weight-bearing
standing with the aid of a standing device, BMD of the femur was significantly higher
than in those not performing these activities. Del Puente and colleagues (1996) found
significant bone loss in the femoral neck in the paralyzed limbs of 48 hemiplegic
subjects; the degree of bone loss directly correlated with the length of immobilization.
Of interest, in a study of 24 patients with a unilateral stroke, there was loss of BMD in
the paretic extremities, but an increase in the nonaffected ultra-distal radius, perhaps
due to increased compensatory activity in the arm (Ramnemark et al. 1999).
Early studies with astronauts during space flight showed a significant increase in
urinary calcium excretion and a decrease in BMC at the oscalcis found a decrease in
BMD at the weight-bearing tibial site, with the loss evident as early as month (Vico L.
2000). Bone mineral density was preserved in the radius. The mechanism of bone loss
and immobilization is not understood. Immobilization can lead to rapid increase in
osteoclastic bone reabsorption, urinary calcium excretion, and bone loss. The
alterations in bone metabolism occur rapidly, and bone reabsorption becomes elevated
within the first few weeks of unloading.
In fact, one study showed an increase in bone reabsorption within 24 hours of bed
rest in healthy subjects (Baecker et al. 2003). In part, lack of muscle contraction
against gravity may play a role. Bone mineral density that has been lost due to disuse
or reduced weight bearing can be restored with resumption of normal activity.
However, the recovery may be incomplete and may takemuch longer than the time
require to have lost bone. Karlsson et al. (1993a) measured BMD in 42 professional
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ballet dancers (17 men and 25 women), 28 of whom were still actively performing.
After correcting for differences in body mass index, they found asignificantly higher
BMD in the lower extremities of female dancers and in the femoral neck of male
dancers. In those dancers with a history of more than one year of amenorrhea, however.
BMD of the spine was 7% lower than in the menstruating dancers.
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Conclusion
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The exercise program can be established for nearly anyone, and that such programs
may be helpful in building and maintaining bone mass, strengthening muscle,
improving balance, and preventing falls and fractures. It is not yet clear precisely
howto individually tailor exercise programs according to specific individuals' needs, or
how long such programs should last. Yet it is important to individualize exercise
programs that should begin (when appropriate) only after medical clearance and under
the supervision of a physician and a exercise physiologist.
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References
432 [1] American College of Sports Medicine. 1995. Position stand on osteoporosis and exercise.
433
Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 1-7
434 [2] Avioli Lv. The osteoporotic syndrome: detection, prevention, and treatment. Orlando, FL:
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Grune & Stratton, 1983:30.
436 [3] Bauer RL. Assessing osteoporosis. Hosp Pract 1991;26 Suppl 1:23-9.
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Study on the Value of Wushu Education
in Carrying forward National Spirit
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Wang Hongwei, Gao Li, Zhang Xuesheng
(North China Institute of Science & Technology, China)
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Abstract
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Wushu, one of the body building methods in Chinese tradition, is the crucial
embodiment for handing down national culture and carrying forward national spirit.
Thus, wushu education plays an important role in school physical education as well as
in popular education. Patriotism should be placed at the core in wushu education due to
its role as the soul of the whole nation. Through education in history, morality and
skills of wushu, the youths are expected to get the deep connotations of wushu
education and then carry forward the national spirit.
Key words: wushu education, national spirit, foster, carry forward
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As stated in the 16th National Congress of People’s Representatives, we should carry
forward the national spirit and take it as a fundamental task in the cultural construction,
and furthermore, bring it into line with national education and spiritual civilization to
make all Chinese people in all spirits, under the condition of collisions between
different cultures in the world. Playing an important part in popular education, physical
education in school is intended for elevating physical health standard and accelerating
the development of spiritual civilization.
Chinese wushu, with a history of several millennia, is considered as the representative
of Chinese traditional sports activities and so holds its special position in physical
education in school. Chinese wushu boasts of rich cultural connotations under the
nourishing of traditional culture, such as knowledge, worship, arts, morality, law and
custom. But in this new century, along with the globalization and the entering of
Western cultures and values into China, it is of crucial importance for us to carry
forward the national spirit for the benefit of Chinese traditional culture.
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Connotation of National Spirit
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1. Connotation of National Spirit
Study on the Value of Wushu Education
in Carrying forward National Spirit 15
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National spirit is reflected in the common features of national consciousness, culture,
custom, characterization, faith, religion, national value sense and value pursuit, which
are established in the long-term historical progress and accumulation. It is both the
essence that ensures the national existence and development of its traditional culture
and the manifestation of a people’s vitality, cohesion and creativity.
With a five-thousand-year history, China has fostered its national spirit of unity,
peace-loving, bravery, diligence and self-improvement, with patriotism at the core.
Facing new situation and responsibilities in this new century, we should especially
enhance the national spirit in the party and the whole society, which includes the spirit
of liberating the thoughts and seeking truth from facts, of catching up the times and
being creative, of stepping forward in the face of difficulties, and of seeking practical
results with hard work.
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2. The meaning of carrying forward national spirit
As we know, no spiritual prop of its own means lack of soul, vitality and cohesion
for a nation. Therefore, national spirit poses as a very basic measure in judging the
overall strength of a nation. Filled with hardships and innovations, the glorious cause
of building the socialism with Chinese characterization calls for and is bound to bring
about sublime spirit, which will bolster up and put forward this great cause. In a
sentence, a nation without the firm spirit is a nation without future.
Deng Xiaoping once emphasized the importance of carrying forward our national
spirit, especially for the adolescents. As the future power to construct socialism, the
adolescents’ morality and national spirit concern the development of social cause in
China. The impact from the globalization and the Western ideologies hampered the
acceptance of the traditional culture and national spirit, which can find its expression in
the following aspects. First, to make a fetish of the life style in the West and evaluate
China in terms of Western value system lead to the loss of national self-confidence;
second, to care about personal interest and fall into material enjoyment result in the
decreasing of self-respect; third, to forget Chinese traditional culture and customs and
doubt Chinese traditional value system bring about the falling of national sense of
pride. So education in traditional culture and national spirit has a close connection with
the healthy growth of the adolescents, and the future of our social cause.
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The role of wushu education in carrying forward national spirit
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Originating from national history, national spirit, as a national subjective
consciousness, is embedded in the cultural tradition and develops along with the
society. In this sense, carrying forward the national spirit must pay much attention to
the handing down of Chinese brilliant traditional culture. With Chinese characteristics,
wushu is known as the representative of Chinese traditional sports and the symbol of
16 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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Chinese brilliant culture and national spirit. Wushu culture, in a nation advocating
morality like China, is undoubtedly tinted with its color of civilization, and similarly
reflects the rich cultural connotation of China.
Rooted in labor in the field, wushu develops with the society. We can find the brand
on it made by different eras. In the age when the non-explosive arms are used, wushu is
an important means Chinese people used to resist foreign aggressions for national
security. In the peaceful times, it turns into a way to strengthen their bodies and enjoy
themselves. During the long history of China, wushu has received impact from such
areas as Chinese philosophy, aesthetics, military tactics, ethics and Chinese medicine
and formed its own cultural system based on the absorption of the essence of these
areas. Wushu attaches great importance to wushu morality, which reflects the Chinese
tradition such as “treasure righteousness and despise gains”, “sacrifice one’s own
wishes to those of others”, “respect the master, be modest and forbearing”, “take up the
cudgel in behalf of another”, and “every man alive has a duty to his country”. All these
traditions reflect the Confucian thought which dominates Chinese culture for so long a
period. Another aspect of wushu can be considered as epitome of Chinese traditional
culture, and that is the idea of “harmony between heaven and man” and “equal
attention to skills and morality” etc.
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The development of socialist market economy in China enables people to meet their
material needs, but Chinese people are still seeking their mental comfort from wushu
sports, which can improve the health, cultivate one’ s moral character, and entertain
oneself. In such an era of desire for material benefits and declining of morality, wushu
morality finds its proper place to improve people’s moral standards and spur on
people’s willpower. In addition, wushu, with its special style and characteristics, plays
a crucial role in fostering staunchness and creating all-around talents of high quality.
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The ways and measures of nurturing and carrying forward the
national spirit in wushu education
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With a long history, wushu, as Chinese traditional treasure, plays an important role
in handing down traditional culture and promoting national spirit. Wushu education in
school plays an active role in the inheritance and development of wushu, as well as in
carrying forward national spirit and developing traditional culture.
1. Enhance education in wushu history to inspire patriotism
Wushu, as our fine national traditional sports, retains the features of traditional
culture and demonstrates the spirit of modern civilization in the aspect of sports
Study on the Value of Wushu Education
in Carrying forward National Spirit 17
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features. In terms of training methods and techniques, wushu is rich in cultural
meaning and national style. To sum up, wushu represents the Chinese national spirit
and traditional culture.
A panoramic view of the history of wushu shows that among both soldiers and
civilians there are heroes who spared no sacrifices for their states. This kind of
sacrifice spirit has been inspiring those wushu practitioners for whom guarding their
own states has been the life norm.
What follow are some heroes of this kind. Yue Fei, anti-Jin hero in South Song
dynasty, bore the inscription of “serve country with unreserved loyalty” on his back,
which inspired him to defend the invasion from Jin dynasty, one found by racial
minority. Qi Xuguang, one general of patriot, also a wushu practitioner, expressed his
not-for-fame thinking in the line of “my intention is not for noble title, but peace on the
sea”. Huo Yuanjia, another wushu master in the Qing dynasty, can’t bear the arrogance
and humiliation of the foreign aggressors and defeated the boxer from the imperial
country, which elevated greatly China’s national prestige.
From Qin dynasty on, many famous remarks emerged such as “loyalty to the state”
and “equality of all the people”, expressing the moral belief of being concerned with
the whole world and being loyal to the king.
As the traditional physical exercise, wushu, in its long history of development, has a
close connection with such brilliant national culture as benevolence, righteousness,
bravery, chivalry and loyalty. According to the Confucian thoughts in as early as the
pre-Qin dynasty, chivalry was linked with benevolence. At that time, the “benevolent
person” was considered the most respected. As Mensius put it: “prefer honor to life”,
which have become the motto for so many heroes in Chinese history. Confucius also
expressed the association between righteousness and bravery by stating: “The real
gentleman put righteousness at the first place.
Bravery without righteousness for gentleman makes disorder, while for common
people, robbery”. Among various chivalrous spirit, loyalty is given the priority. The
book of “ShaoLin Wushu Secret”, widely circulated at the end of the Qing dynasty, had
made the recovery of the nation from Manchu minority its main aim. In contemporary
wushu field, almost all the schools and their compiles emphasized the highest duty of
guarding the nation. For example, Wushu Collection: Summary, compiled by Wan
Laisheng, attached great importance to patriotic spirit of wushu, pointing out “In the
long splendid history of China, the heroes appeared frequently owing to the advocation
of wushu spirit”. This is really true.
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2. Strengthen Education in Wushu Morality to Inherit Traditional
Virtue
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Wushu morality is definitely a product of the development of Chinese society as
well as wushu itself. Its formation is unexceptionally influenced by the economy,
patriarchal society, feudal ranking system, social style of production and life, as well as
the ethical thinking of Confucius, Moism, Taoism and Buddhism etc. It also functions
as the bridge for the transformation from moral theories and concepts of various kinds
to social reality through the moral practice of wushu players.
Wushu education has always attached importance to wushu morality and “wushu
morality first” is considered as one of the fundamental principles of wushu education
to form students’ spirit of upholding wushu morality. In feudal societies, li (courtesy) is
deep-rooted in wushu morality due to the influence of Confucius, Taoism and
Buddhism, especially the first one. With li at the core, many rules such as Shaolin Ten
Commandments, Commandments in Hand-to-hand Fight, “Ten Yes” and “Ten No” in
Teaching all reflect Chinese tradition like benevolent love, great virtue. Stressing
wushu morality, wushu field has seen such sayings as “courtesy precedes martial arts”,
“morality first, skills second”. Usually people, when learning wushu, pay great
attention to the cultivation of morality in fighting, speaking and behaving. Morality in
fighting means no showing up and no harming others in contest; morality in speaking
refers to no slandering, no arrogance, being sincere and polite; morality in behaving is
adhering to moral norms and no disturbing of social order.
Wushu morality, definitely a product of social history, develops with the society.
Traditional wushu morality promotes respect for the master, robbing the rich to pay the
poor, filial piety and justice, while modern wushu morality has got such new contents
as establishing lofty ideals, seeking glory for the country, patriotism, no hesitation to
the right, mutual respect between teachers and students, self-cultivation and lawabiding. Through the wushu morality education, students may come to understand the
true meaning and the specific reference of modern wushu morality, and thus to get the
right outlook on life and values, as well as to form the correct wushu-practicing
concepts, which can be used as guidelines in their daily training. Besides, students can
also foster the spirit of keeping courageous before danger.
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3. Strengthen Wushu Skill Education to Foster Strong Character
Along with social development, wushu has rich and colorful contents and varied
sports forms. The offensive and defensive nature of its action performance materials
combines performance and reproducibility of offence and defense. Wushu performance
requires the following four elements: intention, Qi, energy, and form.
These four elements should be united harmoniously to get to the point of starting and
ending all together, which reflects the principle of “Harmony between Heaven and
Man”. Many moves, like “intend to stretch, bend first”; “intend to move to left, to right
first”; “intend to open, close first”; “intend to rise, first low down”; “intend to be fast,
Study on the Value of Wushu Education
in Carrying forward National Spirit 19
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first be slow” etc. can be seen in wushu. These move methods, which reverse the
direction of wishing and getting to start up the performance, can be traced back to the
ideas in Lao Zi’s statements of “will to shut, must stretch; will be back, must be strong
first.” In addition, Chinese ying-yang theory is also applied to wushu, which can find
its expression in such sayings as “movement for peace” when practicing and grappling,
“movement in quietness”, “hardness with softness in movement”, and “mutual
transformation between attack and guarding in fighting”.
Wushu training emphasizes both internal and external training. As one wushu
saying goes, “internal training stresses vigour, energy and spirit, while external training,
hand, eye and body.” Only in this way can you can get a comprehensive development
in body and mind. Another saying tells us: “As heaven maintains vigor through
movement, a gentleman should constantly strive for self-perfection.” In the process of
ceaseless pursuit for physical and mental development, wushu players build their body
and improve their fighting skills to realize their self-perfection. Strong body ensures
the endurance of hard toil and severe weather. Wushu skills enable them to defeat the
enemies to defend themselves. What’s more, the unyielding spirit before difficulties
and spirit of struggle formed through wushu training can be considered as the
representation of seeking for self-perfection.
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Conclusion
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Chinese wushu has its root in Chinese culture, which enabled wushu to originate,
grow, development to maturity, and to form its own completer theoretical system. On
the other hand, wushu reflects the basic idea of Chinese culture. In wushu education,
the wushu educational connotations are taught by introducing the history, morality and
skills of wushu. National spirit, with patriotism at the core, in wushu culture is seen as
the soul of China. Wushu education will function a lot in both physical education in
school and national quality education, so wushu will surely win the whole world
through its own glamour and advantages, and further develop Chinese traditional
culture and foster the national spirit with patriotism at the core.
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References
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[1] Jiang Zhe Min [M]: People's publishing house，Bijing, 2006，8
[2] Li Kangping. Educating National Spirit for the Youth, Jiangxi Research of Education
Science, 1997, 5.
[3] China Central Advetizing, Mao & Zhou’s Discourseu on National Spirit[M]:Learning
Publishing，Beijing,2003
[4] Tian, Introduction of Chinese Traditional Culture[M]:Higher Education Press, Beijing
1999，6.
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[5] Kang．Encyclopedia of Martial arts[M]: All China Publishing, Beijing, 1990，8．
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[6] Gal Jin-HongNational Spirit & Heritage Culture[J]: Ethics Research, 2003，7.
[7] Research Center of Martail Arts, National General Administration of Sports, Research on
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Education Press, Beijing, 2008，6．
[8] Yul Sheng Bu . Function of Martial arts in Teaching National Spirit[J]: Sport &
Science,2005,1.
[9] Suh Jae、Introduction of Martial Arts[M]: People's Sports Publishing, Beijing, 1996,6.
[10] Liu. Traditional ethics on Martial arts, Martial arts Literature. People's Sports Publishing,
Beijing 2005,1.
The Influence of Deep Breath Training on Cardiopulmonary
Function of College Students 21
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The Influence of Deep Breath Training on
Cardiopulmonary Function of College Students
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Gao Li, Wang Hongwei
(North China Institute of Science & Technology, China)
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Abstract
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Cardiopulmonary functions are related to a series of important issues such as the body
oxygen supply, energy metabolism, work efficiency of the body and eliminating fatigue,
which decide the load capacity of heavy training and competition that the human body
withstands. So, cardiopulmonary function is the basis of athletic ability and is a major
factor in sports performance. At present, the domestic and international sports experts
and scholars generally agree that the principal means to improve cardiopulmonary
function is a long-distance endurance running training, i.e. the aerobic training.
Because college students are in the final stage of growth, their oxidation is stronger
than the adults’, and they consume more oxygen, but their hemoglobin and myoglobin
are less than the adults’. Cardiopulmonary functions are weak, so that the long-term
training of cardiopulmonary endurance running results into students’ cardiopulmonary
overloaded and affects the normal cardiopulmonary growth. In this way, what method
should be adopted? What kind of training methods can help students’ cardiopulmonary
function in development? More than two years of the study shows that the chest deep
breathing training method is conducive to the development of cardiopulmonary
function of college students, which is consistent with the physiological characteristics
of them.
Key words: cardiopulmonary function, college students, training method, chest deep breathing
training method
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Research Subjects and Methods
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1. Research Subjects
Subjects are track and field team members and the general students of North China
Institute of Science and Technology.
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2. Research Methods
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Literature Study
Domestic and international sports training monographs, data compilation and a large
number of journals are consulted.
Interviews with Experts and Scholars
The training, psychology, education experts and scholars, from Beijing Sport
University, Capital Institute of Physical Education, Beijing Normal University, East
China Normal University, Huazhong Normal University, etc., have been interviewed
and correspondence interviewed. Rich experimental basis has been obtained.
Experimental Analysis
The sports team members and the general students of NCIST are divided into
experimental and control groups to carry out the chest deep breathing training
experiment. After testing, it has a certain reliability and validity.
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Results and Analysis
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Group Training before the Deep Breath Training Experiment
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Comparative experiments are carried out in the results of the chest deep breathing
training method. Before experiment, students are divided reasonably into two groups
according to the random sampling method, namely, the experimental group and
control group. The vital capacity, respiratory rate, pulse, chest and breathing difference
of the two groups are tested, the measured mean value is shown in Table -1
Table -1
Group
Testing
Date
FVC
Respiratory
Rate
Pulse
experimen
tal group
Sept.,
2006
3000
milliliters
18 times /
min
80 times
/ min
71.3cm
4.1cm
control
group
Sept.,
2006
3020
milliliters
18 times /
min
79 times
/ min
72.4cm
4.2cm
Chest
Breathing
Difference
Notes
30 each
for male
and
female
30 each
for male
and
female
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From Table-1, we can see that a random sampling method used divides the students
reasonably into experimental and control groups, but the value difference between their
vital capacity, respiratory rate, pulse, chest and breathing difference are not big.
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Experiments of the Deep Breathing Training
The Influence of Deep Breath Training on Cardiopulmonary
Function of College Students 23
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1. Before the normal exercise, 4-6 minutes deep breathing exercises should be done.
When breathing chest diameter increases from top to bottom can be experienced.
During the breathing process, breathing should be fully exhaled and inhaled, and the
breathing frequency is about 10 times / min.
2. After Training, 4-6 minutes of deep breathing training has to be done. During the
breathing process, the inspiratory chest is done and they experience the increases
before and after thoracic diameter. Doing their utmost to inhale, exhale to relax the
body, there is an easy feeling in each part, and the respiratory rate is about 8 times /
min.
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Comparison of Analysis after Experiment
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Students’ vital capacity, respiratory rate, pulse, chest and breathing difference have
been tested for two years. The measured mean is shown in Table-2
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Table-2
Group
Testing
Date
FVC
Respiratory
Rate
Pulse
Chest
Breathing
Difference
experiment
al group
Sept.,
2008
4050
milliliters
15 times /
min
69 times
/ min
76.6
cm
6.2cm
control
group
Sept.,
2008
4150
milliliters
78 times /
min
76 times
/ min
73.4
cm
4.8cm
Notes
30 each
for male
and
female
30 each
for male
and
female
From Table-2, we can see that through two years of experiments, the vital capacity,
chest and breathing difference using chest deep breathing training method of the
experimental group students is significantly higher, while their respiratory rate and
pulse rate are significantly lower than that of the control group.
Why can deep breath training improve cardiopulmonary function of college students?
What can promote their normal growth? There are several reasons:
1) Before training, the deep breathing exercise training plays a good role in the
campaign for the high-intensity activities in the lung and makes the necessary
preparations. Deep breath after exercise training in the lungs plays a full role in
relaxation, while practicing deep breathing is conducive to venous return. Inspiratory
pleural pressure drop can make the great veins inside the chest and ventricular dilated,
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870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
and the volume increases, pressure drop are conducive to peripheral venous blood into
the chest, and also conducive to muscle relaxation.
881
Conclusion
882
883
884
885
886
The author thinks that the chest deep breathing training method can improve the
cardiopulmonary function of college students, promote the normal growth of them as
well, because the cardiopulmonary training method is simple, free from constraints
such as space equipment, suitable for students of all types of schools at all levels of
teaching and training.
2) Deep breathing training will enable the full expansion of lungs. Long-term of
deep breathing exercises can increase lung volume, lung capacity. Meanwhile, the
alveoli flexibility can also be increased. Deep breath training can fully stretch the
respiratory muscles, make a powerful respiratory muscle contraction.
3) The gas exchange between alveolar and blood is achieved through the physical
process dispersion. Deep breath training can get the thinning of foam films increased.
A large number of open pulmonary blood vessels can be greatly opened, and the
oxygen pressure between the alveoli and blood increases to promote the process the
diffusion process. Training for a long time to do deep breathing is conducive to gas
exchange.
4) A large number of experiments show that cardiac output and total body oxygen
uptake into the linear correlation, then the increase in total body oxygen could
contribute to the development of cardiovascular system function.
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
References
[1] Sports Training. General Textbooks of Physical Education. People's Sports Publishing.
Aug, 2000
[2] Sports Training. Higher Learning Materials. Higher Education Press, July, 2006
[3] Exercise Physiology. Higher Learning Materials. Higher Education Press. June, 2006
[4] Human Physiology. Sports School Textbook. People's Sports Publishing. August, 2006
[5] Exercise Physiology Experiment(Universities’ and Colleges’ Physical Education Teaching
Materials. Higher Education Press. July, 2006
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 25
902
903
904
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US &
Malaysian Physical Education Teachers:
A Preliminary Study
905
906
907
Wee Eng Hoe
(Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia)
Raj Subramaniam
(Ithaca College, New York, USA)
908
909
910
911
912
Abstract
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
Conducting a quality physical education (PE) programme requires dedicated and
competent teachers (Wuest & Bucher, 2009). However, problems in teaching PE is
significantly related to the marginalization of PE (Liang, Walls & Lu, 2005; Nakai &
Metzler, 2005; Wright, McNeill & Schempp, 2005; Yoo & Kim, 2005) and ‘out of
field’ teaching (Harris, Monk &Mcintyre & Long, 1992; ICSSPE, 1999 in Kirk et al.,
2006). This study is a survey research concerning the ability in teaching PE as
perceived by PE teachers in schools in the US and Malaysia. Nine statements were
formulated based on three constructs relating to subject matter, pedagogical and
student knowledge. The data were collected from the administration of a questionnaire
to a sample of 162 teachers from lower primary/elementary, upper primary/middle
school and secondary/high schools. The findings showed that US PE teachers ‘strongly
agree’ and ‘agree’ that they have content (98.0%) and pedagogical knowledge (94.1%)
as compared to Malaysian counterparts (64% and 62.2% respectively). Ninety-eight
percent of US teachers ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ that they have knowledge to plan
and design teaching as compared to 67.6% that of Malaysian counterparts. 92.1% of
US teachers ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ they have knowledge to evaluate students as
compared to 71.2% that of Malaysian counterparts. US teachers ‘strongly agree’ and
‘agree’ (94.2%) that they have knowledge about their students better than their
Malaysian counterparts (82.0%). When knowledge of teaching game were analyzed,
94.2% of US teachers perceived (‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’) that they were more able
to use developmental appropriate practice than the Malaysian counterparts (62.1%
‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’). US PE teachers also perceived that they more capable
than Malaysian PE teachers to detect weaknesses (96.1% versus 61.3%) and correct
weakness (96.1% versus 64.9%). When the nine statements of teaching ability were
ranked, US teachers ranked ‘content knowledge’ and ‘planning and designing
instruction’ as their forte. On the contrary, Malaysian teachers considered ‘prior
26 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
939
940
941
942
knowledge of PE students’ and ‘student management’ as their strong points. In short,
cultural differences may influence the perceptions of PE teachers, thus it should be
used as a basis of comparison.
Key words: physical education, teaching ability, quality teacher
943
944
Introduction
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
956
957
958
Conducting a quality physical education (PE) programme requires dedicated and
competent teachers (Wuest & Bucher, 2009). Even though capable teachers are
essential in achieving quality education but such teachers will always be in short
supply (Seyfarth, 1991). In fact, Grineski (1994) emphasised that successful PE
programmes start with an effective teacher.
In Malaysia, there is a shortage of PE teachers and many non PE majors are robed in
to teach PE. As such assigning teachers to classes for which they are neither trained nor
well prepared for frequently occurs. Robinson (1985 cited in Harris, McIntyre & Long,
1992) and ICSSPE (1999, cited in Kirk et al., 2006) acknowledged that ‘out-of-field’
teaching is pedagogically unsound. Consequently this would affect the smooth
implementation of the PE programme. Subsequently Wainwright (1993) substantiated
that if people are not managed efficiently and effectively, the cost would be
considerable. As such it is imperative to look at teaching ability of PE teachers.
959
Statement of the Problem
960
961
962
963
964
965
966
967
968
969
970
971
972
973
974
975
976
977
PE is accorded the same status as other subjects in the school curriculum, both in the
US and Malaysia. However the PE programmes have various problems including
teaching staff. International Council of Sport Science & PE (1999 in Kirk et al, 2006)
observed that often PE teachers in primary/elementary schools were untrained for the
subject and some conducted PE lessons as supervise play. In a study of student PE
teachers in the USA, Graber (1995) noted that when student teachers have limited
subject matter (content) knowledge and are unfamiliar with the details of particular
activities, they will be unable to make informed choices about how to teach the subject
matter.
In Malaysia, Wee (2001) in a study of the implementation of PE programme,
involving 1637 secondary school teachers found that teachers were ‘lacking in
knowledge of subject matter’ (54.1% responded as ‘very serious’, ‘serious’ &
‘moderately serious’), ‘unable to plan daily lesson’ (41.0%) and ‘unable to control
class’ (23.5%). This situation persists as reported in the evaluation of PE programmes
in primary schools (Federal Inspectorate of Schools, Malaysia, 2007) and secondary
schools (Federal Inspectorate of Schools, Malaysia, 2008). In 2007, 83 schools and 61
PE teachers were observed and only 9.8% was PE majors. Only 49.2% was found to be
able to conduct their lessons according to developmental principles. In 2008, 36
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 27
978
979
980
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985
986
987
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989
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992
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996
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1001
1002
1003
1004
1005
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
schools and 67 PE teachers (31.3% PE majors, 68.7% were non-majors) were
evaluated. Only about 49% of the teachers were capable of applying developmental
principles in their lessons.
Based on the above-mentioned findings, it is imperative to examine the teaching
ability of PE teachers in schools in the US and Malaysia. The study compares the
ability of PE teachers as perceived by teachers assigned to teach PE in schools in the
US and Malaysia.
Literature Review
Capel, Leask and Turner (1995) in their study revealed that effective teaching
depends on three factors, that is professional knowledge, subject knowledge and
professional judgement. Professional knowledge is about teaching and learning.
Subject knowledge comes through academic qualification and from continuing
professional development. Professional judgement refers to routine skills and strategies
which support efficient class room management. They added that a widening
knowledge base is imperative to bring a deeper understanding of the subject than is
required by the syllabus. Wider knowledge help teachers develop differentiated tasks
much more easily and it gives teachers the confidence in answering questions posed by
students. Above all, they concluded that the key elements in becoming successful
teachers they must have adequate subject knowledge; teachers must give attention to
planning; teachers must be aware of students’ needs; and teachers must be concerned
about the welfare of students. The importance of subject matter is also agreed upon by
Porter and Brophy (1988) and Seyfarth (1991). The emphasis on pedagogical content
(pedagogy and subject matter knowledge) was supported by Standsbury and Long
(1992) and Schulman (1986).
Capel, Leask and Turner (1995) emphasized that teachers must have adequate
subject knowledge. Wilson, Schulman and Richert (1987 in Green & Hardman, 2005)
in their studies found that the depth of content knowledge appears to influence
effectiveness of teaching PE. The widening knowledge base is imperative to bring a
deeper understanding of the subject than is required by the syllabus. Wider knowledge
help teachers develop differentiated tasks much more easily and it gives teachers the
confidence in answering questions posed by students (Capel, Leask & Turner, 1995).
Without content knowledge, teachers have difficulty have difficulty in making the
transition between acquiring content knowledge and making it accessible for the
learner (Capel, 2005). In fact, when planning PE experiences for students, effective
teachers use their knowledge of the content inline with instructional objectives,
students’ needs to achieve the planned goals (Wuest & Bucher, 2009).
Seyfarth (1991) in agreement with the above notion stressed that teachers’
knowledge of the subjects they teach and the appropriate methods used are important
to ensure students’ learning. The importance of subject matter is also agreed upon by
28 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
1017
1018
1019
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
1026
1027
1028
1029
1030
1031
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1033
1034
1035
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
Porter and Brophy (1988). In fact, Reynolds (1992) emphasised that teachers without
adequate knowledge base place their students at a risk of educational failure.
Pedagogical knowledge is imperative for effective teaching (Stansbury & Long,
1992). Without it, teachers would conduct PE lessons as supervised play (ICSSPE,
1999 in Kirk, MacDonald & O’Sullivan, 2006). In observing 24 Malaysian secondary
schools in the Klang District, Selangor, it was found that female PE teachers lack
knowledge and skills in football, rattan ball, basketball and hockey (MOEM, 1982). A
report on PE teaching in 6 schools in the states of Perak found that teachers attended
courses by government agencies were able to use various techniques to teach their
students (MOEM, 1993).
Clark and Peterson (1986) believed that planning is an important element of
effective instruction. Planning helps teachers to increase on-task time and focus on a
lesson. They even noted that an effective teacher not only plans prior to teaching but
also places emphasis to planning which follows teaching.
Cruickshank, Bainer and Metcalf (1995) felt that knowledge of students is important
to implement effective instruction. Reynolds (1992) emphasised that teachers must
know their students in a way that would allow them to tailor the subject matter,
curricular material and instructional activities to the student. The knowledge about the
students is in tandem with Porter and Brophy’s (1988) contention that the knowledge
should include student background knowledge and misconceptions. Similarly, Wuest
and Bucher (2009) emphasised that effective teaching requires more than the ability to
utilize a variety of organizational, communication, instruction, motivation and human
relations skills; it requires the ability to assess accurately the needs of the students and
to tailor these skills to the specific needs and situations. Capel, Leask and Turner
(1995) concluded that the key elements in becoming successful teachers are teachers
must be aware of pupils’ needs and teachers must be concerned about the welfare of
pupils.
1045
Method
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
1054
Conceptual Framework
1055
The conceptual framework of the ability in teaching PE is based on the effective
teaching concepts proposed by Capel, Leask and Turner (1995), Clark and Peterson
(1986), Cruickshank, Bainer and Metcalf
(1995), Porter and Brophy (1988),
Schulman (1986), Seyfarth (1991), and Standsbury and Long (1992). The framework is
a composite of similar concepts of the above-mentioned researchers and it includes
subject matter construct, pedagogical construct and student knowledge construct. In
this study the ability of teaching PE is based on the perceptions of PE teachers assigned
to teach PE.
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 29
1056
Ability in teaching physical education in the secondary schools
1057
1058
1059
1060
1061
1062
1063
Subject
Matter
Construct
 PE content
knowledge
1064
1065
1066
Pedagogical Construct



Pedagogical
knowledge
Planning & designing
instruction
Diagnosing &
evaluating student
Student Knowledge
Construct
 Prior knowledge
of student
learning
Figure 1: Conceptual framework
1067
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1071
1072
1073
1074
1075
1076
1077
1078
1079
1080
Researchers theorize that self-efficacy has lead individual to belief that he is capable
of achieving certain goals or performing at a level that may influence events in life
(Bandura, 1998 in Donatelle, 2009). In the case of PE teachers, task efficacy suggested
by Feltz, Short and Sullivan (2008) may be relevant; PE teachers’ belief in their
capability to perform a particular task (teaching PE). In addition, self-determination
theory may be used to understand PE teachers’ behaviour (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000).
According to Moti (2007), self-determination theory includes both a psychological
needs and a multidimensional motivation orientation for understanding affective,
cognitive and behavioural processes. In the case of PE teachers, especially the non PEmajors, multidimensional motivation orientation which include intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation and amotivation would influence their perception on their ability
to teach PE.
1081
1082
Respondents
1083
1084
1085
1086
1087
1088
1089
A total of 162 PE teachers were surveyed (51 US; 111 Malaysia). Malaysian
participants were from urban area of Shah Alam and consisted of 60 males and 51
female PE teachers from elementary schools (n=28), middle schools (n=27) and high
schools (n=56). The US participant pool came from a semi-urban area in Northwestern
New York region. A total of 51 US PE teachers (male=23, female=28) participated in
this study and they were from elementary schools (n=16), middle schools (n=11) and
high schools (n=11). All participants were selected using convenient sampling.
1090
Instrumentation
1091
1092
For the purpose of gathering data in this study, a questionnaire was designed by the
researchers. The questionnaire was basically based on the four dimensions of the
30 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
1093
1094
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1096
1097
1098
1099
1100
Implementation of Physical Education Programme (IOPEP) namely Teaching Ability,
Administration of Physical Education Program, Problems in Teaching Physical
Education and Non-human Factor (Wee & Raj Subramaniam, 2007). The instrument
has an alpha coefficient of 0.900. However, this study focused only on one dimension
which is the teaching ability. The responses to questions on teaching ability were
anchored on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to
‘strongly agree’ (5).
1101
Results and Discussion
1102
1103
1104
1105
1106
1107
1108
1109
1110
1111
1112
1113
1114
1115
1116
1117
1118
1119
1120
1121
1122
1123
1124
Profile of PE teachers
A total of 162 respondents constituted the sample (111 from Malaysia, 51 from the
US). By school type, 27 per cent of respondents were from Elementary/Lower Primary,
24 per cent from Middle School/Upper Primary, 41 per cent from High School/
Secondary School, and 8 per cent of the respondents taught in Elementary/Middle/High.
Research data showed that there were slightly more male (54.1%) than female (45.9%)
PE teachers in Malaysian schools. This does not reflect the general notion that the
teaching profession is dominated by female teachers. Similarly, there were more
female (54.9%) than male (45.1%) PE teachers in the US schools. By age, the majority
of respondents (69.4% Malaysian PE teachers, 82.4% US PE teachers) were above 30
years in age. Comparatively almost a third of Malaysian PE teachers were below 30
years in age as compared to 17.6 percent PE teachers in the US schools. All US PE
teachers were qualified in physical education. However only 25.2% of Malaysian PE
teachers had their training in physical education.
.
Ability in teaching PE as perceived by PE teachers
The teachers were given a list of 9 statements regarding their ability to teach PE and
were asked to respond using Likert scales of ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘undecided’,
‘disagree’ and ‘strongly disagree.
Table 1: Extent of agreement on statements of ability to teach PE
for US and Malaysian PE teachers (mean, SD, SEM and t-value)
Statements relating to teaching
ability
I have the content knowledge to
teach physical education
I
have
the
pedagogical
knowledge to teach physical
education
PE
teachers
N
Msia
US
111
51
3.57
4.59
.901
.698
.085
.098
Msia
111
3.50
1.008
.096
US
51
4.41
.804
.113
Mean
SD
SEM
t-value
- 7.861*
- 6.139*
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 31
1125
1126
1127
1128
1129
1130
1131
1132
1133
I have knowledge to plan and
Msia
111
3.68
.886
design my instruction
US
51
4.63
.692
I have knowledge to evaluate
Msia
111
3.73
.738
student learning
US
51
4.47
.784
I have knowledge about my
Msia
111
3.89
.665
physical education students
US
51
4.49
.674
I can manage the students in my
Msia
111
3.84
.681
class effectively
US
51
4.61
.723
I can teach games skills using
Msia
111
3.66
.847
developmental appropriate
US
51
4.57
.728
practice
I can detect my students’
Msia
111
3.57
.891
weaknesses in terms of skill
US
51
4.59
.638
performance
I can correct my students’
Msia
111
3.69
.724
weaknesses in terms of skill
US
51
4.55
.642
performance
Note: Msia = Malaysian PE teachers, US = US PE teachers, * sig at p<.05
.084
.097
.070
.110
.063
.094
.065
.101
- 7.421*
- 5.820*
- 5.266*
- 6.551*
.080
.102
- 6.632*
.085
.089
- 8.299*
.069
.090
- 7.232*
The mean scores for the nine statements in Table 1 revealed that US PE teachers
perceived that they were more capable than the Malaysian counterparts in all the
three constructs of subject matter, student knowledge and pedagogical.
Table 2: Extent of agreement on statements of ability to teach PE for US and Malaysian
PE-majors teachers (mean, SD, SEM and t-value)
Statements relating to teaching
ability
I have the content knowledge to
teach physical education
I
have
the
pedagogical
knowledge to teach physical
education
I have knowledge to plan and
design my instruction
I have knowledge to evaluate
student learning
I have knowledge about my
physical education students
PE
teachers
Msia
US
N
Mean
SD
SEM
28
51
4.07
4.59
.716
.698
.135
.098
Msia
28
4.21
.686
.130
US
51
4.41
.804
.113
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
28
51
28
51
28
51
4.18
4.63
4.14
4.47
4.18
4.49
.612
.692
.651
.784
.612
.674
.116
.097
.123
.110
.116
.094
t-value
- 3.119*
- 1.097
- 2.871*
- 1.884
- 2.028*
32 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
1134
1135
1136
1137
1138
1139
1140
1141
1142
I can manage the students in my
Msia
28
4.11
.685
class effectively
US
51
4.61
.723
I can teach games skills using
Msia
28
4.04
.838
developmental appropriate
US
51
4.57
.728
practice
I can detect my students’
Msia
28
3.96
.693
weaknesses in terms of skill
US
51
4.59
.638
performance
I can correct my students’
Msia
28
4.04
.637
weaknesses in terms of skill
US
51
4.55
.642
performance
Note: Msia = Malaysian PE teachers, US = US PE teachers, * sig at p<.05
.130
.101
.158
- 2.998*
- 2948*
.102
.131
- 4.033*
.089
.120
- 3.407*
.090
The mean scores for the nine statements in Table 2 revealed that US PE teachers
perceived that they were more capable that the Malaysian counterparts in all but
areas of pedagogical knowledge and knowledge to evaluate students.
Table 3: Extent of agreement on statements of ability to teach PE for US and Malaysian
PE teachers
Statements
I have the content knowledge to
teach physical education
I
have
the
pedagogical
knowledge to teach physical
education
I have knowledge to plan and
design my instruction
I have knowledge to evaluate
student learning
I have knowledge about my
physical education students
I can manage the students in my
class effectively
I can teach games skills using
developmental appropriate
practice
I can detect my students’
weaknesses in terms of skill
performance
I can correct my students’
PE
teachers
Extent of Agreement in Percentage
Msia
US
SA
9.0
64.7
A
55.0
33.3
U
22.5
0.0
D
10.8
0.0
SD
2.7
2.0
Msia
10.8
51.4
19.8
13.5
4.5
US
52.9
41.2
2.0
2.0
2.0
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
12.6
68.6
9.0
58.8
11.7
56.9
11.7
68.6
55.0
29.4
62.2
33.3
70.3
37.3
64.9
27.5
22.5
0.0
22.5
5.9
14.4
3.9
18.9
2.0
7.2
0.0
5.4
0.0
2.7
2.0
4.5
0.0
2.7
2.0
0.9
2.0
0.9
0.0
0.0
2.0
Msia
13.5
48.6
28.8
8.1
0.9
US
66.7
27.5
2.0
3.9
0.0
Msia
10.8
50.5
24.3
13.5
0.9
US
64.7
31.4
2.0
2.0
0.0
Msia
9.9
55.0
29.7
5.4
0.0
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 33
1143
1144
1145
1146
1147
1148
1149
1150
1151
1152
1153
1154
1155
1156
1157
1158
1159
1160
weaknesses in terms of skill
US
performance
Notes : SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree;
Disagree
60.8
35.3
2.0
2.0
0.0
U = Undecided; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly
Results in Table 3 show that the US respondents ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ that they
have content (98.0%) and pedagogical knowledge (94.1%) as compared to Malaysian
counterparts (64% and 62.2% respectively). Ninety-eight percent of US teachers
‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ that they have knowledge to plan and design teaching as
compared to 67.6% that of Malaysian counterparts. 92.1% of US teachers ‘strongly
agree’ and ‘agree’ they have knowledge to evaluate students as compared to 71.2% that
of Malaysian counterparts. US teachers ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ (94.2%) that they
have knowledge about their students better than their Malaysian counterparts (82.0%).
When knowledge of teaching game (94.2% versus 62.1%), detect weaknesses (96.1%
versus 61.3%) and correct weakness (96.1% versus 64.9%) were examined, US
teachers ‘strongly agree’ and ‘agree’ that they were more able than their Malaysian
counterparts.
Ranking ability in teaching PE
1161
1162
1163
1164
1165
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
1171
The ranking in Table 4 showed that US physical education teachers ranked highest
their ability relating to content knowledge and ability to plan and design PE instruction.
The Malaysian PE teachers perceived that they have knowledge about their students.
Malaysian teachers perceived they were inadequate in detecting and correcting
students’ weaknesses in terms of skill performance. However PE teachers from both
countries were matched in the areas of having pedagogical to teach PE and able to
effectively manage their class.
Table 4: Ranking of ability in teaching PE
(perceived percentages of ‘strongly agree’ & ‘agree’)
1172
Statements
I have the content knowledge to teach PE
I have the pedagogical knowledge to teach PE
I have knowledge to plan and design my instruction
I have knowledge to evaluate student learning
I have knowledge about my PE students
Malaysian
PE teachers
6
7
4
3
1
US
PE teachers
1
8
1
9
6
34 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
I can manage the students in my class effectively
I can teach games skills using developmental appropriate
practice
I can detect my students’ weaknesses in terms of skill
performance
I can correct my students’ weaknesses in terms of skill
performance
1173
1174
1175
1176
2
8
3
6
9
3
5
3
Table 5: Extent of agreement on statements of ability to teach PE according to gender
Statements
I have the content knowledge to
teach PE
I have the pedagogical knowledge
to teach PE
I have knowledge to plan and
design my instruction
I have knowledge to evaluate
student learning
I have knowledge about my PE
students
PE teachers
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
Msia
US
Gender
Extent of Agreement in
Percentage
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
SA
10.0
7.8
65.2
64.3
11.7
9.8
52.2
53.6
13.3
11.8
65.2
71.4
10.0
7.8
60.9
57.1
13.3
9.8
56.5
57.1
A
61.7
47.1
30.4
35.7
61.7
39.2
43.5
39.3
60.0
49.0
30.4
28.6
68.3
54.9
30.4
35.7
70.0
70.6
34.8
39.3
Total
71.7
54.9
95.6
100
73.4
49
95.7
92.9
73.3
60.8
95.6
100
78.3
62.7
91.3
92.8
83.3
80.4
91.3
96.4
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 35
I can manage the students in my
class effectively
I can teach games skills using
developmental appropriate practice
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
Msia
US
Msia
US
I can detect my students’
weaknesses in terms of skill
performance
Msia
I can correct my students’
weaknesses in terms of skill
performance
Msia
US
US
Notes : SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree;
Strongly Disagree
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
13.3
9.8
78.3
60.7
15.0
11.8
69.6
64.3
8.3
13.7
60.9
67.9
5.0
15.7
56.5
64.3
65.0
64.7
13.0
39.3
55.0
41.2
26.1
28.6
58.3
41.2
34.8
28.6
61.7
47.1
39.1
32.1
78.3
74.5
91.3
100
70
53
95.7
92.9
66.6
54.9
95.7
96.5
66.7
62.8
95.6
96.4
U = Undecided; D = Disagree; SD =
The findings in Table 5 showed that male and female US physical education teachers
were almost similar in their perception on PE abilities in all the nine aspects. However
the Malaysian female PE teachers perceived that they were inferior to the male
counterparts.
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1187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
1193
1194
1195
1196
1197
1198
1199
1200
Discussions
Research findings in Table 1 revealed that US PE teachers perceived that they were
more capable that the Malaysian counterparts in all the three constructs of subject
matter, student knowledge and pedagogical. This is expected as only 25.2% of
Malaysian PE teachers were PE majors. On the other hand all US teachers were PE
graduates with 70.6% of them were master holders. In Asia, PE is often marginalised
and PE teachers are often teaching ‘out of the field’ as reported by Wright (2001)
that Singapore PE was not accepted as legitimate subject and teachers often
commented that ‘PE was taken as play session’ and ‘anyone can teach PE’. ‘Out of
field’ teaching was reported by Ministry of Education Malaysia (2007) where in a
study of 61 PE teachers from 83 primary schools, it was found that only 9.8% PE
teachers was PE majors. Similarly in 2008 (MOE, 2008), in a study of 67 teachers
from 36 secondary schools, it was found that only 31.3% of PE teachers was PE
majors. In short, this is considered as the marginalization of PE (Liang, Walls & Lu,
2005; Nakai & Metzler, 2005; Wright, McNeill & Schempp, 2005; Yoo & Kim,
36 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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2005).
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The mean scores for the nine statements in Table 2 revealed that US PE teachers
perceived that they were more capable that the Malaysian counterparts in all
teaching ability aspects except in the areas of pedagogical knowledge and
knowledge to evaluate students. In Malaysia, all teachers were taught pedagogical
knowledge and how to evaluate students when they undergone teacher training,
irrespective of subject majors one was trained in. Thus, this may be the reasons why
they were on par as compared to their US counterparts. On the differences in other
seven teaching abilities (content knowledge in PE, knowledge to plan and design PE
instruction, manage students during PE, teaching games skill developmentally, detect
and correct student’s skill weakness during PE lessons), it may be due to cultural
differences which in turn negatively influenced the self-efficacy of Malaysian PE
teachers. In addition, all US teachers were PE graduates (for Malaysia, only 25.2%
were PE majors) with 70.6% of them master degree holders. The training in the PE
field especially at the master level has undoubtedly provided US PE teachers with
much higher self-confidence which in turn enhanced their perceptions on their
abilities to teach PE. This is supported by Wright (2000) that ‘low academic status of
PE relates to the uniqueness of the subject matter and the inability of others to
understand its nature and its characteristics’. In addition, US PE teachers with master
degrees could be considered as experts, as noted by Sidentop and Eldar (1989) that
high subject matter knowledge and skilfulness were properties of expertise. Thus
higher qualified US PE teachers would be more confident and would response more
favourable in terms of their teaching abilities.
The findings in Table 3 revealed that US physical education teachers perceived their
teaching ability much higher than the Malaysian counterparts. More than 94% (strongly
agree & agree) of US teachers perceived they have the ability to teach based on the
nine aspects. On the contrary, only between 62 - 77% (strongly agree & agree) of
Malaysian PE teachers perceived they were capable to teach PE in schools. This trend
can be explained in terms of the administration of PE programme. In the US all
teachers are PE graduates (Wee & Raj, 2007) but 12-15 percent in Malaysian primary
and secondary schools were graduate (Wee, 2001; Wee, Khor & Jamatul, 2004).
McLaughlin, Pfeifer, Swanson-Owen, and Yee (1986) contend that administrative
decisions to assign teachers outside their fields can actually contribute to incompetence.
Assigning teachers to subjects outside their area of interest and competence is the
administrative action which is most damaging to a teacher’s self-esteem and
satisfaction.
Comparing the Perceptions on Teaching Abilities of US & Malysian
Physical Education Teachers: A Preliminary Study 37
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Table 4 showed that Malaysia PE teachers ranked lowly the content knowledge, detect
and correcting students’ weaknesses in terms of skill performance compared to their US
counterparts. Assigning teachers to classes for which they are neither trained nor wellprepared for frequently occurs because of enrolment and program me changes that
result in either a need for new teachers who cannot be found or a need to release some
1246
teachers and make do with those remaining. Robinson (1985, cited in Harris,
Monk, McIntyre & Long, 1992) acknowledged that ‘out-of-field’ teaching is
pedagogically unsound. Malaysian PE teachers perceived that they were not
capable to teach in terms of detecting and correcting students’ weaknesses in skill
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performance. This finding is consistent with the observations made in the 1982, 1993
and 1994/1995 report by the federal Inspectorate of Schools on the performance of
teachers in seven states of Peninsular Malaysia. It was reported that the performance of
65.4 percent of Physical Education teachers was average or weak, 62 per cent of female
teachers lack knowledge and skills in some games, majority of them lack understanding
of learning objectives and some were weak in basic PE concepts and many lack
confidence to teach effectively as they rely on personal knowledge and experience. Wee
(2001) found PE teachers were ‘unable to plan daily lesson’ (41.0% of the sample).
This is supported by Chong Ai Ling’s (2001) study on 113 secondary PE teachers in the
district of Bera, Pahang, Malaysia that 85% of them need training in lesson planning,
94.5% need training in games skills, about 96% need training in athletics (filed and
track events). Similarly Romina Luhong Ding (2002) in a study of 34 secondary
schools PE teachers in Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia found that 70% of them lack
knowledge about PE curriculum content and 55% of teachers could not effectively
carry out their teaching and learning process.
The reports on the weaknesses of Malaysian female PE teachers as compared to their
male counterparts provided the answer to the statistics showed in Table 5. Wee (2006)
reported that even though 85% of PE teachers were non majors and about half of them
were female PE teachers, few courses were readily available to provide training to those
teachers. It was also reported that almost 89% of PE teachers had never attend any PE
courses since becoming a qualified teacher. Only about 3 percent of teachers had
attended 1-2 courses that were organised by government educational and sport agencies.
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Conclusion
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The ‘out-of-field’ teaching must stop especially in Malaysia. The commitment and
support of the government is critical to the success of PE programmes. As a short
term measure, more in-house and in-service courses especially in Malaysia, should be
conducted to ensure PE teachers could provide positive learning environment and fun
38 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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during PE lessons. Future research should also focuses on the cultural differences when
viewing the perceptions on the ability to teach.
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Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 41
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Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and
Components Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry
1407
1408
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Reza Mohammad Kazemi (University of Tehran)
Fereydoon Tondnevis (University of Tarbiat Moalem)
Mohammad Khabiri (University of Tehran)
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Abstract
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Key words: sport marketing, sport marketing mix, football industry, Iran pro league
Development and expansion of Football as one the most popular sports in Iran in
both sport and economic contexts and presentation of scientific and practical solutions
in order to overcome current obstacles require scientific and accurate research.
Accordingly, the purpose of current study is to design and explain a model in order to
prioritize sport marketing mix elements in Pro League of Iran’s football. Having
Studied related literature review as well as sport marketing mix framework (4Ps) that
consists of product, place, price and promotion, we identified 60 components. Then we
conducted a survey based on the importance and condition of identified components in
Pro League of Iran’s football among football clubs managers. Findings show that place
element has the highest priority among sport marketing mix elements in Iran Pro
League. In addition, Granting clubs' shares, existence of retractable ceiling in stadiums
and donating gifts among fans during the matches have the highest difference between
current and optimal situation among components of other marketing mix elements and
consequently have high priorities in future planning in order to improve current
situation.
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Introduction
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Sport in the 2000s is a multifaceted, multimedia industry, with growing appeal to an
ever-increasing number of stakeholders and supporters but recently soccer becomes a
worldwide sport that occupies every aspect of our social and cultural life. Soccer is not
a game that played on the pitch for fun and entertainment anymore. It is better to call it
"Football industry". The face of football has changed radically over the last 50 years.
The extraordinary development of the football world is certainly related to the fact that,
for many reasons, a lot of people and organizations are interested in the football. Many
42 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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millions of people around the globe are employed in sport organizations in areas as
diverse as event management, broadcasting, venue management, marketing,
professional sport and coaching, as well as in allied industries such as sporting
equipment manufacturing, sporting footwear and apparel, and retail. At the elite level,
sport has moved from being an amateur pastime to a significant industry. This creates
many job opportunities across the world. Resultant cash flow that derives from football
matches, player transfers and commercial advertising exceeds billion of dollars
annually. (Khabiri, Ghafari & Elahi, 2003, Fong, 1999, Shank, 1999) To enhance the
expertise of those charged with its effective management, education and training are
vital components of the football environment. Increasingly, football club managers
have realized that football can no longer be managed by individuals or groups who do
not come equipped with certain skills.
Football in Iran is not apart from the rest of the world and is popular and widespread
sport. Football Federation of Iran has a great passion to develop not only the football
itself but also the resources available, for both quantitative and qualitative growth.
Consequently, the Iran pro-league started its inaugural season in 2001, with 14 teams.
Since the formation of the Iran pro League the development of Iranian football has
been significant and remarkable.
For any new or existing sports league successfully to make the transition from
amateur to major professional sport league, it must have sufficient capitalization to
sustain itself until sufficient revenue is generated to cover operating expenses. This
economic fact of life requires not only that league or individual team owners are
financially and emotionally committed to long-term incremental growth, but also that
sponsors, league administrators and players are cognizant of the sport’s and/or league’s
growth potential. It is important to remember that all sport leagues, amateur or major,
are supported by the same revenue sources (i.e. ticket sales, broadcast rights,
sponsorship and merchandise).
Football is played all over the world, and universal marketing tools are necessary in
order for it to be profitable. However, it is interesting to wonder whether marketing is
the same in every country or whether there are cultural differences that imply the need
to adapt the marketing policies of the clubs and leagues. (Desbordes, 2007)
Professionalism in football requires efficient and effective management that leads to
more profit. This necessitates accurate planning and cutting-edge marketing strategies
and techniques. Most of Iranian football clubs were administered by government
agencies therefore there was no need for cost and profit estimation. In order to fill the
gap between current situation and optimal situation that every football club desire to
achieve, we need scientific research and studies that are ignored in our football society.
This article is an attempt to fill this gap and improve marketing practices in the football
field.
The literature reveals that research and studies that have been conducted in the field
Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 43
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of sport marketing proposed two concept of sport marketing. The first concept
describes sport marketing at the macro level. At this level sport marketing relates to
external forces that surrounded football industry and in order to gain competitive
advantage we need to analyze these forces. The second concept describes sport
marketing at micro level that consists of organization efforts to acquire new customers
and retain current customers. These kinds of marketing activities include demand
forecasting, products that should be presented, kind of communication with customer,
product and service pricing and distribution channels selection. It is clear that sport
marketing managers need tools and framework to handle these kinds of activities. One
of these tools and frameworks is marketing mix (4Ps) (Logman, 1997, Shankar, 1997).
In this framework we can assume professional football leagues as a product that sport
audience (consumers) need. Therefore, sport managers can use marketing mix model
elements (product, place, price and promotion) to make better decision. (Pitts & Stotlar,
2002, Shank, 1999)
Academic have written scores of articles on sport marketing topics. Table 1 lists the
most important studies that conducted in the field of sport marketing.
Table 1. Number of important studies that conducted in the field of sport marketing and its
marketing mix elements
Study field
Researchers
Sport
Shankar(1997),Lougman(1997),Shannon(1997),Park(2001), Garsia(2001), Jackson
marketing
et al(2001), Peets(2002), Ko & Pastore(2004), Thomas(2005), Marber et al(2005),
Couronik & Dalton(2005)
Product
Mason(1999), Pons et al(2001), Pitz, Parker and Spencer(2004), Boyd &
Shank(2004), Filo & Funk(2005)
Place
Jones & Fergusen(1998), Melnick(1993), Brown(1996), Westerbeek &
Shilbury(1999), Westerbeek(2000), Howard & Crompton(2003)
Price
Abrahamson & Farmer(2001), Reese & Stad(2001), Lo & Kim(2004)
Promotion
Hansen & Gasper(1992), Cousens(1996), Coupland et al(1996), Taranto(1998),
Bennet et al(2003), Brown & crovitz(2002), Medox(2003), Apostolopolo &
Papadimitrio(2004)
There have been few studies about spot marketing to date in Iran. One of these
studies was conducted by Elahi(1383). He compared performance of Pro-league of Iran
with performance of Japan pro league. The findings showed that Iran's pro league
depends on Football Federation which monitors majority of league activities. The key
implication of Elahi's findings is that Iran's pro league deprived of legal rights such as
TV broadcasting rights. (Elahi, 2003)
In another study, Khabiri, Ghafari and Elahi compared the situation of Iran's pro
league clubs with European leagues and some selected Asian and neighbor countries
(UAE, Turkey, Korea Republic and Japan) leagues. Findings show that there is
44 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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significant difference between condition of Iran's club and that of other countries' clubs.
Descriptive data analysis also indicates that Iranian football clubs could not obtain
minimum standards of UEFA. Even in many cases, there is large gap between Iranian
football clubs situation and UEFA standards. (Khabiri, Ghafari & Elahi, 2003)
In her research, Memari modeled sport marketing mix in Iran and also identified
latent factors among marketing mix elements. The findings show that eight factors play
important role in Iran sport marketing mix. The most important factors are: market
dominant forces, sponsorship, pricing management and promotion management.
(Memari, 2007)
Through the literature review, it seems that the number of researchers investigating
sport marketing mix elements in Iran stated that there is large gap between Iran's pro
league and many developed countries leagues. It is therefore important to increase
innovation level in our marketing activities and imitate from successful pro leagues in
world but we should also consider our limitations and cultural values. Our article
incorporates elements from several literature streams within the sport marketing
literature. It is useful to point out the relative contribution of the article. In this paper
we attempt to construct a model that can describe sport marketing mix elements in Iran
and prioritize these elements according to their relative importance. This model assists
sport marketing managers and football clubs managers to adopt appropriate marketing
activities in order to increase efficiency of their decision making process. Furthermore
this model guides the allocation of resources for ongoing sport marketing activities.
1532
Research objectives
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The fundamental objective of current study is to describe and prioritize sport
marketing mix elements (and related components) in Iran football industry (Iran's Pro
League).
In order to reach the stated objective, we need to evaluate following objectives first:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Description and prioritization of product components in Iran Pro League.
Description and prioritization of place components in Iran Pro League.
Description and prioritization of price components in Iran Pro League.
Description and prioritization of promotion components in Iran Pro League.
1544
Research Methodology
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This study used descriptive and analytical research design to identify required
planning to promote the current situation of marketing in Iran pro league and to
describe sport marketing mix elements in football industry.
Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 45
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The total population for this study is consisted of managers of football clubs in Iran
pro league. Therefore, researchers prepared a list that contains all of the football clubs
that are the member of Iran Pro league and sent designed questionnaires to managers.
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1570
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Measurement tools
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Data analysis
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Results
The selected method for data collection in this paper is the questionnaire.
Researchers first started gathering appropriate information as well as reviewing related
literature in order to develop questionnaire. To enhance the questionnaire design,
researchers also get the experts' opinion in this field. The construct validity of
questions is proved by factor analysis. Then researchers used marketing theory and
appropriate literature with marketing mix elements in mind to prove content validity of
questions.
Final questionnaire consisted of 60 questions in the form of five point likert scale
(1= very low to 5= very high). It is necessary to mention that the components of
marketing mix (4p) that are embedded in this questionnaire were measured on two
scales: the current situation and optimal situation.
In order to calculate the reliability coefficient, a pilot study took place and then we
used Split Half technique. After two weeks, researchers distributed questionnaires
again and reliability coefficient was calculated by using Test-Retest technique in order
to reach the stability of test that equals .95. Then reliability coefficient (.96) is
calculated by substituting the obtained figure in Spearman-Brown formula.
Once the data of the study is obtained, a critical stage follows and that is the data
analysis. Based on the objectives of study, data analysis conducted in two levels. The
first level includes sport marketing mix elements and second level includes
components of marketing mix (4p). Collected and classified data are analyzed by SPSS
software according to every element of marketing mix.
We used mean difference of current and optimal situation to prioritize the sport
marketing elements and their components in Iran's pro league. Based on obtained
results and with emphasis on difference between current and optimal situation, each
component of the study is divided into four quartiles (very low, low, high, very high)
and compared. These components are embedded in the model.
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Table 2 illustrates descriptive data according to the situation of each sport marketing
46 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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mix elements that obtained from football clubs managers.
Table 2
Descriptive statistics related to current and optimal situation of sport marketing mix
Central Tendency Indexes
Dispersion Indexes
mode
media
n
mean
Range
varian
ce
Stand
ard
deviati
on
Stand
ard
error
skewn
ess
kurtos
is
Current
situation
23.5
23.5
23.33
16
29.15
5.39
1.55
.14
-.09
Optimal
situation
47
47
46.57
20
29.64
5.44
1.45
-.08
0.66
Current
situation
26.50
26.50
27.93
32
60.06
7.75
1.93
.21
.90
Optimal
situation
75.50
75.50
75.25
30
56.06
7.48
1.87
-.83
0.16
Current
situation
23
23
25.53
17
30.60
5.53
1.53
.62
-.60
Optimal
situation
65
65
63.08
37
86.99
9.32
2.69
-.34
.95
Current
situation
22
22
23.73
24
38.49
6.20
1.60
.71
.49
Optimal
situation
57
57
55.46
53
186.55
13.65
3.52
-.06
0.18
levels
Product
Distribution Indexes
place
price
Promo
tion
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As illustrated by table 2, there are few differences among marketing mix elements'
Central tendency indexes (Mean, mode and median) and values of skewness and
kurtosis coefficients are less than one. Therefore we can assume that distribution is
normal and use mean as most important index of central tendency.
Figure 1 shows the difference between current and optimal situation of each sport
marketing mix elements individually.
Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 47
80
70
60
50
40
30
current
situation
Optimal
situation
20
10
0
t
uc
od
r
p
1600
1601
1602
1603
1604
1605
1606
1607
1608
1609
c
pla
e
ic
pr
e
om
pr
io
ot
n
Figure 1
Based on figure 1 and difference among optimal and current situation, we can
observe that among marketing mix elements, place has the highest priority and price
has the second highest priority. Promotion and product are at third and forth places
respectively.
Table 3. Prioritization of product components from managers' point of view
Question
number
component
Difference
between
optimal and
current
situation
priority
6
To grant Club’s share to their fans.
-14.12
Very High
8
To consider TV right for pro-league’s clubs
-10.88
High
10
The existence of rules & regularity in holding the leagues’
match
-9.97
High
7
To consider TV right for pro-league organization
-9.79
High
-6.61
Low
-6.36
Low
-6.16
Low
-5.33
Very Low
-5
Very Low
1
4
11
3
2
The existence of a suitable& fascinating name for
professional League organization in order to highlight the
reputation of this event
The existence of a suitable trademark or emblem for clubs
in pro-league
The existence of contest among club’s fan for attending the
stadiums.
To hold pro-league with a specific name in different
levels& ages.
The existence of a suitable& fascinating name for
48 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
participating teams in order to raise positive feelings
5
9
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-4.70
Very Low
-2.55
Very Low
According to differences between current and optimal situation in table 3 and
quartiles division, we can state that component no. 6 of product (granting Club’s share
to their fans) element has the most distance form standard (optimal situation).
Therefore, football clubs of Iran's pro league underperform on this component.
Table 4. Prioritization of place components from managers' point of view
Question
number
component
20
The existence of retractable ceiling in stadiums
19
To put number on seats for fans in stadiums
Difference
between optimal
and current
situation
-15.50
Very high
-15.50
high
-12.41
high
priority
27
To determine appropriate facilities for fans to attend to the stadiums
with their family members
The existence of luxury boxes for important fans
-10.96
high
28
The existence of big shops with the name of clubs beside stadium
-10.92
low
15
-10.45
low
-10.11
low
-9.94
low
-9.77
low
-9.65
low
26
The existence of enough welfare & sanitary facilities in stadiums
Possibility of visiting to museum, dressing rooms, for fans during
the week
Benefiting from ticket sale agencies with complex duties in order to
attract people
To broadcast the matches through Internet &satellite worldwide
instead of attending to stadiums( virtual places)
The existence of Hall of fame & museum beside the clubs in order to
attract the fans during the week
The existence of enough places for refreshment during the match
-9.29
low
16
The existence of enough parking for fans’ better transportation
-9.37
low
24
The existence of bus& metro station around the stadiums
-9.12
low
25
The existence of advertising places in al places of stadium
-8.87
low
12
To reconstruct& to upgrade stadiums
-8.47
Very low
22
The existence of enough entrance& exit in stadiums
The existence of Giant monitors in stadiums in order to replay the
events of the match
The existence of audio system to announce information
-8.35
Very low
-7.40
Very low
-6.22
Very low
13
23
14
17
18
21
29
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1620
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The existence of a suitable trademark for pro-league
organization
To arrange holding of the football matches in the lack
existence of other sport pro-leagues.
According to differences between current and optimal situation in table 4 and
quartiles division, we can state that component no. 20 of place element (existence of
retractable ceiling in stadiums for fans convenience in case of bad weather) has the
most distance form standard (optimal situation). Therefore, retractable ceiling in
Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 49
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stadiums is not in appropriate condition in Iran's Pro League.
Table 5. Prioritization of price components from managers' point of view
Question
number
component
Difference
between
optimal and
current
situation
41
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of buying whole season
tickets
-18.81
Very
high
38
To sell tickets in various prices on the basis of complementary programs
-14
high
37
To sell objects ( clothes, hats,…) with the logo of the clubs
-11.18
Low
-11.01
Low
-9.86
low
-9.68
low
-9.60
low
-9.50
low
-8.52
low
-8.45
low
43
40
32
44
36
33
39
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To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of population of city
where the match is played
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of kinds of fans
( Students, …)
To arouse positive feeling among fans to be member of clubs like:
membership cards, emails,..
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of population of city
where the match is played
To sell tickets via Inter
To hold ceremonies for fans participation during the season in order to
promote the league
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of technical level of the
matches
priority
42
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of kinds of seats
-8.22
low
45
To determine different prices of ticket on the basis of different days in which
the match is held
-7.88
low
30
The existence of famous players for promoting club’s price
-7.15
34
To create unity & coalition between 2clubs located in a city in order to sell
more tickets
-6.97
31
The existence of famous coaches for promoting club’s price
-6.87
35
The existence of FIFA players agents
-4.14
Very
low
Very
low
Very
low
Very
low
According to differences between current and optimal situation in table 5 and
quartiles division, we can state that component no. 41 of price (different prices of ticket
on the basis of buying whole season tickets) element has the most distance form
standard (optimal situation). Therefore, different prices of ticket on the basis of buying
whole season tickets almost are not available in Iran's Pro League.
Table 6. Prioritization of price components from managers' point of view
50 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
1638
Question
number
59
47
60
46
54
53
50
51
49
56
52
57
48
58
55
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component
The existence of exclusive satellite channels with the name of
clubs
To donate gifts among fans during the matches
Presenting free sport clothes to students in schools with the
name of clubs
To allocate coupon for fans to buy goods from shops
The existence of different sponsors for clubs & matches
separately
To initiate contracts with cell phone companies in order to
send results & images of matches to fans
To arrange Media coverage for all matches
The existence of Website to download the results, match
reports, betting.
The existence of effective public relations to connect to
famous persons to join clubs as their fans
The existence of advertising films about cities with the
presence of football stars
The existence of Agencies for legal betting
To distribute free foods from sponsors to the fans
To hold ceremonies &recreational activities during halftimes
Increasing the TV broadcasting time during the week from
different channels
The existence of important persons to endorse clubs
Difference
between
optimal
and
current
situation
priority
-9.97
Very high
-9.45
Very high
-8.25
Very high
-8.11
high
-7.60
high
-7.27
high
-7.25
high
-7.15
high
-6.67
high
-6.26
low
-6.09
-5.93
-4.76
low
low
low
-4.39
Very low
-2.57
Very low
According to differences between current and optimal situation in table 6 and
quartiles division, we can state that component no. 59 (existence of exclusive satellite
channels with the name of clubs), component no. 47 (donation of gifts among fans
during the matches) and component no. 60 (Presenting free sport clothes to students in
schools with the name of clubs) have the most distance form standard (optimal
situation). We can not observe appropriate condition in the above mentioned
components.
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Discussion & Conclusion
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While the results in relation to sport marketing mix may not be what were expected
in Iran's Pro League, we can hope that by using strategic marketing plan, the gap
Model of Sport Marketing Mix Elements and Components
Prioritization in Iran's Football Industry 51
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between current and optimal situation can be filled. Among sport marketing mix
elements, place has the highest rank order. We can state that the place element is not in
good condition in Iran and our stadiums are not very apposite for holding football
matches. The findings of this study are similar to those of Khabiri et al's study. Both
studies indicate that the difference between Iran's place (Stadiums and related
component) score and foreign countries' place element score is significant. In the
whole, other elements of sport marketing mix in Iran's pro league are not in good shape
too. These findings are also similar to other previously conducted studies. (Izadi, 2004,
Khabiri, Ghafari & Elahi, 2004, Elahi, 2004, Memari, 2007) Among components of
sport marketing mix element, granting club’s share to fans, existence of retractable
ceiling in stadiums, donation of gifts among fans during the matches, existence of
exclusive satellite channels with the name of clubs and presentation of free sport
clothes to students in schools with the name of clubs have the maximum difference
between current and optimal situation thus they need to be considered as high priority
items for future planning. The important issue that we should consider is the interaction
among football clubs, Football Federation and Pro League administrator because the
improvement and enhancement of current situation can not be performed by these
entities alone. Collaboration and coordination between these entities that shaped out
football industry is pivotal to have a successful and lively league.
According to the results of this study as well as literature review, you can observe
prioritization model of sport marketing mix elements in Iran's Pro League.
As you can see, the proposed model has four distinct sections. Each section related
to sport marketing mix elements (4ps). Place is on the top section of the model. As
stated earlier, place has the highest rank among sport marketing mix and other
elements are placed according to their priorities. In each section of model, components
of the related sport marketing mix are shown by their relative importance (difference
between current and optimal situation: very high, high, low and very low).
As we explained earlier, according to opinions of academics and practitioners, the
current situation (lack of existence of appropriate sport infrastructure) is caused by not
using sport marketing mix and scientific sport management. Our football clubs,
Football Federation must pay attention to the components that has the highest priorities
and try to improve them because our football pro league can not reach optimal situation
unless there is coordination and interactions between related entities.
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An Analysis to Sport-Tourism in Iran
55
An Analysis to Sport-Tourism in Iran
Rasool Nazari (Islamic Azad University Naein Branch)
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University)
Abstract
Tourism is Known as; the white industry, which has less pollution and more benefits
in comparison to other industries. Today, sports is one of the most effective phenomena
on the economic, political, social and cultural world conditions of the communities in
the world. The connection between the tourism and sports made a new branch of
tourism attraction and used a lot by people in the world .This study aims at
investigating the strength and weakness points of Iran sports- tourists and has been
accomplished through a survey including all types of sports tourists in Iran. A research
questionnaire with 0.83 reliability was made to collect the information and” t” and “F”
tests were used to analyze the data. Different international sport events, special security
police to keep the security for tourist, holding cultural festivals ancient places and
peace in Iran are points of strength of tourism in Iran. On the other hand, lack of
standard sports and recreational facilities, lack of cooperation between the
organizations relating to the tourist affairs are considered as weakness points. The
results show that the culture and management factors have meaningful variances
according to the marital status and the age among the sport-tourist(  = 0.05).
Therefore, the concerned manager must make preparations according to the tourist
interests and age. Finally it seem a that strength points and potentials of tourism Iran
are more much than the weakness points.
Key words: sports tourism, strength, weakness, Iran
Introduction
As agreed by most experts, tourism is an environmentally friendly industry, because
in comparison to other industries it produces less pollution and raises more money (1).
Iran is one of the ten most attractive countries in possessing marvelous monuments and
tourist attractions (10). However, it earns only around 0.01% of the total tourism
income in the world (2). Tourism is a new topic in the field and it has been studied on
many aspects in different countries. Tourism industry has economical values on one
hand and cultural and social effects on the other hand which have attracted a lot of
attention toward itself (4).
56 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Therefore, tourism has become a symbol of cultural identity for some countries and
has been considered as being an important financial support to the extent that it is
called; the invisible industry (16). Although the idea of sports as being a main source of
tourist attraction is not totally new, the theoretical bases of the term "sport tourism" is
recently introduced to the field(6). The coordination of sports and tourism has brought
up a new kind of tourism which has just recently come to eyes (13). Sport events are
great motives to attract tourists and sport- tourism is an industry which has come in to
play by the combination of the two industries of tourism and sports (9). One important
point about sport tourism is its shifting view point toward sport events as to be only
about sports to a new one that bears in mind the other aspects to sports such as culture,
economy, and politics (15).
Braz (2002), Gratton and Henry (2001), Yamaguchi (2002), and Neirotti (2001)
conducted certain independent studies and concluded that there are several factors to
activate participation of tourists in sport events. They believed that the sport events
must be new, exciting, and attractive, they should provide appropriate security and
health conditions and they need to improve effective social interactions among
participants (3, 8, 12, 11). It is important to make a distinction between passive and
active sport- tourists. Active sport tourists are the athletes who compete in the events;
passive sport tourists however, are the of spectators events (7). Economically,
organizing sport events imposes heavy burdens on the hosts.
However, most countries are willing to hold these events for their great influence on
attracting more and more tourists in the coming years (14). Nowadays one of the
concerns of international sport events marketing experts and organizers is to increase
the number of sports spectators and identify the factors that affect their participation
(5).
There are various factors that can affect tourists, motives for participating in
international sport events. Some of these factors such as; the attractions of events,
security, health, financial appropriateness, and the participants, satisfaction have been
revealed in some studies. These factors are varied based on the host and guest country,
cultural values, importance of sport event, and demographic characteristics.
Consequently, despite great financial investments on sport events, the lack of
appropriate planning and marketing, do not let sport events causes an effective tourism
attraction- benefit able for the country. Therefore, a lot of researches are needed to be
do not let on strengths and weaknesses of sport -tourism in Iran.
Methodology
In order to investigate and analysis sport tourism in Iran the researchers made use of
descriptive statistics. The participants of the study were all active sport tourists in all
sport events held in 2008. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire prepared
by the researchers themselves. The questionnaire was divided into two main parts. The
An Analysis to Sport-Tourism in Iran
57
questions related to the strengths were of five elements: administration, culture,
fundamentals, natural and historical attractions, and politics. The weaknesses on the
other hand, were divided into four subtitles: Administration, culture, fundamentals, and
politics. The reliability of the questionnaire was calculated to be (α=0.86). Descriptive
and perceptual statistics including the t-test and ANOVA were conducted to analyze
the data.
Results
fig 1: frequency of participant in research
76 percent of participant was players, 11 percent was coaches, 7 percent managers and
6 percent were physicians and other persons.
Table1: comparison about strength of Iran sport tourism
Dimension
SD
Fundamentals
0.95
Administration
0.84
Culture
3.41
0.88
Natural and traditional attractions
0.90
Politics
3.56
0.86
mean
3.71
3.43
3.51
58 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
The results of the study showed that the participants emphasized on elements
involved in both strengths and weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran. They named the
strengths to use up to date technologies (fundamentals), novelty and variety in
international sport events, good nutrition which is based on the participants ; taste, and
having safe guards for the tourist (administration), having ceremonies and traditional
shows (culture), being able to visit historical buildings and monuments and traditional
architectures (natural and traditional attractions), and finally, having friendly
international relations with other countries (politics).
Table2: comparison about weakness of Iran sport tourism
Dimension
mean
SD
Fundamentals
3.69
0.89
Administration
3.64
0.95
Culture
3.75
0.88
Politics
3.88
0.86
The participants of the study also showed significant results on the elements
related to the weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran. These included: lack of standard
entertainment facilities and equipment (fundamental), not having proper coordination
among the organizations involved in sport events and the ones in tourism matters
(administration), inappropriate behaviors of some spectators in stadiums (culture),
finally, unreal and negative rumors about Iran in some other countries (politics). The
means of the two groups revealed that the participants emphasized on strengths more
than the weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran.
Also the results showed a significant difference between single and married
participants in response to cultural factors, and a significant difference on age in
response to administration factors. "(  = 0/05 ), sig=0.003, 0.004 " .
Discussion and Conclusion
Countries in charge of holding sport events for some reasons, amongst them,
making money and improving friendly relationships with other countries are the most
important ones. Consequently, countries try to hold the events as well as possible to
win the chance of being the host of the future events. Paying more attention to the
ways by which attracting athletes from other countries becomes possible and
An Analysis to Sport-Tourism in Iran
59
improving the strengths of the system, and identifying the weaknesses and raising them
can be effective ways to reach these goals.
As was reported earlier, the results showed that fundamental factors which were
discussed above, such as; being able to use international credit cards, which is not
possible right now, mentioned to be of an importance in participants evaluations of the
events. Another deficiency which was reported by the participants was the poor
transportation system in Iran. Low quality of competitions, due to non-professional
competitors can reduce the attraction rate in events as well. Therefore, it seems to be of
an outmost importance to train the athletes into more skilled levels to be able to
compete in more professional competitions and to seem more professional to athletes
in other countries.
Two more important ways to attract tourists to Iran are the natural and historical
attractions of Iran, which were also highlighted by the participants of the study.
Fortunately, Iran is one of the most famous countries in having unique monuments and
investing in this area can help to attract more tourists. Another factor which was
mentioned by these active sport- tourists was the administration issue. They believed
that having wise and experienced administrators can help hold more attractive and
various events. Having special guards during the events and paying more attention to
participants, security can be effective as well as there are certain regulations and
limitations in Iran for getting a visa and also some restricted customs duties, the
participants claimed there should be easier laws for the athletes to get in and out of the
country. holding cultural and traditional ceremonies during the athletes stay in the
country can make them more interested in the host countries culturally. Educating
people for an appropriate and friendly behavior toward the tourists can have positive
impacts on their memory of the host country. Having less restricted and prejudiced
culture can make tourists feel more comfortable coming to Iran.
Another important factor which many have counter- effects on tourists in being
motivated to come to Iran, can be the unreal and negative rumors about Iran in some
countries. Therefore, it is of outmost importance for the politicians in Iran to take wise
policies toward these issues. The results also, showed a significant difference on
administration factors and age. It shows that the participants have different points of
view according to their maturity. It is important to indicate that the results of this study
are in accordance with the studies done by Chalip (2001), Braz (2002), Cho (2001),
and Yamaguchi (2002).
References
[1] Khosravi, Hosein . City Area and Sport- tourism . first congress of city and sport .2006
[2] Baher, Hosein . The New View to Tourism. Complex article of first congress kish
tourism.2007
[3] Hashemi, Taha . Sport Tourism and Women , Obstacle and Roads. 5th international sport
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science . Tehran 2005
[4] Braz, J.I. Sport for all moves people around the globe: New perspective for tourism.
Journal of Asiana Sport For All.2202, Vol. 1, pp. 47-52.
[5] Chalip, L. & Green, B. C. Leveraging Large Sports Events for Tourism: Lessons learned
from the Sydney Olympics. Supplemental proceedings of the travel and tourism. Research
association 23nd annual conference, Fort Myers, FL; June 10-13, 2001.
[6] Charmetant, R. Infrastructures for Sport and Sourism. Olympic Review,
August- September,2001. pp. 55-58.
[7] Wayne Hickson .Beijing's Olympic Legacy.Beijing Review.
Beijing: Aug 27, 2009. Vol. 52, Iss. 34; pg. 22
[8] Gibson H.J.; Willming C.; Holdnak A. Small- Scale Event Sport Tourism: fans as
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[9] Gratton, Chris; Henry, Ian . Sport in the City: the Role of Sport in Economic and Social
Regeneration. Routledge, Florence, KY,2001, USA.
[10] Higham, J. & Hinch T. Tourism, Sport and Seasons: The Challenges and Potentials of
Overcoming Seasonality in the Sport and Tourism Sectors.
Tourism Management 23, 2002, pp. 175-185.
[11] Kim Nam- Su, Laurence Chalip. Why Travel to the FIFA World Cup? Effects of motives
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[12] Neirotti L.D.; Bosetti H.A, Teed K.C. Motivation to Attend the 1996 Summer Olympic
Games. Journal of Travel Research; Boulder; Feb2001.
[13] Sarawak May Introduce Sport Tourism to Boot its Industry.
Bernama. Kuaala Lumpur: Aug 20, 2009.
[14] Life Sciences; Studies from National Taiwan Normal University have provided new data
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[15] Samuel Seongseor Kim.Segmenting Japanese Tourists to Hawaii According to Tour
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Binghamton: 2008. Vol. 24, Iss. 1; pg. 63
[16] Wayne Hickson .Davao City Businessmen Seek High-CapaCity Convention Center
BusinessWorld.
Manila: Feb 15, 2007. pg. 1
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
61
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
Hashem Koozehchian, Behzad Izadi
(Tarbiat Modares Univ., Iran)
Abstract
Wrestling is the oldest and most ancient sport to be practiced among the Iranians,
and its roots penetrate deep into the history of the nation. All Iranian folkloric heroes
were wrestlers, the most famous of them being Rostam. The famous Iranian poet,
Ferdowsi, composed Rostam’s poetic stories of glory and victory more than 1,000
years ago in Shahmaneh. Rostam had to fulfill seven impossible feats to prove himself,
and to complete this mission he had to face many challenges, and battles. He is the
Iranian Hercules. Some people believe that Shahnameh has kept the Persian language
alive and unchanged in the past 1,000 years. There are probably only a few other
languages that have remained so much unchanged in such a long time. Another Iranian
hero is Pooriayeh-vali. He was also a great invincible wrestler, but had the generous
disposition to lose a competition to bring pride for the aged mother of his opponent..
Thousands of years of wrestling have placed this sport into the heart of Iran. Not only
are the modern international free and Greco Roman styles practiced, but also many
traditional styles are still in favor. Many Iranian world champions have once practiced
one of these styles. Iranian wrestling which is called Koshti in Persian has a very long
tradition and history in Iran. It has been practiced since the ancient times in different
parts of greater Iran in various styles. The Iranian wrestling styles can be divided into
two major categories; in one category lifting and throwing the opponent is considered
victory, whereas in the other types bringing the entire or part of back or knee or arm to
the ground is considered victory. The study was conducted through accumulating
information and data from various references and as such, analysis was made by using
primary sources and documents.
Keywords: sports, wrestling traditional styles, Iran.
Introduction
Iranian traditional wrestling styles are numerous. They are divided into two main
62 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
groups: The styles in which lifting and throwing the opponent is considered as a
victory provided that no part of the executing wrestler's body touches the ground. The
styles in which the main factor for victory, is pinning the opponent or bringing his
entire back to the ground. These styles are also divided into three different categories:
A. Fall is sufficient to win.
B. Fall is not sufficient to win. But the wrestler should also touch the ground with
his arm or shoulder. In some versions the entire back of the opponent should
touch the ground and the length of the shoulder must be entirely contingent
with the ground.
C. There are also some styles in which the opponent's knee or arm touching the
ground will result in losing the bout (8).
In some styles application of special local costumes or tools is a necessity. In
addition to folkloric costumes, special tools such as belt, shawl belt, or a lengthy
intense tissue wrapped around the waist, like a cord or a big belt, are applied in most of
the styles. Another way to categorize Iranian traditional wrestling is accentuating on
the quality of the bout. In some styles offensive and defensive holds or actions and
maneuvers or struggles are definitive. They enjoy combat features and the arm and leg
attacks are applied. Again there are styles in which special ceremonies take place
before the bout. These ceremonies vary from warm-up to religious demonstration and
God worship. In some styles special folkloric musical instruments are played to let
everyone know of the event of the specific traditional wrestling (3). Penalties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Grabbing the opponent’s hair.
Catching the opponent's costume.
Grabbing any part of the face.
Grabbing the genitals.
Inflicting pressure by stepping on the opponent's leg.
Causing injury to the opponent's body by the finger nails.
Zoorkhaneh Traditional Wrestling
The zoorkhaneh is a place to gain strength, reinforce the virtues of sportsmanship,
modesty, humbleness and avoid arrogance. Zoorkhaneh sports are done in a roofed
area; the building resembles ancient temples or cellars. The entrance is smaller than
usual doors. The rood is high and domed, like a mosque. The gode, the hollow, deeper
area in the middle of the zoorkhaneh, is where the sports are done. The gode (meaning
hollow, deep) is usually octagonal, and is built about 70 centimeters lower than the
other parts of the zoorkhaneh. All the edges of the gode is made of soft wood or plastic
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
63
to protect the athletes from getting hurt. Surrounding the gode there are platforms for
the spectators to sit, and also a special place for keeping the sports equipment.
Zoorkhaneh or the ‘house of strength’ work out consists of artful movements
including colorful warm up moves, stretches, push ups, beautiful body movements,
Club swinging and juggling, Dancers like foot works and of course, wrestling. Each
person develops his own unique style after a while. The tools and gears used signify
war weapons such as Swords, Shields, Bows and Clubs; combined with meaningful
spiritual lyrics sang with music. All activities are subject to strict codes of behavior and
etiquette. The work out ends with honoring the elders, prayer and pleads for getting
help for the troubled and the poor and also collecting contributions. One session of
exercises and its formalities used to last for 3 to 4 hours on Friday mornings and 1 to 2
hours on weekday mornings or evenings. At this modern times, weekday early morning
work outs are completely scratched and Friday exercises start around 10:30 A.M.
The most accredited and widely recognized Iranian traditional sport is the Zoorkhaneh
sport that is widely practiced at national level in different cities and villages. History of
this famous sport dates back to many centuries before. It is not possible to entirely
introduce Zoorkhaneh traditional sport and its different features from such a bird’s eye
view and in a brief article like this (4, 6).
Bachoukheh style
Bachoukheh traditional style is widespread all around the large eastern province of
Khorassan especially in Qochan, Bojnord, Esfaraien, Fariman, and Chenaran. This
style is practiced on wedding ceremonies and other occasions. The wrestlers wear
special costumes which are as follows: Special trousers which must not be longer than
the wrestlers’ knees. If the wrestlers can not manage to prepare such trousers, they
wear their local trousers by shortening it up to the knees. A special jacket named, "
Choukheh" which is longer than an ordinary coat. This costume is without sleeves.
Choukheh is usually woven from hard local cotton or wool. A long tissue "Shawl"
which is applied as a belt. Its dimension is 150 X 30 cm. During the competition
special musical instruments, Dohol and Sorna, are played to let everyone know of the
Bachoukheh competition.
The name of this style, "Bachoukheh", is derived from a local Kurdish costume. This
style is the most accredited type of the Iranian traditional wrestling with a very long
history dating back to the foundation of the glorious Iranian civilization. This sport has
now paved its way to further progress beyond the territory of Khorasan Province. With
the effective support of the competent authorities, the glorious traditional sport
64 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
"Bachoukheh", comprising great national, religious and ethical values that was
inherited to our generation from our predecessors, has largely developed and
progressed. The athletes have participated in the scenes of different competitions and
championships to gain honor for the country. This type of a traditional sport has also
had a great contribution in promotion and development of Iran’s free style wrestling,
judo , and kurash sports as well.
On the 14th of Farvardin (the first month of the Iranian solar calendar beginning with
spring), the National Championship of Bachoukheh is organized in Cheshmeh-Zinal
Khan of Isfraien. The championship is warmly welcomed in presence of thousands of
enthusiastic spectators and fans. A special feature of Bachoukheh style is that "bridge"
is not applied. If the bout is not concluded in the official time, after a rest, the bout is
continued in the extra time. If a wrestler touches the ground with his shoulder or entire
back, He will be declared as the loser. The elders and veterans usually judge the
competition. In accordance with the folks and traditions, a sheep is awarded to the
winner. Rules and regulations of Bachoukheh style in Khorassan Province: The
following weight categories are applied in this style: 65, 75, 85, and +85 kg.
Competition time for 65, 75, 85 Kg. weight categories is six minutes, and for +85 kg.
Weight is eight minutes. In case of a draw after the official time, there is an extension
of three minutes and winning the first point will result in victory. If after the extra time,
there is still a draw, the two wrestlers are weighed and the wrestler who weighs less
will be declared as the winner.
Penalties:
-
Passivity
Holding the opponent's leg below the knees
To harm the opponent and fleeing from the field
Points:
-
Par Terre position I point
Warning 1 point
Gileh-Mardi Style
Another important traditional wrestling style is Gileh-Mardi with an old history. This
style is largely practiced in the two northern Iranian Provinces along the Caspian Sea.
The history of this style dates back to the era of pre-Mongol attack to Iran.
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
65
Gileh-Mardi enjoys special ceremonies and demonstrations. The opening ceremonies
begin with special religious rituals and God worship. Some of these ceremonies
include stepping towards Mecca and standing in its direction, kissing the ground,
looking and jumping upwards that means approaching the almighty God. At present,
Gileh-Mardi style is usually practiced on the occasions of wedding ceremonies. Its
practice in public areas starts from June to September when harvesting the rice fields,
i.e. shali-kari is completed. The competition is usually held in a leveled and soft
ground. They illustrate all around the field. It usually starts in the evening and may end
up after mid-night. During the competition special musical instruments are played. At
first all wrestlers line up in a column and do special God worship. After the ceremonies
of worship, each wrestler gets out of the queue and walks or jumps around the field so
that everybody can see him and he can also get acquainted with the spectators. Weight
and time is not important in this style. The elders and veterans usually judge the
competition. During the opening ceremonies first the novices, cadets, and junior
athletes wrestle and then the famous wrestlers appear in the field.
At first a wrestler walks in the field and asks for an opponent. Another wrestler
appears from another direction of the field. The two wrestlers approach, and contact
each other by touching their hands (jegal). If the first wrestler does not want in anyway
to fight against the opponent or thinks that the opponent is not in his class or dignity, or
he can not to fight against him, he leaves the field. The wrestlers with half-bent bodies
approach each other waving their hands or their fists. In case they need a rest, they clap
their hands. Throwing fists towards each other is customary, is among the techniques,
and the opponent must be ready to counter attack. Bringing the opponent to the ground
in any form will be regarded as the victory. In this style, if a wrestler touches the
ground with a knee or even a hand's finger, he will lose the match. The cadet wrestlers
are called "tangouleh" and the junior wrestlers are called, "noucheh". The prize is
called "Baram", and can be a sheep, a cow, tissue, or cash prize. The wrestlers' dresses
include long trousers that become tighter on the ankles. The trousers are specially
painted and are called, "laspareh". Wearing shirts is not customary. The wrestler whose
opponents do not appear on the scene or the one who wins them all will be honored by
receiving the title "Pahlavan" (2).
Loucho Style
Loucho is practiced in the countryside of Amol, Babol and Ghaemshahr in
Mazanderan. Loucho itself is a long wooden stick with approximate length of 3 meters.
Its diameter is 6 to 12 centimeters. The cash prize is fastened to Loucho. The Loucho is
raised in the venue of the competition and is covered by a special mark or tissue that is
the symbol of the competition. Loucho is organized during the leisure time of the
66 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
villagers in one-day, a few days, or sometimes two weeks. Beforehand, Loucho was
arranged during the religious eves, national occasions, wedding ceremonies, after
harvesting the rice fields or during the local markets. Organizers are usually the elders
and veterans. They indicate the time and venue of the competition. They invite the
athletes from all neighboring villages. At the opening ceremonies, they play local
musical instruments to let everybody know of the event. Cash prizes are provided with
the assistance of the villagers. At least three referees who are usually veterans judge the
Lucho competition. The referee or referees who work in the center of the field are
called “mianmaj”. After the opening ceremonies, and asking for an opponent by one of
the wrestlers, each wrestler tries to bring the whole body or some parts of his
opponent's body to the ground. A wrestler who feels subjected to danger claps his two
hands which mean stopping the competition. Wrestlers can not go out of the field. In
this style hitting or knocking the opponent is regarded as a penalty. The winner will
collect all of the prizes already fastened to the Lucho stick, and hand carry the Lucho
itself to his village as a symbol of victory.
Turkamani Style
Turkamani or Kurash is a popular and widely practiced style in Turkman areas
namely Gonbad-Kavoos, Bandar Turkaman, Agh-ghola, Gomish-Tappeh or Gomishan.
Kurash is usually practiced on wedding and other occasions. The weight and time
factor are not considered and speed is more important than strength. Before the
competition, the announcer informs everyone of the event, and invites the athletes to
take part in the competitions. The competition field is usually a soft ground.
The spectators and fans make a circle around the competition field. They sit, and
wrestlers of numerous areas stay in different parts of the field. The elders, veterans and
experts gather, and choose a referee to judge the competition. The referee invites the
wrestlers to the field. He announces the prize called “bayragh”. “Bayragh” is usually
cash money or several meters of tissue. An athlete enters the field, and asks for an
opponent. His opponent enters the field from another direction, and declares his
preparedness to fight. The referee asks both athletes to wrestle in center of the field. He
gives a shawl belt to each wrestler. Each wrestler has to tighten his shawl belt under
close supervision of the referee. The wrestlers' initial position is grasping each other's
shawl belt from the back. The wrestlers start the bout after receiving the referee's signal.
A wrestler will loose the bout if his hand or knee touches the ground. Different leg
attacks are applied in this style.
Wrestling with Shawl
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
67
Wrestling with shawl is another style practiced in Mazanderan Province namely in
Behshahr. It is practiced at the beginning of spring season and on wedding occasions.
On the date of competition, the invited villagers from different villages gather in a soft
leveled field that is covered with soil or lawn. Lots of flowers, fruits, and cone shaped
sugar called kaleh ghand are brought before the competition. Supervision and
arrangement of the competition are among the duties of a veteran. The supervisor
receives the prizes, i.e. sheep, cow, tissue, cash money, etc. from the local sponsors and
hands them over to the winner. Shawl belts are used by both wrestlers. The shawl is
tightly tightened around the wrestler's waist, and its remainder is wrapped as a circle
around his high right or left hip that is held by his opponent at the beginning of the
bout. The winner will be the wrestler who can bring his opponent's entire back or knee
to the ground.
Kamarbandi Wrestling Style
This folkloric wrestling style is practiced in Isfahan Province, especially in the
countryside of Faridan where it is very popular. The villagers gather on sunny winter
days during their leisure time. All neighbors gather in the sunny spots and closely
follow the competition. The athletes wrestle on soft paved hills. In this style the time
and weight factors are not considered, and a bout may even take a few hours. The two
wrestlers fasten their belts and start their struggle. The wrestler who can lift and throw
his opponent to the ground will be the winner.
Ashirma Wrestling style
Ashirma is another traditional wrestling style practiced around Khoy in East
Azarbaijan Province. The competition is arranged in an open area on a soft ground.
During warming-up and the opening ceremonies special local musical instruments are
played to let everyone know of the Ashirma. In this style the weight factor is not
considered. A veteran judges the entire bout. The two wrestlers fasten their belts after
warm-up. The judge examines their belts to assure that they are tightly fastened. The
wrestler who first grasps his opponent's belt, lifts and throws him on the floor will be
the winner. In the process of the competition, the religious interests and faith in ethical
values is demonstrated in form of God Worship.
Hands under- hand up wrestling style ( Dast-zhir, Dast-Bala)
This wrestling style with a history of one thousand years is practiced in the villages
around Ilam province. The two wrestlers stand in front of each other. The first wrestler
puts his hand under his opponent’s hand. He puts his other hand on the shoulder of
68 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
the opponent. The second wrestler does the same. After receiving the judge’s signal,
the wrestlers begin the bout. The winner is the wrestler who brings his opponent's
entire back to the ground. As customary in all other traditional wrestling styles, the
winner is awarded with cash prizes or prizes such as a sheep or tribal costumes.
Maghli Wrestling Style
This style is practiced in Shahr-e-kord of Chahar-Mahal & Bakhtiari Province, and is
usually carried out between the members of the two tribes on wedding ceremonies. The
winner is awarded a sheep. The competition will be on a soft field covered by soil or
natural lawn. The two wrestlers stand against each other in a defensive or offensive
position. The wrestlers put their hands on each other's shoulders. In this style the
wrestling techniques such as waist lock and leg attacks are widely practiced. Bringing
the opponent's entire back to the ground is considered as victory.
Baghal-Be-Baghal wrestling Style
This style is practiced in some villages of Qazvin Province. It is usually held on
wedding ceremonies. The villagers follow the event with great enthusiasm and interest.
The local veterans judge the competition. When the wrestlers are training or warming
up special musical instruments are played to let everyone know the competition is
taking place. The villagers sit around a circle in the competition venue and the
wrestlers start the bout in the center of this circle. The young wrestlers wear traditional
costumes. The two wrestlers enter the field. They approach each other. The wrestlers
must be quite alert to step backward or forward quickly otherwise the careless wrestler
will be cheated, and attacked by his opponent. The wrestlers may also hit each other on
some parts of their bodies. After this preparation, the wrestlers will start their actual
struggle by making use of a good situation to grab any part of the opponent's body. The
winner is always the wrestler who can bring his opponent's entire back to the ground
and roll himself on his chest.
Desert Wrestling ( Kaviri)
Kaviri is another traditional wrestling style that is widely practiced in Kerman
Province. The wrestlers wear normal clothing, and start the bout after fastening their
belt. The veterans and the elders judge the competition. This style is very similar to
free style wrestling, but there are no weight and time factors. An important hold or
action is the leng-e-kaviri, i.e. a kind of a leg attack. The winner is always the wrestler
who can bring his opponent's entire back to the ground.
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
69
Zouran-Patouleh
As a local traditional wrestling style Zouran is usually arranged on natural lawn or on
a soft field in Kurdestan Province. The wrestlers wear local costume, and stand in
different guards against each other. They grasp the shawl belt of each other by two
hands and start moving around to overthrow the opponent’s equilibrium, and to pin
him. During the bout each wrestler can put his foot between his opponent's feet and
lock him (Pashghol) and by inflicting pressure on his chest, can throw, and lift his
opponent to pin him in such a way that his entire back touches the ground.
Zouran-Machkeh
This style is very near to "Zouran Patouleh". The wrestlers stand against each other,
and grab each other's arm by both hands. Each wrestler tries to inflict strength and to
pin his opponent. During the bout each wrestler can put his foot between his opponent's
feet to lock him.
Dasteh-Baghal Style
Dasteh-Baghal style is widespread in Arsanjan in Fars Province where it is very
popular. In this style the wrestlers who are approximately in the same weight groups
wrestle against each other. The weight tolerance may not be more than 5 kg. In this
style a loss or victory in a sole bout is not sufficient, and the wrestlers must wrestler
against each other three times to declare the winner of the bout by considering the
highest result of a bout. At the beginning of the bout the wrestlers kiss the ground and
by resorting to “Ali”, the first Imam of the Shiite Moslems, and by kissing each other's
face. The spectators encourage the wrestlers by "Salavat", i.e. the religious motto of the
Moslems to Mohammad, the Messenger of God. The wrestlers wear long white shirts,
black pajamas, "givehs” that are local comfortable shoes, and their shawl belts.
Catch-Gardon
This style is currently practiced in the countryside of Zabol in Sistan & Baluchestan
Province. The two wrestlers enter the field wearing their local costumes and shawl
belts, and begin the bout. The wrestler who pins his opponent will be the winner. The
factors of time and weight are not considered, and a bout may take many hours. The
winner is usually awarded a sheep.
Under-up style wrestling (Zhir-o-Bal)
70 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
This traditional wrestling style is practiced in the Kurdish regions, " Kalhor", Gilane-Gharb, Islam Abad-e-Gharb in the western part of Kermanshah, and it is very similar
to thegreco-roman style. The competition is held in an open area. The spectators make
a circle around the wrestlers. The two wrestlers stand in front of each other. The
wrestlers put their hands under their opponent's arm. The wrestlers' other hand is in
the hand to hand position.
The judge is usually an elder or a veteran. After receiving the judge’s signal, the
wrestlers start the bout. Holding legs is not authorized. Inserting one's foot between the
opponent's feet or executing any hold or action through the legs is forbidden. The
winner is the wrestler who can lift or inflict pressure on his opponent's waist leading to
his fall. As customary in all other traditional wrestling styles, the winner is awarded
with cash prizes or such things as a sheep or a cow. The spectators may also give
special cash prizes to the winner.
Check-Chisht Style
Check-Chisht is another popular traditional style practiced in Nour, Noushahr, and
Kajour. At the beginning of the competition local musical instruments are played to
inform everyone about the event. The competition is held in an open area. The
spectators make a circle around the wrestlers. First, a wrestler walks around the field
and performs special religious rituals in the form of jumping up and down. He will then
ask for an opponent. His opponent enters the field. They shake hands, walk around the
circle, and perform special God worship in the form of jumping up and down. The
wrestlers shake hand once again, and a veteran gives the signal to start. The wrestlers
change their levels, wave hands from both sides, and throw their hands or fists towards
each other. They approach each other, and take different offensive and defensive
positions. Sometimes they grasp each other's hand, and try to perform special holds or
actions. In case a wrestler needs to rest, he claps. This signal is usually before their full
struggle. Pinning an opponent is not customarily a victory, but lifting and throwing him
from the ground will lead to victory. The winner asks for other opponents as long as he
can continue.
Kamari Style
This style is very old. It was usually held on weddings, festivities, leisure time, and
after harvesting on winter nights. The wrestlers were usually Ghezel-Bash Turks. An
athlete entered the field, performed special maneuvers, and asked for an opponent. If
an opponent was available, they wrestled. Time and weight were not considered in this
style. Both wrestlers used shawl belts. Each wrestler had to tighten his shawl belt under
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
71
the special supervision of two referees who were usually veterans. The wrestlers
grasped each other's shawl belt from the backside, and started the bout after receiving
the referee's signal. If a wrestler touched the ground with one or two shoulders, he
would have lost the bout. Attacks were only authorized on the upper part of the body.
Prizes such as a sheep or a cow were delivered to the winner by the organizers. After a
few rounds if there was a draw both wrestlers received the prizes.
Lashgarkeshi style
Although Lashgarkeshi was regarded as a group game, but in fact it was a special
ceremony to organize group wrestling in Yazd Province. This game was usually held
on holidays. On holidays, about 40 to 50 youngsters usually less than 20 years old
gathered from each region to wrestle. The youngsters of each region accompanied their
own coach or wrestling supervisor. The supervisors were usually the authorized
veterans enjoying good physical and ethical conditions. The wrestlers made a circle
around the field. The wrestlers of each region formed half of this circle. The two
coaches stood in the center of the field, and asked their most elite novices to wrestle
against each other. The two coaches judged the bout.
The bout took place in the standing position, and the winner was the wrestler who
could lift, throw his opponent, and pin him by using a special hold. The winner stood
in his place to wrestle with any other probable opponents whose number sometimes
reached to 10. The region that could collect more team points was regarded as the
winner. The same competition was held within one week then.
Lori Style
This style is currently practiced by different tribes in Lorestan Province. Its local
name is (Dast-e-Zir-Bala). It enjoys a very long history. The wrestlers wear local
costumes without shoes. At the opening ceremonies, special musical instruments are
played to inform everyone about the event. In this style, none of the wrestlers are
authorized to execute a hold by grabbing the opponent's leg by hand. The hands are
only used for executing holds on the opponent's hands, and the legs are used for
executing holds on the opponent's leg. The wrestlers can grab each other dress during
the bout. In case no result is obtained in the official time, the bout is continued without
any rest.
Jang or Jouran
In Lori or Bakhtiari language Jang or Jouran means war. This style is currently
72 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
practiced in the villages of Aligoudarz. After the Mongolian attack, this style was
introduced as a self-defense sport between the tribes. The competition field is a piece
of land with an approximate area of 20 x 20 meters depending on the number of the
black tribal black camps (Siah-Chador) and the spectators or fans attending the
competition. The competition is usually held in front of the Siah-Chador or tribal black
camps. The spectators arrive on the date and time already fixed. Two wrestlers who are
in the same weight categories enter the center of the field. They wear local costumes.
After shaking hands, their hands make a circle around their waists. They lock each
other's hands in right and left directions. After taking this initial position, they start
strength activities on each other's shoulders, sides, or waists. They can either put their
heads on each other's shoulders or move them. This bout may take one hour. The
winner is a wrestler who can pin his opponent. The spectators usually encourage the
wrestlers. A sheep is awarded to the winner of the bout (1, 7).
Conclusion
Wrestling is one of the oldest forms of sport known to man. Wrestling was known
among the ancient civilizations of Persia, China, India, Babylon, Japan, Egypt and
Others. It is the major sport of India, Iran, Mongolia, and Russia.
Wrestling is one on one competition, without the use of any props or apparatus; the
objective being to control an opponent of equal size using skills and techniques unique
to the sport. Iranians were one of the first nations in the world who gave a great deal of
attention to their health, burly figure and strength. The aim of wrestling was and is not
only to produce athletes, but also to provide physical and spiritual training. The
characteristic of wrestling is attractive to young people as it requires not only strong
body, but also the skills that young enjoy. Spiritual as well as physical education has a
long history in Ancient Persia, especially from the time of the Medes (728 BC-550 BC)
to the Achaemenid dynastic period (550 BC–330 BC). Herodotus, the Greek historian,
says: “The Persians develop three habits in their five to twenty-year-old children: horse
riding, archery, and truthfulness.” After Herodotus reports on the extent of importance
that Iranians attached to sports, Greeks started to appreciate physical education as well
(5).
The promotion and evolution that appeared in all aspect of the life of the Iranian life
also embraced sports and physical education, thereby many of the sports philosophies
or even the sports activities assumed holy image and spiritual forms. All types of sports
activities and in the wake of its sport clubs and stadiums have become much more
active than the past but with the objective of being in the service of the oppressed and
struggling against the oppressed through which a higher growth development. In this
connection, wrestling that in its unique form had strong roots among pre-Islamic
Iranian Traditional Wrestling Styles
73
Iranian in the post-Islamic era as clubs and stadiums of today, aiming at training
gentleman heroes and real Muslims become more active and underwent much
quantities and qualities evolution.
We hopefully expect that Iranian Ancient and Traditional Wrestling Federation, the
competent sport authority in this regard, takes all necessary actions to further introduce
the glorious traditional Iranian Wrestling Styles by performing deep scientific research
and investigation on the history and gradual completion process upon passage of many
centuries. Its great impact and effects on human life can be demonstrated by
introducing the veterans practicing these sports.
References
[1] Abassi, Mehdi (1984). Tarikh-e Koshtigari dar Iran (The History of Wrestling in Iran).
Tehran
[2] Bahram, Abbas. Daneshmandi, Hassan. Zoorkhaneh: The unique sport of Islamic Iran.
National Olympic committee.
[3] Barzegar, Faramarz. (1972). History of Iran sport. Press of physical education
organization.
[4] Beizai, Hossein Parto (1967). Tarikh-e Varzesh-e Bastani (Zoorkhaneh). Tehran.
[5] Bijan, A. (1972). A review of civilization and education in ancient Iran. Tehran: Ebne-cina
press.
[6] Kazemaini, Kazem. Samuel S, Babayan. (1964). Zoorkhaneh: Iranian Ancient Athletic
Exercise. Printed in Iran by Kayhan Printing House, Tehran.
[7] Fathi, Hoshang. (1992).History and Rules of Sports. Madraseh press (education ministry),
Tehran.
[8] Nikobakht, Mohamad. (2004). Physical education in culture and literature of Iran. Central
university press, Shahid Beheshti University.
74 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Impact of the Olympic Promotional Video
on the Image of the Host City
S. Roger Park (Gonzaga University, USA)
Myoung-Jin Kim (Illinois State University, USA)
Abstract
The online distribution of the promotional video was expected to contribute to
reshape the destination image because anticipation about the tourism destination places
are constructed and sustained thorough a variety of non-tourist practices such as film,
TV, literature, magazines, records, and videos which construct and reinforce the gaze
(Urry, 1990). The main purpose of the proposed study was to explore if the 2008
Beijing Summer Olympic Promotional Video has a significant impact on the
destination image of three prongs of ‘Economy’, ‘Politics, and ‘Technology.’ In order
to test the effects of the promotional video of the 2008 Olympic Games on the image of
Beijing, a series of paired t-tests were utilized. A repeated-measures study focused on
whether or not any difference exists between scores obtained before and after watching
the Beijing Olympic promotional video. Based on the results from paired t-tests, there
were significant differences on the images of politics and economy by rejecting the
null hypotheses, t(42) = -3.07 and t(43) = -3.80, ps < .05, respectively. Although video
content was not the best source to describe the overall perceptions of the Chinese
politics, the majority of the research participants were effectively convinced to believe
that China has improved its political environment.
Key words: olympic promotional video, country image, Beijing Olympics
Introduction
Mega sporting events such as the Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup Soccer are
often used to boost the local and/or national economy, develop the sport tourism
industry (Smith & Stewart, 2007), revitalize the infrastructure of the host city, and even
upgrade the destination image (Florek, Breitbarth, & Conejo, 2008; Hall & Hodgest,
1996). Numerous previous research in the realm of sport tourism discussed and
Impact of the Olympic Promotional Video
on the Image of the Host City 75
supported the idea that hosting the mega sporting events will bring the substantial
economic impacts (Ahlert, 2006; Crompton, 1995; Daniels & Norman, 2003;
Kurtzman, 2005; Wilson, 2006) and other supplemental benefits as well (Boyle, 1997;
Hiller, 2000; Sack & Johnson, 1996; Whitson & Macitosh, 1993). In addition, there is
ample proof that a mega-sporting event can enhance the image of the host city (Baloglu
& McCleary, 1999; Bull & Lovell, 2007; Mossberg & Halberg, 1999; Shoham & Rose,
2000; Walmsley & Young, 1998). Although there are reliable economic and other
supplemental benefits from the mega sporting events, the escalated financial burden in
the bidding process make many sport organizations, including Local Sports
Commissions and National Olympic Committee, irresolute and hesitant (Getz, 1998).
As the mechanism of the bidding process becomes complicated, the cost of
developing bidding materials are getting expensive due to the fact that more and more
sport organizations are eager to make a short video by utilizing the cutting edge
technology. Once the host city of the 2008 Summer Olympic was determined at the
International Olympic Committee (IOC) Session in 2001, the Official Promotional
Video of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games was launched by the commercial online
community websites as well as it official website. The online distribution of the
promotional video was expected to contribute to reshaping the destination image
because anticipation about the tourism destination places are constructed and sustained
through a variety of non-tourist practices such as film, TV, literature, magazines,
records, and videos which construct and reinforce the gaze (Urry, 1990).
According to Riley and Van Doren (1992), a movie proved to be a critical factor
which can increase the destination image by citing significant increases ranging from
19% to 74% in visitation to the locations of six popular movies during the year
following each film’s release. However, no research has been done about impact of the
Olympic promotional video on the image of the Olympic Host City. The main purpose
of the proposed study was to explore if the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympic
Promotional Video has a significant impact on the destination image of three prongs of
‘Economy’, ‘Politics, and ‘Technology.’
Research Questions
From a previous review of literature three questions were developed and investigated
in an experimental setting to explore the effects of the Olympic Promotional Video on
the Destination Image were developed:
Q1: Is there a significant change on the image of economy of Beijing after the subjects
had been exposed to the Olympic Promotional Video?
76 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Q2: Is there a significant change on the image of politics of Beijing after the subjects
had been exposed to the Olympic Promotional Video?
Q3: Is there a significant change on the image of technology of Beijing after the
subjects had been exposed to the Olympic Promotional Video?
Participants
The volunteer sample (n=43) in sport management and physical education classes
was obtained from a University located in the Northwestern region of the United States
successfully filled out the surveys before and after watching the five-minute long
promotional video about the Beijing Olympic Games that the Spokane Regional Sports
Commission provided the video to identify the impact of the promotional video on the
changes of their perceived value of a host country.
Video Content
An edited version of a promotional video about the city of Beijing and the country of
China was produced by the Beijing Olympic Organizing Committee and used as a
targeted destination advertisement. The original purpose of developing the promotional
video was to support and contribute to the overall bidding efforts of the Beijing
Olympic Committee to win the Olympic bid by impressing the IOC voters. Once
Beijing had been chosen as a host city of 2008 Summer Olympics, the video was
distributed to the worldwide sports populations by way of the commercial websites and
a variety of international sport conferences in China. The official video was distributed
at the International Sport Conference held in Beijing, China in 2006. The video
contents include the urbanized city outlooks, skyscraped buildings, roads, technology,
and several sports venues and the unique antic values such as dragon-theme souvenirs
and memorials accompanied by the theme sound of a Chinese drum along the video.
Although the video was designed to be appropriate for worldwide citizens, it had no
verbal commentary exerted into the video. The video can be also found in the Official
Website of the 2008 Beijing Olympic Organizing Committee.
Instrumentation
Instrumentation was composed of two sections and the first section was a “Country
Image Scale” developed by Martin and Eroglu (1993) and it contained a five-item
political factor, a five-item economic factor, and a four-item technological factor. All
items were scored on 7-point semantic differential scales. Item scores were summed
within dimension (factor) to form separate indices for the economic, political, and
technological factors. The validity and reliability have been confirmed by Martin and
Impact of the Olympic Promotional Video
on the Image of the Host City 77
Eroglu (1993) indicating that the Cronbach’s alpha values of a political factor,
economic factor, and technological factor were, .80, .80, and .79, respectively. A
demographic questionnaire was also developed for this present study to obtain
information concerning personal characteristics such as gender, age, race, year in
college, and major.
Data Analysis and Results
In order to test the effects of the promotional video of the 2008 Olympic Games on
the image of Beijing, a series of paired t-tests were utilized. A repeated-measures study
focused on whether or not any difference exists between scores obtained before and
after watching the Beijing Olympic promotional video. Based on the results from
paired t-tests, there were significant differences on the images of politics and economy
by
rejecting
the
null
hypotheses,
t(42)=-3.07andt(43)=3.80,ps<.05,respectively.However,therewasanosignificantdifferenceontheimageoftechn
ologyinBeijing,China,t(42)=-1.10,p>.05,(seeTable1).
Variable
Economic
Political
Technological
Pre-test
M
(SD)
36.65
(7.11)
13.40
(3.74)
4.79
(1.39)
After-test
M
(SD)
40.07
(7.86)
15.14
(4.33)
5.02
(1.39)
Table 1 Means and standard deviations of before and after watching the promotional video
of the Beijing Olympic Games (N = 43)
The 2008 Beijing Olympics was eventually used as an effective tool to showcase its
outcomes of the past economic development such instances as the cityscape of
skyscrapers, the out-of-the art eco-friendly sport facilities, and the cutting edge
computer technology associated with the Olympic Games. The promotional video was
adequately designed to describe its radical economic development of the China,
especially and predominantly, spotlighting on the city features of Beijing and Shanghai.
Video content was not the best source to describe the overall perceptions of the
Chinese politics, but the majority of the research participants were effectively
convinced to believe that China has improved its political environment. No clear
78 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
relationship between the Promotional video and the image of Chinese politics was
explained in this present study, but it is possible to presume that the promotional video
played a significant role to reshape the erroneous preconceptions about Chinese
politics.
Discussion
This present study focused on the impact of the 2008 Beijing Olympic promotional
video on the image of the host city. Destination image study was a difficult task in
terms of its consistency and generalizability since country of image varies across
countries, samples, and sporting events. It is important to develop the appropriate
method of measurement and create the relevant constructs to evaluate the effects of the
promotional video on the image of a host city. The lack of consistency and
generalizability of the destination image research makes a case study approach more
appropriate and even desirable. The results indicated that the 2008 Beijing Olympics
Promotional Video was successful enough to change people’s image on the political
conditions and economic situations (Schulenkorf, 2009).
On the other hand, there is no statistical difference on the image of the technological
environments in China even after the promotional video was viewed. There is no sole
explanation on this, but it may be because the majority of the participants in this study
were often exposed to the technological development in Beijing, China by means of a
variety of media and the level of expectation level in technology was highly elevated
by their experiences in the U.S. sport market.
This study has two logical flaws: generalizability (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999;
Walmsley & Young, 1998) and the unique aspect of the Olympic Games. First of all,
this study has legitimate limitation because the destination image of an Olympic host
city is multidimensional (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Gallarza, Gil Saura, & Calderon
Garcia, 2002) so it cannot be determined by only one or two factors. A sample size also
negatively contributed to the lack of generalizability as well. Secondly, the
promotional video cannot do its genuine role to promote the Olympic Games and
refine the image of Beijing since it was made in order to give a predetermined message
about the Olympic Games combined with the destination features to the Olympic fans.
Moreover, Beijing Olympic Organizing Committee concurrently utilized film, TV,
newspaper, magazines, and videos to increase its visibility and enhance its city and
country image associated with the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Therefore, it is not
possible to sort out its peculiar role on the effects of the Beijing image.
Future research could look at the other Olympic-related promotional videos to
measure its impact to predict the country image by adding more variables such as
Impact of the Olympic Promotional Video
on the Image of the Host City 79
willingness to visit and social image. In addition, the negative videos contrasting the
Olympic promotional video can be used concurrently to compare its scope of the
positive and negative impacts onto the country image. The next future study should
determine if the stereotypes that form the country image can be affected by the
Olympic promotional video. Lastly, future researchers should think carefully about
comparing the impact of the videos of the periodic mega-events such as the Olympics
and FIFA World Cup Soccer and regional-scale events.
References
[1] Ahlert, G. (2006). Hosting the FIFA World Cup Germany 2006: Macroeconomic and
Regional Economic Impacts. Journal of Convention and Event Tourism,8(2),57-78.
[2] Baloglu, S., & McCleary, K. W. (1999). A model of destination image formation. Annals
of Tourism Research, 26, 868-897.
[3] Boyle, M. (1997). Civic boosterism in the politics of local economic development –
“institutional positions” and “strategic orientations” in the consumption of hallmark
events. Environmental and PlanningA,29,1975-1997.
[4] Bull, C., & Lovell, J. (2007). The impact of hosting major sporting events on local
residents: an analysis of the views and perceptions of Canterbury residents in relation to
the Tour de France. Journal of Sport Tourism,12,229-248.
[5] Crompton, J.L. (1995). Economic impact analysis of sports facilities and events. Journal
of Sport Management, 9, 14-35.
[6] Daniels, M. J., & Norman, W. C. (2003). Estimating the Economic Impacts of Seven
Regular Sport Tourism Events. Journal of Sport Tourism,8(4),214-222.
[7] Echtner, C. M., & Ritchie, J.R.B. (1993). The measurement of destination image: An
empirical assessment. Journal of Travel Research,31(4),2-12.
[8] Florek, M., Breitbarth, T., & Conejo, F. (2008). Mega event = mega impact? Travelling
fans’experience and perceptions of the 2006 FIFA World Cup host nation. Journal of Sport
Tourism,13(3),199-219.
[9] Gallarza, M.G., Gil Saura, I., & Calderon Garcia, H. (2002). Destination image: Towards a
conceptual framework. Annals o fTourism Research,29,56-78.
[10] Getz, D. (1998). Trends, strategies, and issues in sport-event tourism. Sport Marketing
Quarterly,7(2), 8-13.
[11] Hall, C. M., & Hodgest, J. (1996). The Party’s great, but what about the hangovers?: the
housing and social impacts of mega-events with special reference to the 2000 Sydney
Olympics. Festival Managemen tand Event Tourism,4,13-20.
[12] Hiller, H.H. (2000). Mega-events, urban boosterism and growth strategies: An analysis of
the objectives and legitimations of the Cape Town 2004 Olympic bid. International
Journal of Urban and Regional Research,24,439-458.
[13] Kurtzman, J. (2005). Economic impact: sport tourism and the city.
Journal of Sport Tourism, 10(1), 47-71.
80 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
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Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education 81
Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning
Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education
Branch of Ministry of Education
M. Saffari (Tarbiat Modares University of Tehran, Iran)
M. Hamidi (Tehran University of Tehran, Iran)
M. Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University of Tehran, Iran)
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to compare of dimensions of the learning
organization in Physical Education Organization, National Olympic Committee and
Physical Education branch of Ministry of Education.
One-hundred and twenty experts from physical education organization were selected
through systematic sampling, thirty seven expert from National Olympic Committee
and thirty eight expert from Physical Education branch of Ministry of Education were
selected, that in these two organizations the number of samples were as same as their
populations. And totally One-hundred and ninety five experts from these organizations
answered the DLOQ questionnaire that developed by Karen E. Watkins and Victoria J.
Marsick in 1996. The type of this research is applied research, descriptive
and presumptional statistic (Ks test – ANOVA – Levene - Kruskal-wallis) were used
for analyzing data. The results showed that there is not any significant difference
between physical education organization, National Olympic Committee and Physical
Education of Ministry of Education in their dimensions of the learning organization.
And also these three organizations were in a weak level of the characteristics of
learning organization and learning situation.
Key words: learning organization, dimensions of the learning organization, physical education
organization, national olympic committee, physical education of ministry of education
Introduction
As environment changes the components of the environment, all living organisms and
non-livings! Show a tendency to adapt itself to the environmental changes, results the
new environment. Change is not occurs at a time, begins and ends, rather it is a
continuous process. Change is inevitable therefore adaptation to change is inevitable
for surviving. If adaptation to change is desired (to live), the first and the most
82 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
important thing is to be ready to change. Existing experiences provide guidance for
adaptation process. In order to get help of the experiences, that is to apply existing
experiences to new conditions, a complementary ability is required, Learning as “ the
process of preparing for new situations, so that future problems can be overcome”.
The learning organization model proposed by of Senge (1990) has five interrelated
disciplines: systems thinking, personal mastery, shared visions, mental models, and
team learning and he argued that development of these disciplines may enhance
organizations capacities for highly effective actions.
Senge (1999) described a learning organization as "a place where people continually
expand their capacity to create results they truly desire, where new and expansive
patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free and where
people are continually learning how to learn".
The concept of learning organization is used to refer to a particular type of organization
which can be considered as an ideal form of system in which learning behavior
improves and adapts, and in which a concrete climate facilitates the learning of
individuals, and managers are supposed to be coaches instead of directors.
A learning organization is a consciously managed organization with “learning“ as a
vital component in its values, visions and goals, as well as in its everyday operations
and their assessment. The learning organization eliminates structural obstacles of
learning, creates enabling structures and takes care of assessing its learning and
development.
Watkins and Marsick (1993, 1996) provide an integrative model of a learning
organization. They originally defined the concept of the learning organization as one
that learns continuously and transforms itself. Learning is a continuous, strategically
used process integrated with and running parallel to work. Watkins and Marsick (1993,
1996) identified seven distinct but interrelated dimensions of a learning organization at
individual, team, and organizational levels:
Individual level:
The first dimension is continuous learning and represents an organization effort to
create continuous learning opportunities for all of its members.
The second dimension is named inquiry and dialogue• and indicates an organization
effort of creating a culture of questioning, feedback, and experimentation.
Team level:
The third dimension is team learning and reflects the spirit of collaboration and the
collaborative skills that undergird the effective use of teams.•
Organizational level:
The fourth dimension is empowerment• and signifies an organization process to
Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education 83
create and share a collective vision and to get feedback from its members about the gap
between the current status and the new vision.
The fifth dimension is embedded system and indicates efforts to establish systems to
capture and share learning.
The sixth dimension is system connection and reflects global thinking and actions to
connect the organization to its internal and external environment.
The seventh dimension is strategic leadership and shows the extent to which leaders
think strategically about how to use learning to create change and to move the
organization in new directions or new markets. The learning organization is viewed as
one that has the capacity to integrate people and structures in order to move toward
continuously learn and change.
The above review of the conceptualizations of the learning organization reveals that
there can be as many definitions as different perspectives taken to examine this
organizational construct.
Garvin (1993) contends that although organizational theorists have studied this concept
for many years, a clear definition has proved to be elusive.
Yang, Watkins and Marsick (2004) develop and validate a multidimensional measure
of the learning organization. This instrument, Dimensions of the Learning Organization
Questionnaire (DLOQ), was recommended for use in organizational studies.
Seyyed Babak Alavi and John McCormick (2003) suggested a theoretical framework
for conducting some empirical studies of applying the Learning Organization model
across different cultures. It has been argued that the effectiveness of the Learning
Organization model across different countries may vary due to cultural differences
in terms of some dimensions.
Elahi and Vesali (2005) have explored the fundamental hindrances of setting up a
learning organization in sport constitutions and their findings based on higher priority
are as below:
1) Non-system view
2) Unstable management
3) Gradual acceptance of problems and threats
4) Not having a common goal within the organization
5) Non-appreciation of innovation and creativity.
Nowadays sport is one of the most important and critical resources in society, and is a
main means for development, communication and social contacts.
Such developments apply to sport constitutions as well and in this atmosphere, the
merge of a learning organization is most probable.
Training is a key factor in developing sport constitutions and in case of careful
planning and execution would have considerable outputs.
Since learning is known to be the most vital element in an organization life cycle, it is
84 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
too important to examine the learning status in different levels (individuals, team,
organization) in Physical Education Organization1 , National Olympic Committee2
and also Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education3, as they are the main
channels leading to success in public or championship sport events throughout the
country.
Method
Applicable studies using descriptive method (field form).
Statistical Society & Research Samples
The statistical society in this research consists of trained experts in PH.E.O, NOC and
PH.B.M.E.
The number of samples was defined with the help of pilot study done in PH.E.O
among 298 experts and the number of samples were determined 120 experts in PH.E.
Due to small number of experts available in NOC (37) and PH.B.M.E (38), the
questionnaire was submitted to all of them.
Information Gathering Tools
The information has been gathered by using the dimensional questionnaire of
Watkins and Marsick from Georgia university based on a model learning organization
in 1996 (DLOQ).
This questionnaire consists of 43 questions each with 6 choices for answer, ranging
from never to Always, dividing a learning organization into 3 main levels and 7
dimensions (table 1). The grade given to each reply is equal to the number of choice
selected (1-6).
Blaschko & Burlingame 3-step protocol (2002) was used for checking the accuracy of
translation, with the help of 3 qualified translators (English/Persian) in this process:
1st translator -------
(English to Persian)
2nd translator
(Persian to English)
------- 3rd translator
(Comparing 1st & 2nd stages)
Validity of the questionnaire was checked by 12 specialized scholars and a krunbach
Alpha defined the reliability coefficient (0.84).
Table 1. Dimensions Learning Organization Questionnaire
1
2
3
. PH.E.O
. NOC
. PH.B.M.E
Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education 85
Levels
Dimensions
Individual
Team
Organizational
Number of Question
Alfa cronbach
Continuous learning
Inquiry and dialogue
1- 7
8 -13
0.81
0.79
Team learning
14 -19
0.85
Empowerment
Embedded system
20 -25
26 -31
0.87
0.88
System connection
32-37
0.81
Strategic leadership
38 43
0.83
1 - 43
0.84
Questionnaire
Statistical Methods
The gathered information were analyzed with descriptive deducing methods , such as
Kolmogorov- smirnov test for natural distribution of variables and levene test for
consistency of variances , and consequently variance Analysis test for consistent
variances and non parametric Kruskal-wallis test for non-consistent variances.
Findings and Results
Kolmogorov- smirnov test showed normal distribution at all dimensions.
Table 2. Results of Kolmogrov- Smirnov
DIMENSIONS
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
Z
0.967
0.845
0.759
0.872
0.736
0.914
0.769
Sig
0.307
0.472
0.612
0.431
0.656
0.407
0.592
Consistency of variables were defined by levene test in 3 groups (table 3) , the
meaningfulness of first 3 variables being more than 0.05 , leading to consistent
variance (But this does not apply to next 4 variables ) .
Table 3 . Results of levene Statistic
DIMENSIONS
Levene Statistic
df 1
df 2
P-VALUS
RESULT
Continuous learning
0.577
2
187
0.563
Was the same
Inquiry and dialogue
0.057
2
187
0.131
Was the same
Team learning
2.100
2
188
0.125
Empowerment
3.814
2
184
0.024
Wasn’t
the same
Embedded system
3.712
2
184
0.026
Wasn’t
the same
Was the same
86 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
System connection
3.293
2
183
0.039
Wasn’t
the same
Strategic leadership
3.752
2
184
0.025
Wasn’t
the same
In next step Variance Analysis test and Kruskal-wallis test were used respectively.
Table 4. Results of levene and Kolmogrov- Smirnov in PH.E.O , NOC , SSD
DIMENSIONS
Continuous learning
Inquiry and dialogue
Team learning
Empowerment
Embedded system
System connection
Strategic leadership
TEST
One-way ANOVA
One-way ANOVA
One-way ANOVA
Kruskal-Wallis
Kruskal-Wallis
Kruskal-Wallis
Kruskal-Wallis
df
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
P-VALUS
0.340
0.451
0.323
0.448
0.349
0.452
0.154
It was included that no specific difference can be found in any of 7 dimensions
among PH.E.O , NOC and PH.B.M.E , but the average gained by each of them is rather
low , showing poor attention given to training and learning (2.58 to 2.81 out of 6)
Figure 1 shows the status of 7- dimensions of learning organizations being slightly
better in NOC than the other two groups.( PH.B.M.E is the worst).
2.85
2.81
2.8
NOC
2.75
2.7
PH.E.O
2.65
2.6
2.6
PH.B.M.E
2.58
2.55
2.5
2.45
Figure 1- Scores of Learning Organization Dimensions in PH.E.O , NOC , PH.BM.E
First dimension
Referring to variance Analysis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in
‘Constant Learning’ in the 3 groups.
Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education 87
Second dimension
Referring to variance Analysis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in
‘Individual Learning, Research and Communication’ in the 3 groups.
Third dimension
Referring to variance Analysis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in ‘Team
Learning’ in the 3 groups.
Fourth dimension
Referring to Kruskal-wallis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in
‘ Organizational Learning of Merged Systems’ in the 3 groups.
Fifth dimension
Referring to Kruskal-wallis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in ‘Enabling
Organizational Learning’ in the 3 groups.
Sixth dimension
Referring to Kruskal-wallis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in
‘Organizational Learning-Connection with System’ in the 3 groups.
Seventh dimension
Referring to Kruskal-wallis test (table 4) no specific difference is detected in
‘Organizationla Learning-Ledership’ in the 3 groups.
Discussions and Conclusions
This research findings
about the
dimensions of a Sport related learning
organization can be itemized as below:
1) the grades gained in ‘constant learning’ dimension show limited efforts in
providing learning opportunities for experts in each group
2) the grades gained in ‘research, questioning and communication’ dimension
show little attention given to questioning , feed back requesting and culture of
making new experiences in the discussed groups
3) the grades gained in ‘team learning’ dimension show limited numbers of workgroups and also non or poor existence of team working culture within the
discussed groups
4) the grades gained in ‘organizational learning in merged systems’ dimension
show the 3 groups’ weakness in finding out new learning systems and
spreading them into their organizations
88 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
5) the grades gained in ‘enabling’ dimension show poor collaboration of members
for reaching a common goal within the organization
6) The grades gained in ‘ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING-CONNECTION WITH
SYSTEM’ dimension show poor planning and communication between these
organizations’ internal and external environments.
7) The grades gained in ‘ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING- LEADERSHIP’ dimension
show the leaders’ relatively poor conducts in guiding their organizations
towards other external systems
The findings of this research tally with those of Shafei ‘s(2000), and it can be stated
that non-competitiveness of physical education organizations , managers with poor
professional knowledge , non-systemic view , not having any approach to
development-based-on – knowledge , and pursuing minor sub unit interests instead of
whole system’s interests are hindering the process of organizational learning.
This research findings are also in the same line with Naderi Khorshidi’s (2002) ,
affirming that not having any strategic planning is another reason preventing the
organizational learning process.
Yanng (2003) research showed that team working will facilitate organizational learning,
which agrees with our findings revealing weak team work in Iran’s physical education
constitutions.
The rest of results about leadership, merged systems, enabling learning and
connection with systems bring us to the point that the problems in organizational
learning may also be due to cultural obstacles, prejudiced managerial views, and not
having a common shared goal in sport constitutions (these results are in concert with
Babak Alavi and John Mac Cormic researches(2003) ).
Ignoring human resources as an important factor can be a hindering reason as well,
that tallies with Nderi Khorshidi(2002), Yari(2004) and Elahi ,Vesali(2005) researches.
Recently the training and research center of PH.E.O has turned into the national center
of sports management and development , concentrating mainly on holding educational
courses for managers and following up the organization’s strategic planning , but
with no practical visible results in top management.
There are no professional courses available for personnel but for short general ones
done by Governmental management Education center , there is no report on staffs’
educational needs , qualification process is ignored , and no promotion system has been
set , all leading to complete non-motivation throughout the organization.
The courses held by 3 discussed groups mainly concern those out of the organization’s
main body. For example PH.E.O has had classes in different parts of the country not
following any approved educational system.
PH.B.M.E and NOC have also planning for re-training their experts but still not
enough attention is given to progress and learning process of human resources as the
Comparative Study of Dimensions of the Learning Organization in Physical Education Organization,
National Olympic Committee and Physical Education Branch of Ministry of Education 89
most important part of any organization.
The specialized experts who have to be in charge of strategic planning , leading and
controlling of Sports related activities are deprived of a constant stable updated
education , while the discussed 3 groups are more ‘training’ those outside their
boundaries than ‘learning’ themselves.
Considering the results and findings of this research, these can be suggested for
improving the status of 7- dimensions of learning organization in the discussed 3
groups:
1) Educational planning for human resources and providing enough opportunities
for individual, team and organizational learning as first priority.
2) Transferring the learning experiments of other organizations inside their own
and putting them into practice.
3) making communication and dialogue easy and possible among staff
4) Encouraging team work, group culture and collaboration in setting a common
goal.
5) Introducing ‘learning organization’ concept to the managers and personnel.
References
[1] Baiyin Yang, Karen E. Watkins, Victoria J. Marsick ,2004, The Construct of the Learning
Organization : Dimensions , Measurement, and Validation, Human Resource
Development Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 1
[2] Blaschko, T. M., & Burlingame, J, 2002, Assessment tools for recreational therapy and
related fields (3rd ed.). Ravensdale, WA: Idyll Arbor Inc.
[3] Elahi.Alireza, Vesali. Majid, 2005, Identification of Fundamental Obstacles in Learning
Organization Iranian Sport Organization, Fifth International Physical Education Congress
in Iran.
[4] Garvin, D, 1993, Building learning organizations. Harvard Business Review, 71 (4), 78–
91.
[5] Marsick J Victoria, 2003, Measuring Learning for Innovation and Linking It to
Performance and Linking It to Performance , The learning organization , Vol.3, No.1
[6] Miguel-A´ ngel Sicilia , Miltiadis D. Lytras,2005, The semantic learning organization ,
The Learning Organization Vol. 12 No. 5, 2005
[7] Naderi Khorshidi , Alireza,200 , Designing a model of Organizational Learning in Iran
Khodro CO ,Thesis ,Tehran University
[8] Probst G.1997, Organizational learning / G.Probst, B.Buchel // Prentice Hall, London,
pp.217.
[9] Raili Moilanen,2005 , Diagnosing and measuring learning organizations , The Learning
Organization Vol. 12 No. 1, pp. 71-89
90 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
[10] Senge, P., 1990, The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization.
New York, Doubleday Publishers.
[11] Senge, P, Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Roth, G., Ross, R., 1999, The Dance of Change: The
Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in a Learning Organization (New York, Doubleday).
[12] Seyyed Babak Alavi, John McCormick,2003, Some cultural considerations for applying
the Learning Organization model to Iranian organizations , Presented in 2003 Tehran
International Management Conference
[13] Shafei, Reza ,2000, Obstacles of create Learning Organization in Iran , Dissertation ,
Trbiat Modares University
[14] Yanng Baiyin , Alexander E. Ellinger ,Shelly W. Howton ,2003, Making the Business
Case for the Learning Organization Concept , Advances in Developing Human Resources,
Vol. 5, No. 2, 163-172
[15] Yari ,Gahangir , 2004, Survey Obstacles of Create Learning Organization in Education
Center of Iran khodro CO , Dissertation , Alame Tabatabaie University
The Effect of Variability of Practice and Age on Retention and Transfer
of the Overarm Throwing Accuracy in Children 91
The Effect of Variability of Practice and Age on
Retention and Transfer of the Overarm Throwing
Accuracy in Children
N.Shahrzad (Tehran University)
A.Bahram, M.Shafizadeh (Tarbiat Moallem University of Tehran)
Abstract
The purpose of this investigation was to study the effect of variability of practice and
age on retention and transfer of the overarm throwing accuracy in children. The test of
overarm throwing accuracy that has made by Khalajy and Shafizadeh(1383)were
adjusted and used in this study.fourty eight right-handed female children(16 child in
each age group 4,5,6 yrs) were selected voluntarily. Each age group divided in to the
variable and constant practice groups according to their pretest score. The variable
group practiced with different size of targets whereas constant group practice only with
one size. Acquisition phase lasted 3 days that each day included 4 blocks of 6 trials
with right hand. The collected data from acquisition phase, retention test, immediate
and delayed transfer tests were analyzed by mixed factorial ANOVA and Tukey
follow-up test. The results have shown that There was no significant difference
between groups in retention test (P>0/05). But in immediate and delayed transfer tests,
the main effect of practice group was significant, this mean that the performance of
variable group was better than constant group (P<0/05). The main effect of age was
significant in all phases(P<0/05), so 6-year-old group had better performance than 4
and 5-year-old groups but there was no significant difference between 4 and 5 yearold groups.
In conclusion the present study indicated that the age of children has affected on
overarm throwing accuracy but the variability of practice has affected on the
performance of 4, 5 and 6 years old children.
Key words: variability of practice, age, overarm throwing accuracy, retention, transfer,
children
Introduction
The main reason of practicing the skills is to develop them for future purposes.
Practice variability is one of the characteristics of practice which increases the future
achievements possibility and can be defined as Variety of movements or context
characteristic that is being experienced during practice, and discuss about this
92 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
question that ''what is the most effective way for doing a certain practice''. One of the
practice characteristic that helps the future performance is variability, whose amount
can be assessed by determining the characteristics of future situation.
In order to understand the advantages of variable practice in future Performances,
transfer and retention tests for variable and constant Practices can be used, which lead
to the fact that variable practice will improve learning. It is interesting to know that
practice variability will produce more performance errors during practice, but
experimental tests show that more performance errors might be more helpful and
better than few errors in Learning skills.
The researches on effects of variable practice have been done so far reveal
paradoxical results. Khajavi (2000) states there is a significant difference between
control Group (constant practice) and the groups with variable practices in retention
and transfer of skills (The variable groups had better performance). Douvis's studies
in 2005 are based on forehand skills in tennis and support the positive effect of
variable practices and their relation with ages of participant. Bortoli tested effect of
variability on retention of throwing and receiving Skills in primary school children.
Shoenfelt in 2002 stated that variable practice leads to better results in basketball free
throwing skills than constant practice.
Yan et al studied the effect of children's ages, type of practice and Movement's type
on variability of practice. They learned that age is a major moderator factor,
considerably affecting the output of practice variability. So it can be deducted that the
paradoxical results of different researches are due to age, the given practice and also
existing motor experience of the learner.
Although it may seem every one benefits equally from practice variability outputs, the
researches prove differently. Apparently variable practice makes better result for
children because they are less experienced than adults in motor skills and what they
learn in test situation has been already experienced by adults in daily life. In addition
task of test may be too simple and already Familiar for adults, while children are
learning them for the first time.
Researchers found out that in order to learn a new variation in a skill, it is Better
not to practice that exact skill but a skill similar to it. When participants are young,
some elements may affect learning schema and Schema theory. Schmidt and
Shapiro in 1982 stated that age, gender and general movement experience can
affect developing the motor schema in children. Doris (2005) believes that the
effectiveness of variability and specificty of Practice depends of the learner's age.
Carson & wiegand, kelso & norman, pigot & shapiro and wulf showed how
Variable practice helps motor skills learning in children. But pease & rupnow and
mead & wrisberg's findings didn’t support such predictions.
In spite of being an important variable in schema theory, the effect of Practice
variability on development of parameters has not been directly investigated yet.
The Effect of Variability of Practice and Age on Retention and Transfer
of the Overarm Throwing Accuracy in Children 93
Developing manipulative skills in children is essential not only as a basis for all other
movement skills, but also for training expert athletes in future. It is necessary to have
a proper plan for learning manipulative skills, and arrange suitable practices in
different practice sessions.
The effect of practice variability on learning motor skills has been studied but its
effect on fundamental motor patterns has never received much attention although
these basic patterns have great importance in developing future movement skills.
In this research the effect of practice variability and age on over arm throwing skill
is being studied. Previous researches do not completely agree with current results and
this has never been discussed in growth, control and learning text books either.
Methodology
Population and sample
The statistical population: all 4, 5, 6 – year-old girls in Tehran
Selected sample: 48 right handed girls (16 child in each group)
Sampling: voluntarily (not on random basis)
Research method
Khalaji and shafizadeh (2004) over arm throwing test was adjusted and used in this
research, the validity of test determined by variance analysis (df=6, p=0.000,F=12.82)
Which makes it a suitable tool for evaluating over arm throwing performance in 3-7
year- old children. In order to check the reliability of the test, the test was performed
using some children not participating in main research test before the main study
started.
This research is semi experimental and includes pre-test with dominant hand,
acquisition, retention and transfer (24 hours and 1 week after last day of practice)
Variability was applied in terms of target dimensions (3 different size), 3 squares of
30×30cm, 60×60cm and 90×90cm placed 50cm higher than ground level on a wall.
Children had to throw tennis balls from 2.5 meters distance to the targets. In case of
hitting the target 1 score would be given (zero for not hitting the target)
The sum of scores in each block for each participant is between 0-6, and will be
considered as dependent variable.
In order to adjusted practice groups, pre-test including 6 efforts with dominant
hand was performed. In pre-test each child threw 2 times to each of the targets, then
each age group were divided into constant practice and variable practice groups, in a
way that the averages of both groups were almost the same. Acquisition stage took 3
days, each day including 4 sets of efforts , 72 efforts in total. Each block in constant
practice group included 6 throwing to 30*30 target, while in variable practice group
94 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
there 2 throwing to each of the 3 targets. Retention practice test was given 24 hours
after last blocks for evaluating retention
Transfer test was given 24 hours after the end of practices and delayed transfer test
was performed a week later including 6 throwing to 20*20 targets.
Results
Picture 1 shows the status of groups in pre-test, acquisition, retention and transfer (24
hours after) and delayed transfer (1 week after).
Picture 1. The status of groups in different phases of research
Mixed factorial ANOVA showed (table 1) that the main effect of age was
significant , with 95% certainty (F2,42=5/843, P=0/006) ,it means that there is
significant differences at least between two age groups. Tukey follow-up test showed
that in retention test 6 years olds had better performance than 4 years olds
( MD=1/187 , P=0/008) and 5 years olds (MD=1/00,P=0/028). Scores of retention test
of 4 and 5 years olds do not show any significant difference (P=0/871) and no
significant differences between constant and variable practice groups ( F1, 42=2/259 ,
P=0/140).
The Effect of Variability of Practice and Age on Retention and Transfer
of the Overarm Throwing Accuracy in Children 95
Table 1.result of mix factorial ANOVA in retention
S.O.V
SS
df
MS
F
P
Age group
13/042
2
6/521
5/843
0/006
Practice group
2/521
1
2/521
2/259
0/140
Practice × age
Error
0/542
2
0/271
0/540
0/786
46/875
42
1/116
In transfer test (24 hours later) mixed factorial ANOVA showed (table 2)that
variability of practice has been effective , as variable practice group had significantly
better performances than constant practice group ( F1,42=3/251, P=0/036). Age with
99% certainty also made significant difference between 2 age groups. Tukey followup test showed that result of throwing accuracy in transfer test for 6 years olds has
been significantly better than 4 years olds ( MD=1/562 , P=0/000) and 5 years olds
(MD=0/937,P=0/011). There was no significant differences between 4 and 5 years
olds in transfer (24 hours later) (P=0/116).
Table2. Result of mix factorial ANOVA in transfer test(24 hours later)
S.O.V
SS
df
MS
F
P
Age group
19/792
2
9/896
13/142
0/000
Practice group
3/521
1
3/521
4/676
0/036
Practice × age
Error
0/542
31/625
2
42
0/271
0/753
0/360
0/700
Mixed factorial ANOVA delayed transfer test (1 week later showed(table 3)that
variability of practice has been effective , as variable practice group had
significantly better performances than constant practice group.( F1,42=4/371,P0/043). Age with 99% certainty also made significant difference at least between 2
age groups. Tukey follow-up test showed that result of throwing accuracy in
delayed transfer test for 6 years olds has been significantly better than 4 years olds
( MD=1/250 , P=0/000) and 5 years olds (MD=0/750,P=0/016). Scores of delayed
transfer tests of 4 and 5 years olds do not show any significant difference (P=0/142).
96 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Table2. Result of mix factorial ANOVA in delayed transfer test (a week later)
S.O.V
SS
df
MS
F
P
Age group
12/667
2
6/333
11/822
0/000
Practice group
2/667
1
2/667
4/371
0/043
Practice × age
Error
0/667
22/500
2
42
0/333
0/536
0/622
0/542
Discussions
The results of present research , the effect of practice variability and age on retention
and transfer of over arm throwing accuracy in children , point out that age
positively affects the results of retention and transfer test but interaction of age
and practice group doesn’t show any considerable difference , although variable
practice group gained significantly better results in transfer test (24 hours later)
and delayed transfer test( 1 week later) than constant practice group.
Retention
Constant and variable practice groups performances were almost at the same level in
retention , which agrees with Mohammadian’s research(2002)about effect of constant ,
random and blocked variable practices on retention of a basketball movement skill, as
well as Rajaeian in (2006) and Goodwin( ). erpe eeperah recfe ehe eaaeae ca seraesae
eieeresci seraesaep si ahsoieei eepfoeei si rresreoe seraesae ice rresresoset ci scree
hrrsi raaeaeei eeeeiesci.
One of the local researches which had different results, is Khajavi’s research (2002)
‘‘comparing the effect of 3 different variable practices on retention and transfer of a
football skill in learning stage’’. This may be due to different practice protocols
employed, or because of the test time, his test was given 48 hours after the end of
practices (in present research: 24 hours later). Nakamura (2002) research on high
school student and Heitman research in 2005 results do not agree with our results in
present research, which can be due to the types of skills, as well as learners ages.
Transfer
The present research also evaluated constant and variable practice groups’
performances in transfer and delayed transfer tests and result showed that variable
practice group had better scores than constant group in transfer phase of study. Most
other researches also agree with Schmidt’s Schema theory. (Bertoli, carson and
The Effect of Variability of Practice and Age on Retention and Transfer
of the Overarm Throwing Accuracy in Children 97
vigand 1979; katalano and kleener 1984;lee ,Mcguil and Vix 1985; Moxely 1979;
Newell and Shapiro 1976 ; reisberg and regsdeil 1979).
Khajavi’s research (2001) showed that the variable practice group got better results in
transfer test given 48 hours later. The results of Shoenfelt (2002) and Heitman (2005)
studies all agree with present research findings.
Some researches reached different conclusions (Johnson and Mckabe 1982,
Zelazink 1977) and some report no concrete results, due to getting paradoxical grades
in different tests, as Lee et al 1985, Newell and Shapiro 1976. Mohammadian 2002
found no considerable difference between control and variable practice groups, same
applies to Rajaeian‘s research about Badminton Service skill. This may be due to
difference in learner’s ages and also practices with present research. Kiripolous
findings do not agree with our findings either, which can be because of age
differences (adults versus 4, 5, 6 year-old children here). Present research found
similar results to those of Yan et al reported in 1998 about children’s age and practice
and movement type. They concluded age is a major moderator.
Considering Van Rossum reports (1987) based on reviewing previous researches,
more than 50% of the researches have not supported variability in practice theory,
especially those studied on adults and then generalised their result to children. So it
seems practice variability is more useful for adults, but for children the amount of
practice needed for reaching a certain learning level is very important , as the child is
younger , acquisition (using existing schema) is in lower situation than perfection
(obtaining new rules for schema) {Schmidt and Shapiro 1982}.Lee et al also
compared the amount of practice needed by children and adults in 1985.Although
Schema theory believes the effectiveness of practice variability in children is due to
schema that not being fully formed yet, many researches do not say so , while some
researches state that constant practice is more useful for children.
Totally ,the present research points out that over arm throwing accuracy improves by
age , and it is suggested that proper practices for fundamental manipulative motor
skills should be included in Kindergarten practice programs. Referring to variable
practice groups’ better results in transfer test, can be suggested that variable practice
will be more effective in similar situations. According to the importance of learning
fundamental motor patterns, this study suggests that further research pay more
attention to the effect of practice variability on learning other fundamental patterns,
and focusing on process refinement than results.
References
[1] Colleen E. Donakowski, 2005,Thesis, The Effects of Variable Practice and
Subjective Estimation on Error- Detection Capabilities, Eastern Michigan University
98 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
[2] Giuffrida, G., shea, J.B., & Fairbrother, J.T.(2002).Differential transfer benefits of
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100 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders &
Midfielders in Iran’s Football Premier League
Mohammad Ehsani, Reza Gharakhanlou (Tarbiat Modares University)
Mehdi Mansoori (Azad Varamin University)
Abstract
In recent surveys it has been shown that physical profile of players in different
positions of a game is different. This study was conducted with the aim of acquiring
information from level of comparison of physiological characteristics of defenders and
midfielders in Iran’s football teams with the physiological needs related to their
positions. So, fifty six (56) players form Iran’s premier league were divided in to four
positions of center defender, flank defender, center midfielder and flank midfielder
(seven players in each position) and their physical activities (standing, walking,
jogging, running and near maximum running ) in the given times were evaluated.
These analysis indicated that the average walking time of defenders was significantly
higher than of midfielders. The average times of running with the low speed of
midfielders and flank defenders were significantly higher than the center defender. The
average time of near maximum running with the highest speed of the flank midfielders
were remarkably higher than the center defenders’ and midfielders. Taking these
findings into account, it is concluded that flank players (defenders and midfielders) had
a more power of aerobic and anaerobic, center midfielders had a more time of jogging
activity and center defenders had a more power of anaerobic and experience. It is
suggested that in addition to taking into account the necessary, exercising programs to
increase aerobic power for all the players, trainers implement part of their program
with regard to the particular positions of the players.
Keywords: Standing, walking, jogging, near maximum running
Introduction
Review of development and improvement of records, skills, techniques and sport
tactics during the last one hundred years is indicative of the scientific and knowledge
of researchers sport coaches and physical education trainers infrastructure development
which have a role in adjusting and implementing of the champions exercising
programs(Fox and Mathews, 1992). The growth of researches in the past decade has
the biggest role in promoting of the physical education and effect of the sport on
human life has introduced physical education as a respectable and scientific field
(Freeman, 1988). Football is the most popular, the most exciting and the most
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders & Midfielders
in Iran’s Football Premier League 101
advocated sport in the world. The number of people who are resorting to football is
increasing. Some of the issues which cause more and more people to be attracted to
football are dominant changing conditions on the game and its unpredictability (Revers
& Malcoum, 1991). Having more than 200 members in the International Federation of
Football (FIFA), football is one of the most prevalent sports in the world (Ekblom,
1986).
Since success of each field requires special physical and physiological capabilities,
and regarding the exercise characteristics principle we can say that the first step in
recognizing the athlete is to recognize his personal capabilities (Marofi, 1992).
Researchers and sport scientists believe that each filed with regard to the conditions
and its nature on the one hand and physiological and structural traits of its players and
their influence on the team on the other hand, requires proper training programs for
every player (Minasian,1997).
Shephard (1982) pointed that evolution and development of football science is
remarkably increasing. Researchers have found good results in their studies regarding
footballers in different positions (Kirkendall, 2000; Reilly & Williams, 2003; Reilly &
Dormad, 2001). However many studies was conducted on the physiology of football
(Hanin, 2000), and sociology of football (Bangsbo, 2000) which can be taken into
account by researchers, coaches and professional football directors. However different
models have been suggested to do a research on the players in and out of the games
which can be used in its own place (Drust et al., 2000a; Drust et al., 2000b & Nicholas
et al., 2000).
Some of the models have been used as a movement learning while catching the ball
and their concentration (Withers et al., 1982) and some of the models have been
investigated physiologically in aerobic and anaerobic power (Strudwick & Reilly,
2001). But the model used here is almost similar to the model 26 (walking, jogging,
running) of course in Reilly's study (moving to the back and the sides) was ignored in
this study and standing is investigated instead of.
William et al., (1999), showed that players in the premier league of England run one
kilometer on average more than the last decade in a game, they are using the results of
study and exercising principle which are getting better and better everyday. Therefore,
we have tried to promote the qualitative level of physiological capabilities of the
players by investigating the type and level of physical activity in football on four, mid
and flank defender, and midfielder positions.
Method
This study was carried out on the field. Therefore, premier league players in Iran
were divided with regard to their positions center and flank (defender, midfielder).
Then data were collected by the spending times of (walking, jogging, running, near
102 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
maximum running and standing) in the premier league games on a special paper and
compared with one another.
Research variables
Research dependent variables include standing, walking, jogging, running and near
maximum running. Independent variables include center and flank (defenders,
midfielders)
Data collection
Data were observed by trained individuals. Players’ activities (standing, walking,
jogging, running, and near maximum running) in each game were timed by a
chronometer then the data were recorded on a special form which was prepared for this
study.
Samples
The research statistical universe was the premier league of the country in four
positionss: center and flank (defenders, midfielders) which included 84 players. The
number of samples was 56 with 14 in center defenders, 14 in flank defenders, 14 in
center midfielders and 14 in flank midfielders. Flank defenders and midfielders which
were 28 in their positions, the form was 7 right defenders and 7 left defenders which
were chosen randomly. Then a flank defender was selected from each team (7). This
kind of selection was done for midfielders (7) too.
Data Analyzing
These analyses were carried out by SPSS/13 computer software. It was assumed that
there is a remarkable difference among physical activities of the players in the four
positions. In this analysis the method of variance analysis (ANOVA) was used and in
the case of significant difference in the results we used Donken test to investigate any
differences among the players’ activities in every positions.
Research Implementation Steps
Six individuals collected the data. These individuals were briefed in a meeting. The
research was done in a way that four individuals used observation. The players’
activities were recorded the times by chronometers. Then the other two individuals
used to write these data in the special form. The physical activities of the players were
assessed in a 90 minutes game (two 45 minutes time) without the additional time. Two
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders & Midfielders
in Iran’s Football Premier League 103
chronometers were used because while the first activity was stopped the first
chronometer was stopped too and the second chronometer would be used. If the
activities were measured by one chronometer during the stoppage of one activity and
starting the second activity some time would be ignored as a result much time would
be lost at the end of the game. Each form was divided into 18 sections of 5 minutes, in
which the five activities of standing walking, jogging, running and near maximum
running were recorded.
In the first game preliminary study was done and the four individuals observed one
player so as the time of measurement error to be cleared. Since the game was assessed
by two chronometers, assessment different was 10 to 20 seconds among the four
individuals. This different was due to the deci- seconds collected at the end of the game
which was ignored by the statisticians. So, four players were assessed in each game. 14
games in 7 weeks (two games in a week) were chosen in a way that all the games were
ended at the half season so as the teams were in their best condition. At the end of the
game the collected data were analyzed by a statistical software.
Findings
As you can be seen in table 1. the average physical activities of the players.
Table 1: the average of physical activity of the players in different positions
Positions
Flank Midfielders
Center Midfielders
Flank defenders
Center defenders
Standing
Walking
Jogging
Low speed
running
418.21
125.86
49.21
4333.36
25114.29
2732.21
3417.43
3282.07
1769.64
2107.36
1398.71
1324
514.29
386.36
410.43
277.93
High
speed
running
182.07
47.57
122.57
83.43
Age
(monthyear)
56-5
52-9
52-9
49-5
There is a significant differences between the time of standing of the defenders and
midfielders in Iran’s premier league at the level of a=0.01. That is the time of
standing of the center defenders and the flank midfielders is significantly higher than
that of the center midfielders and the flank defenders. There is no significant
differences between the time of standing of the center defenders and the flank
defenders and the center midfielders and the flank midfielders at the level of a=0.01
(Figure 1).
104 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Standing Time
Time (seconds)
500
400
300
Series1
200
100
0
De
fe
nd
er
ef
en
de
r
Ce
nt
re
an
kD
Fl
M
Ce
nt
re
Fl
an
kM
idf
id f
iel
iel
de
r
de
r
Series2
Poisitions
Figure 1: the average time of standing of the defenders and midfielders in the Iran’s league.
There is a remarkable gap between the time of walking of the defenders and
midfielders in the premier league of Iran at the level of a=0.01. That is the time of
walking of the flank and center defenders is higher than that of the center and flank
midfielders. There is no significant differences between the time of walking of the
players at the level of a = 0.01 (Figure2).
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Series1
De
fe
nd
er
Ce
nt
re
D
er
id
fie
ld
Fl
an
k
M
Ce
nt
re
M
an
k
Fl
ef
en
de
r
Series2
id
f ie
ld
er
Time (seconds)
Mean of Walking
Positions
Figure 2: the average time of walking of the footballers in Iran’s premier league
There is a significant differences between the time of jogging of the defenders and
the midfielders in Iran’s premier league at the level of a=0.01. That is the time of
jogging of the center midfielders is higher than the center defenders and the flank
defenders, and the time of jogging of the flank midfielders is significantly higher than
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders & Midfielders
in Iran’s Football Premier League 105
the defenders mean while the time of jogging of the flank halfbacks is remarkably
higher than the defenders. There is no significant differences between time of jogging
of the defenders
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Series1
Series2
Fl
an
k
M
id
C
fie
en
ld
tre
er
M
id
f
Fl
ie
an
ld
er
k
D
ef
C
en
en
de
tre
r
D
ef
en
de
r
Time (seconds)
Mean of Jogging
Positions
Figure 3: the average time of jogging of the center and flank defenders in the premier league
There is a big gap in the time of low speed running of the defenders and the
midfielders in Iran’s premier league at the level of a=0.01. That is tie time of running
of the midfielders and the center defenders is significantly higher than the center
midfielders. There is no significant differences between the time of running of the
midfielders of the level of a=0.01 (Figure 4).
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Series1
Series2
Fl
an
k
M
id
C
fie
en
ld
tre
er
M
id
fie
Fl
an
ld
er
k
D
e
C
fe
en
nd
tre
er
D
ef
en
de
r
Time (seconds)
Running
Positions
Figure 4 : the average time of running with low speed of the defenders and the midfielders
106 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
There is a significant different between the time of near maximum running of the
defenders and the midfielders in the premier league of Iran at the level of a = 0.01.
That is the time of near maximum running of the flank players is higher than that of the
center players. Also tie time of near maximum running of the flank defenders is higher
than that of the center midfielders. There is no significant differences between the time
of near maximum running of the flank midfielders and defenders at the level of a=0.01
(Figure 5).
200
150
100
50
0
Series1
Series2
C
Fl
an
k
M
id
fie
en
ld
er
tre
M
id
fie
ld
Fl
er
an
k
D
ef
en
C
en
de
tre
r
D
ef
en
de
r
Time (seconds)
Running near to Maximum
Positions
Figure 5: the average time of near maximum running of the defenders and the midfielders in
the premier league
There is a significant differences between the age of the players at level of a=0.01.
That is the age of the defenders and center midfielders is higher than that of the flank
midfielders.( Figure 6)
Age
Mean of Age
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
계열1
계열2
Positions
Figure 6: the average age of the players in the premier league of Iran
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders & Midfielders
in Iran’s Football Premier League 107
Discussion and Conclusion
The concept of running with a low speed in under maximum running in which the
athlete’s energy is provided be aerobic. This kind of running is used as an index for
aerobic system. The results showed that statistically there is a significant difference
among the groups and the time of running with a low speed of the flank defenders and
the midfielders is higher than center defenders. In the premier league of Iran flank
players and center midfielders have more aerobic power than center defenders. The
high aerobic power and the traversed distance in the flank players and the low aerobic
power and the traversed distance in the center defenders corresponds with the studies
done by Davis (1992) Reilley (1990), Wislof(1996), Douglas (1993), Puga(1993),
Esmaeili(1371), Drust (1998). These researchers concluded that the aerobic power and
traversed distance by the flank midfielders is higher than the flank defenders, and the
flank defenders is higher than that of the center defenders and the strikers.
Reilly (2001) in a research done on the elite soccer players in the premier league of
England pointed out that there is a significant correlation between aerobic power and
traversed distance. E. Smarous (1980) reported that there is a good correlation (r=0.89,
n=8) between the value of spent oxygen and the traversed distance in a game. It means
that tie players with high aerobic power and high anaerobic threshold, would traverse
longer distances than the others. The time of running is also affected by the maximum
oxygen uptake in a game. Players who have higher oxygen uptake will run longer
distances. This may be referred to the better recovery during the resting times.
With due attention to the mentioned points it is concluded that flank defenders and
midfielders because of high aerobic power and low age average (reduction of aerobic
power in men is 0.45 m.l/minute annually) have higher running power than the other
players. The reason is that there is a good correlation between aerobic power and
traversed distance. To have a high aerobic power is an advantage for the flank
defenders and midfielders, so that these players will play better in the two posts. The
low under maximum running of the center defenders compared with the other positions
is probably related to the lower aerobic power and higher age rate compared with the
other positions and their positions nature.
The results showed that there is statistically a big gap among the groups that is, the
time of near maximum running of the flank midfielders and the center defenders is
remarkably higher than the center midfielders. The high anaerobic power and the
traversed distance of flank midfielders and center defenders and the low anaerobic
power and traversed distance of the center midfielders in these researches corresponds
with the studies done by Reilly (1998), Rawen (1976), Wislof (1998), Witze(1982),
Banguisive (1991).
Reilly (1998) concluded in a research that center defenders have the highest
anaerobic power than the other players and the center defenders run faster than the
108 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
flank defenders, and also frequency of jumping by the center defenders ( 20.4  6.4 )
and (19.6  9.8) is more than the flank defenders ( 11.1  4.5 ) and center players
( 10.3  4.5 ) in every game. Rawn et.al (1976) and Wislof et.al (1998) in a research on
the Canadian players showed that center midfielders anaerobic power is remarkably
higher than that other players. The center defenders had the highest value of anaerobic
power in this study.
Witrez et al. (1982) found the similar results too. According to them the frequency of
head hits by the center defenders and the strikers ( 13.5  6 ) was more than that of the
flank defenders ( 8  1.7 ) and center players ( 5.2  3.1). Bangsbow et al., (1991) by
reviewing Denmark’s football league concluded that strikers hit the ball more oftener
than the other players. The center defenders were not distinguished from others in the
research. This frequency in implementing of the skill indicates that center defenders
and strikers should be aware of their anaerobic power growth and upright jumping.
In other words, they should make use of exercises concerning the anaerobic power in
the best way.
Esmaeli (1992) in a research on the traversed distances by players reported that level of
quick running by the strikers is higher than midfielders, flank defenders, and center
defenders respectively. Regarding these arguments, we may concluded that the high
near maximum running of the flank midfielders and the center defenders is related to
their high anaerobic power and their positions nature which act as a link between the
forwards and defenders and must change their positions quickly.
The other reason is that center defenders have high anaerobic power and their
positional role against the counterattacks of the rival team. The low near maximum
running of the mid midfielders refers to their lower anaerobic power and anaerobic
capacity compared with the other positions and their supportive role in the field.
Football includes various activities such as quick and explosive running , without ball
movements, head hits, speed changing, jumping , tackling, shoot and hits which the
energy source of all is the anaerobic system (Smaros, 1980).
Assessments on the time and distance of the quick running, the number of jumping in
every game show that the ATP-PC system is more important in football, comparing the
two anaerobic system(Douglas, 1993). In a recent research it was shown that from 56
statistical population, more than 95 percent of energy was provided by the ATP-PC
system. Out criterion was near maximum running done by the players in less than a 10
second time. The high standing time in the center defense area is related to players’
role as supportive players for the midfielders.
Esmaeli (1992) in a research which was done on Iranian players, reported that
traversed distance in the walking activity of the center defenders is more than that of
the flank defenders, strikers and midfielders, respectively. The high time of walking in
the flank defense area relates to defenders’ role in a game. Reilly in 1976 reported that
Analysis of Type and Level of Physical Activities of Defenders & Midfielders
in Iran’s Football Premier League 109
the most changes in the traversed distance relate to flank defenders which are function
of their tactical roles. In the premier league of Iran flank defenders do not appear in the
role of center field players. They just have defensive role and when strikers and
midfielders are taking part in the attack they just walk. Since center midfielders have a
supportive role in all parts of the field and do many jogging and flank fielders link the
defense area to the attacking zone. They would have the least level of walking.
Reilly (1998) in his studies on the England’s premier league players found that
center field players had less space limitation and freer role than other players. This
cause them to use their bodily capacities easier. In this way we can justify joggings of
the midfielders freer activity of the center midfielders and their supportive role while
attacking is one of the reasons which justifies their high joggings. In most of the
premier league teams – players exercise in a group which doesn’t correlate with the
findings of this research. Hence it is suggested that coaches and trainers to offer their
special exercise programs separately.
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112 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Should Tai Chi be Tailored in Intensity for its Health Effect to
Younger-Aged People?
Guo Linxuan (Hong Kong Baptist University)
Abstract
The majority of Tai Chi research was focused on the elderly (Dechamps, Lafont &
Bourdel-Marchasson, 2007). The current study was aimed to identify the health effects
of Tai Chi to younger-aged people although low exercise intensity and tempo
characterize it with age-stereotyped impression. Brisk walking was selected to exercise
together with Tai Chi for intensity increase. 29 subjects (M age = 43.53, SD = 3.90)
participated into the study and randomly distributed into the group of Tai Chi, Tai Chi+
and control. The intervention groups received eight-week training with two one-hour
sessions per week. Results revealed that across eight weeks of intervention,
participants of Tai Chi group had significant (p < .05) change in resting heart rate, body
composition, flexibility, and balance. And Tai Chi+ were significantly (P < .05)
improved in resting heart, blood pressure, flexibility, and balance. There was no
statistically significant difference between the two intervention groups, except in
balance (P < .05). Besides, the Tai Chi group had more improvement in resting heart
rate, flexibility with a large effect size. Despite low exercise intensity, Tai Chi is still
effective to the younger-aged possible because of its unique features in movement,
breath and meditation.
Key words: tai chi, brisk walking, intensity, younger-aged people
Introduction
Chinese traditional exercise of Tai Chi is a low-intensity exercise mode (Li, Duncan,
Duncan, McAuley, Chaumeton & Harmer, 2001; Luskin, Newell, Grifith, Holmes,
Telles, Marvasti, Pelletier & Haskell, 1998; Taylor-Piliae & Froelicher, 2004). It is
performed in a slow rhythmical and well-controlled manner (Plummer, 1983). Tai Chi
has also been described as a combination of deep diaphragmatic breathing and
relaxation with slow gentle movements, isometric and isotonic, and maintenance of
good posture (Kirstein, Dietz & Hwang, 1991). The practitioner could achieve a state
of harmony between body and mind by integrating the movements with deep breathing
and mental concentration (Cheng & Smith, 1967; Lee, Lee & Woo, 2007).
According to a recent comprehensive review of randomized controlled trails from
1993 to 2007 (Jahnke, Larkey, Rodgers & Etnier, 2008), the health benefits of Tai Chi
was categorized into six domains, including psychological factors such as anxiety,
Should Tai Chi be Tailored in Intensity for its Health Effect to Younger-Aged People?
113
depression and confidence, as well as physiological aspects including falls
prevention and balance, cardiopulmonary fitness and related biomarkers, bone health,
physical function, and general quality of life. All the studies reviewed showed that the
duration of Tai Chi practice was varied from 3 to 48 weeks with the most reported
intervention frequency of 12 weeks and most of the studies without significant
outcomes had the intervention with less than eight weeks. The practice session per
week was two or three times in majority (88%); most frequent minutes per session was
60 minutes (76%) (Jahnke et al, 2008).
The exercise of Tai Chi is most favored by the elderly, and regarded as an optimal
exercise for the senior citizen due to its safety, convenience and effectiveness, however,
Tai Chi is impressed by its age-related stereotype. In the review study of Jahnke et al.
(2008), 96% of the reference targeted the people aged more than 60 years old. The low
tempo and intensity of Tai Chi form the bias among the younger aged group that it is
inadequate in energy consumption for their health promotion and fail to bring
challenge in learning the movements as well. Rather, it is not always case that Tai Chi
is just effective to the elderly, sine some studies reported its health benefits for young
and middle-aged people (Baron & Faubert, 2005; Wang, Taylor, Pearl & Chang, 2004;
Hernandez-Reif, Field & Thimas, 2001). Besides, it was suggested that people who do
not like intense exercise or the reconditioned ones could benefit more from Tai Chi
exercise (Taylor-Piliae & Froelicher, 2004; Baron & Faubert, 2005; Jin, 1992).
With relatively sparse evidence about the health benefits of Tai Chi for other ages,
more work is needed to identify its effects to the younger people. The current study
was aimed to assess the effect of Tai Chi in selected health parameters of middle-aged
people with physical inactivity. Meanwhile, the study chose brisk walking as the
exercise practising together with Tai Chi for the complement in intensity. Walking is
the most common type of physical activity in adults as a facet of physically active
lifestyle or a mode of regular exercise, which is a recommended mode of moderate
intensity physical activity by ACSM (Buchworth & Dishman, 2007). Through the
comparison of Tai Chi with Tai Chi +, the study tended to examine whether exercise
intensity is the key in the health effects of Tai Chi for younger-aged adults.
Methods
Subjects
A convenience sampling method was used in this study. 45 office workers was
recruited as subjects, who were aged 40 to 50 with at least five-year working
experience and identified as sedentary people with less than three 20 minute exercise
periods per week. They were randomly assigned to three groups (Tai Chi, Tai Chi plus
brisk walking, and control). Before the programmes and tests, all the participants
completed an informed consent form and a Physical Activity Readiness (PAR-Q).
114 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Intervention
Subjects in each exercise programme underwent the training for eight weeks with
two 60-minute sessions per week. The 24-form Tai Chi was instructed, which is based
on Yang-style Tai Chi, easy to be learned within a shorter timeframe. The Tai Chi+
group received the training of Tai Chi and brisk walking together, each with the same
exercise duration per session. Heart rate monitor was applied to assess the exercise
intensity. The maximal heart rate of every participant was first estimated according to
his or her age (HRmax = 220 - age). Playing Tai Chi music was another effective way
to control the intensity during the exercise. Thus, the heart rate of Tai Chi exercise
could steadily remained at about 50 - 54% MHR. The participants of brisk walking
were required to finish the walking distance according to the definition of “walking at
3 to 3.9 miles per hour…” (Rockhill et al., 1999; Restor Life Ministries Newsletter,
2008). The heart rate during exercise was controlled at 69-85% MHR (ACSM, 2008).
Before and after the exercise programme there will be warm-up and cool-down
sessions with five to ten minutes each.
Instruments
In the pretest and posttest, participants’ resting heart rate and blood pressure were as
sessed when they were seated for 10 to 15 minute rest. Besides, the other assessment m
easures included composition, balance, flexibility and mood.
Body Composition. Body fat was assessed by bioelectrical impedance (BIA), which
has been suggested to a valid means of measuring change in percent body fat (%BF)
(Ross, Leger, Martin, Rov, 1989).
Flexibility. It was measured by using conventional “sit and reach” test following
guidelines by the American College of Sports and Medicine (ACSM, 1996).
Balance. Tandem and one-legged stance times were measured to the nearest 0.1s to
assess static balance. These measures of balance have been correlated with force
platform-based indexes of postural control as well as with physical function, with high
test-retest reliability (Rossiter-Fornoff, Wolf, Wolfson, & Buchner, 1995; Buchner,
Hornbrook, Kutner, Tinetti, Ory, Mulrow, Schechtman, Gerety, Fiatarone, & Wolf,
1993).
Data Analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 16.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL.,
2007) was used to analyze the descriptive and quantitative data. MANOVA was
applied for the measurement of the difference among the groups at the baseline. Paired
115
Should Tai Chi be Tailored in Intensity for its Health Effect to Younger-Aged People?
t test was followed to assess the changes of every group across Eight weeks. Betweengroups ANOVA were conducted to explore group differences in the post-test scores.
ANCOVA was run for further assessment of intervention effectiveness.
Results
Subject characteristics
34 of 45subjects screened met the inclusion criteria. Of these only 24 had the time
to participate in two-day-week exercise protocol for eight weeks, and the other 10 (M
age = 43.67 years, SD = 3.77) agreed to participate in the control group. Following
randomization, there were 13 in the Tai Chi group and 11 in Tai Chi plus brisk walking.
19 (M age = 43.46 years, SD = 3.97) completed the intervention programme with 10 in
Tai Chi and 9 in Tai Chi+. The drop-outs were not different from those who completed
the study on any baseline characteristics. Compliance with the exercise protocol was
measured with attendance sheets. Both active exercise groups had a 95% attendance
rate.
Table 1 summarized the baseline characteristics of each group by performing
MANOVA. In the study, due to a Bonferroni adjustment the results were considered
significant only if the probability value (Sig.) is less than .0063. There was no
significant difference among groups on any baseline
characteristics with the exception of the SBP measures, F (2, 25) = 6.75, p = .005.
Table 1
Baseline Characteristics of Participants in the Study
Variable
Tai Chi
Tai Chi +
Control
p
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Age (years)
42.11
3.52
44.80
4.42
43.67
3.77
0.35
RHR
80.33
18.17
74.60
6.82
73.44
10.98
0.48
SBP
120.22
18.89
136.50
15.21
111.11
10.74
0.005**
DBP
Body composition
(Fat %)
Flexibility
73.67
14.87
86.70
11.26
72.22
9.97
0.03
28.42
5.99
29.73
7.65
27.23
4.39
0.69
25.56
6.83
24.10
10.96
27.11
6.33
0.74
Balance
9.18
6.35
11.16
17.72
13.54
13.50
0.79
Note. RHR = resting heart rate, SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood pressure
**P < .01
116 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Treatment effects
Paired t tests (table 2) was conducted within each group on the baseline and followup scores of the selected parameters showed that the Tai Chi group had significant
changes in resting Heart Rate, body composition, flexibility and balance, t (8) = 2.80,
4.70, -3.84, and -3.35, P < .05 , respectively. And there were significant improvement
when the subjects were exposed to the treatment of Tai Chi and brisk walking in resting
heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, flexibility and balance, t (9)
= 2.63, 4.65, 3.88, -4.18, and -2.40 , P < .05 , respectively. No significant difference
was found in any selected health parameters in the control group.
ANCOVA was conducted to compare the differences in the change of health
parameters among three groups. After adjusting for pre-intervention scores, there are
significant difference between Tai Chi group and the control in resting heart rate, F
(1,16) = 5.16, p < .05, body composition, F (1,16) = 26.07, p < .05, flexibility, F (1,16)
= 13.98, p < .05, and balance, F (1,16) = 9.43, p < .05. Systolic and diastolic blood
pressure had improved without significant results, F (1, 16) = .23 and .42, p > .05. The
Tai Chi+ group had more improvement than the control in resting heart rate, systolic
blood pressure, flexibility and balance, F (1, 17) = 2.07, 5.80, 14.05, and 5.73, p < .05,.
There was no significant difference in resting heart rate and diastolic blood pressure, F
(1, 17) = .00 and .10, p > .05. ANCOVA was also used to measure the effectiveness of
the intervention programmes by calculating estimated marginal means and estimates of
effect size (Table 3). After adjusting for the scores of pretest, there was no significant
group effect, except balance, F (1, 17) = 7.67, P = .014, with a large effect size (partial
eta squared = .32).
Table 2
Differences within the three groups
t- value
Variable
RHR
SBP
DBP
Tai Chi
Tai Chi+
Control
2.80*
2.63*
0.27
2.03
4.65
*
2.12
0.23
3.88
*
1.33
*
2.00
-0.73
Body composition (Fat %)
4.70
Flexibility
-3.84*
-4.18*
0.42
Balance
-3.35*
-2.40*
-1.29
Note. RHR = resting heart rate, SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood
pressure
* P < .05
Should Tai Chi be Tailored in Intensity for its Health Effect to Younger-Aged People?
117
Table 3
Estimated Marginal Means and Effect Size for the Changes of Health Parameters of the
intervention groups
Variable
Estimated Marginal Means
F
ES
Tai Chi
Tai Chi+
RHR
68.51
72.34
2.28
0.13
SBP
118.20
116.90
0.84
0.00
DBP
76.72
75.82
0.05
0.00
Body composition (Fat %)
26.77
27.29
2.28
0.02
Flexibility
33.09
29.62
2.24
Balance
43.63
16.35
7.67
0.12
*
0.32
Note. RHR = resting heart rate, SBP = systolic blood pressure, DBP = diastolic blood
pressure, ES = effect size
* P < .05
Discussion
The study indicates that Tai Chi is effective in health promotion for middle-aged
group. Either the group of Tai Chi or Tai Chi+ can be found to be significantly
improved in some selected health parameters like resting heart rate, blood pressure,
body composition, flexibility and balance. The previous study suggested that Tai Chi
had more impact on cardiopulmonary fitness in older adults and general populations,
with attenuated results in individuals with severe chronic illnesses (Jahnke et al., 2008).
One of the strongest, most consistent findings was the significant reductions in blood
pressure in multiple studies, especially when Tai Chi was compared to inactive control
groups (Tsai, Wang & Chan, 2003; Wolf, O’Grady, Easley, Guo, Kressig & Kutner,
2006). It was found that there was improvement in both intervention groups but the
significant change occurred only in the group of Tai Chi+ after eight weeks. Likewise
compared with the control group, only Tai Chi+ had significant blood pressure change.
In case of blood pressure change, exercise intensity may be a possible explanation for
such findings.
It was found in this study that only Tai Chi group had significant effect in body
composition than the control. There are mixed findings as to whether or not Tai Chi
could consistently affected body weight. Tai Chi have demonstrated a reduction in BMI
compared to an exercise control group (but not significant given the comparative
effects to exercise) (Wolf et al., 2006), and significant reduction in waist circumference
compared to usual care for older adults (Tomas, Hong &Tomlinson, 2005). Conversely,
other studies reported no change in BMI compared to usual care (Young, Apple, Lee &
Miller, 1999; Song, Lee, Lam & Bae, 2003), and failure to maintain weight loss (Elder,
118 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Ritenbaugh & Mist, 2007). Achieving and maintaining a healthy body weight have
been identified as a major public health challenge in the United States (USDHHS,
2001). The major problem is not weight itself; it is the excessive body fat. It has been
accepted that excess body fat is detrimental to health. The current study uses body fat
percentage as the parameter to measure the change in body composition. It was
suggested that Tai Chi of low exercise intensity was suggested to effectively decrease
fat percentage.
The two health parameters of balance and flexibility both have more improvement in
the two intervention groups than the control. The previous studies on the effect of Tai
Chi on balance and flexibility are mainly related to fall prevention among the elderly.
Balance scores were consistently, significantly improved in Tai Chi studies that
screened for sedentary behavior and general healthy older adults at baseline (Jahnke et
al, 2008). Actually, either Tai Chi or brisk walking is beneficial to the development of
balance, flexibility and other lower extremity function (Woo, Hong, Lau & Lynn, 2007;
Tsang & Hui-Chan, 2004; Audette, Jin, Newcomer, Stein, Duncan & Frontera, 2006;
Jin, 1992). Therefore, it is not beyond the expectation in the results of the two
intervention group in this study.
Compared to the group of Tai Chi+, Tai Chi had more improvement in resting heart
rate, flexibility and balance with a large effect size, although the first two did not reach
significant result. However, the result of effect size indicated the effectiveness of
intervention for participants. Eight weeks were regarded as the minimum duration for
health effects induced by Tai Chi exercise (Jahnke et al, in 2008), thus it is expected to
see whether longer-term exercise could produce more obvious outcomes. The Tai Chi+
group increases the exercise intensity by integrating brisk walking, but as for its health
effects to the current subjects the increased intensity did not produce more obvious
outcomes. The current study may indicate that moving or breathing features is the key
to influence the health benefits induced by Tai Chi exercise.
Conclusion
Tai Chi is highly recommended as an exercise mode for the elderly due to its safety,
convenience and health benefits. On the other hand, Tai Chi is impressed by its agerelated stereotype as the Low tempo and intensity, which is often excluded from the
exercise selection by the younger-aged people. Besides the suspicion of its health effect
in shorter term, it should take months and even years to practice the skill and technique
of breath and meditation for reaching the essence of Tai Chi. All these considerations
might be the obstacle for many younger aged people to choose Tai Chi as their daily
life exercise.
The study aims to provide the evidence for the effect of Tai Chi in middle-aged
group and to observe whether the intensity is as expected to be the reason for declining
Should Tai Chi be Tailored in Intensity for its Health Effect to Younger-Aged People?
119
its health benefit when the younger-aged practice Tai Chi. Our study design increased
the exercise intensity of Tai Chi by integrating the moderate exercise mode of brisk
walking to practice together, and then compared its effects with the sole exercise group
in the selected health parameters. Tai Chi+ declined the total volume of Tai Chi
training despite the intensity increase. In our study, it can be found that compared with
exercise intensity, duration could be more important to health effects induced by Tai
Chi.
The subjects in our study are middle-aged office workers who represent the
population with the lowest physical activity in daily life (HKDH, 2008). Tai Chi has
been recommended to be exercise for those who suffer from chronic disease and who
do not favor vigorous exercise (Taylor-Piliae & Froelicher, 2004; Baron & Faubert,
2005; Brown et al., 1995; Jin, 1992). Tai Chi is proper for sedentary people for its low
requirement in exercise intensity and skill requirement. Besides, Tai Chi has higher
participants’ expectancy for exercise efficacy and outcomes which is important for
adoption and consistence in physical activity (Bandura, 1977, 1997). The promotion of
Tai Chi can be expected to achieve health benefits among the sedentary people
influenced by the socioeconomic statues which are found to be the most important
indicators for morbidity and mortality (Alwin & Wray, 2005; Blaxter, 1987). Our study
targeted such group to find an effective exercise mode for improving health parameters
and excise motivation. It also can be expected that the promotion of Tai Chi can help
more sedentary people to be involved into exercises. Future research can be conducted
for the middle-aged people who are physically active to test whether Tai Chi is also
effective for them.
The current study combined another exercise mode with Tai Chi for intensity
increment and the impact of intensity can be further investigated by fastening Tai Chi
tempo or carrying burden when playing. Lifestyle intervention strategies encourage the
development of multiple behavioral skills by incorporating more physical activity in
their daily lives (Buckworth & Dishman, 2007). The combination of Tai Chi and brisk
walking provides more selection for the sedentary people, especially considering that
brisk walking is more convenient and accessible in daily life. In the future study, more
exercises can be selected to combine together with Tai Chi as complement in various
exercise features and for optimal health effects. And more health indices can be
selected in the continuous study. Other limitation in the current study is the subject
number and intervention length which are very possible to influence the research
outcome and awaited for further investigation.
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Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 123
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea
Soo Jung Park, Kyu Lee Shin (Inha University, Korea)
Yong Koo Noh (Korea University, Korea)
Abstract
The leisure industry in the 21st century has been getting the spotlight as one of
driving force industries of the next generation for growth and is recognized for its
growth potential as among the "Top Three Industries in the World" along with the IT
industry and environmental industry. Tourism in the leisure industry has been growing
to the top by combining a variety of cultural content. Furthermore, tourism has
changed from positive activity only looking around nature or historic relics in the past
to active participation including experiences, sports, events or festivals.
With such social changes, the sports tourism industry combining sports and tourism in
various kinds of tourism industries has been rapidly advancing due to the spreading
awareness related to well-being and health. Although there are a variety of definitions
from researchers, countries or objects, this study defines sports tourism as progressive
tourism activity pursuing the subjective and unusual experiences that have sports and
leisure sports as the subjects or medium.
Sports tourism is divided into three types; first, participation for appreciating
international or local events including the Olympics, World Cup and World
Championships in Athletics; second, direct participation in sporting events including
domestic or overseas golf, marine sports or ski games; third, direct or indirect
participation in a variety of sports-related festivals in communities. Diverse approaches
have recently been implemented for the promotion of sports tourism. Accordingly, this
study investigates the project to cultivate skilled manpower for sports tourism in
Incheon by presenting it as one of the attempts described above.
Key words: leisure industry, sport tourism, professional resource
Introduction
At 8 before 8 on August 8, 2008, a mega event was held in Beijing, which became
the focus of the world. With respect to that event, the tourism industry launched a
variety of tour programs and offered a number of people the opportunity to tour around
neighboring countries as well as watch the Beijing Olympic games. As explained
124 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
above, the tourism industry focusing on sports has been rapidly growing because
international mega sporting events have been gaining substantial favor in the world,
including diverse world championships of golf and tennis as well as the Olympics and
World Cup.
People are directly or indirectly engaged in mega sporting events as athletes, staff
members, team support or audience members. Thus, sports tourism can be defined as
tourism in which a person has an unusual and subjective experience centered around
sports. Sports tourism has been increasing every year in the world.
In particular, the values that Koreans cherish and pursue the most eagerly in the 21st
century when its GDP comes close to 20,000 USD can definitely be defined by words
such as wellness, well-being, welfare, leisure and quality of life. Such values are
naturally formed in the flow of time with the various changes of the modern times,
including improved awareness of physical health and welfare, increased time for
leisure, changes of value of work and leisure, aging, low birth rates, changes in
household spending structures and the development of medical technologies against
diverse diseases (Shin, 2007).
Extensive interest in leisure and quality of life in modern society means that today’s
people are over-exposed to factors that interrupt them from the quality of life or proper
leisure activity (Shin, 2007). In other words, social, cultural, institutional and economic
changes in modern times have caused the rapid growth of leisure and, people are
focusing more on leisure activities than on work because of the changes in values from
a work-focused society to a leisure-focused society. Accordingly, the concept of leisure
has changed from positive awareness for refreshment or relaxation to progressive
awareness for engagement in activities to improve the quality of life and selfdevelopment (Park, 2005). The implementation of a 5-day working system and a 5-day
school system has accelerated such changes.
Such social phenomenon changed people’s leisure spending habits from static to
dynamic. The increase of free time and expansion of awareness on the leisure rights of
individuals also increased the number of people who want to enjoy a variety of cultural
activities including leisure, sports and recreation related to tourism. In particular, due
to the development of transportation and IT, tourism was considered one of the most
important factors in the industry all over the world. The attempts to progressively
accept such a change in the social paradigm and link it to local development have been
implemented in various ways with the leadership of central or local governments (Lee
& Kim, 2008).
A variety of events and festivals related to sports including marathons, walking,
cycling and marine sports have been held in every community, and local governments
have been putting every endeavor into securing the infrastructure and diverse policies
related to such events to earnestly promote the sports tourism industry as a means of
local development. Sports tourism programs have been actively developed, which link
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 125
sports, leisure sports and recreation to tourism, and sports tourism has been rapidly
emerging as the new tourism item. Furthermore, the number of people who participate
in sports tourism has been rapidly increasing. Event-like tourism, limited only to
sightseeing in the past, has changed to become experience-oriented tourism. In addition,
participation of sports tourists has increased as the tourists' demands on health, wellbeing and subjective experience becomes stronger.
While there are a variety of definitions of sports tourism among researchers, sports
tourism is defined as tourism activity for an unusual and subjective experience with
sports and leisure sports as the subjects or medium. Tourism has changed from a
positive activity only for sightseeing of natural landscapes or historic relics to an
experience-oriented progressive activity that participants can directly see, listen to and
feel. In those aspects, sports tourism has the tremendous potential to satisfy all the
desires mentioned above. However, sports tourism was a supplementary factor in
tourism up to now and restricted to events. When considering sports tourism as a new
alternative for tourism by region and country, it is important to develop more
differentiated programs or content. Accordingly, sports tourism will become the new
unique leisure behavior, not the temporal or one-off event.
The most significant trend in the change of tourism in the world is the change from
static tourism which is just looking around nature or historic relics to dynamic tourism
which includes experiencing something vibrant including sports, theme parks, festivals
or events (Jeong, 1995). This change may be caused by desires such as a sense of
freedom of modern people to escape from daily life. It has emerged as a very
interesting theme among sports and tourism experts and more concrete and in-depth
research on that have been conducted.
There are many cases on the correlation between sports and tourism. It can be said
that sports makes a substantial contribution to the development of the tourism industry.
Since sports and tourism are the most significant phenomenon in the world, and
tourism is the biggest industry in the world, the close relationship between tourism and
sports is not a new finding (Veal, 1997). Sports tourists are influenced more by the
recreational function of the tourists' complex than by functional satisfaction of
demands by leisure and sports activities. Accordingly, sports and tourism shall promote
and develop the growth and dimensions of each other through interaction (Park, 2000).
Tourism as a content has been listed as one of the important factors in the industry
all over the world due to the development of transportation and IT. In particular, with
the rapid increase in sports tourism participants, tourism is changing from event-like
tourism limited only to sightseeing to experience-oriented tourism. Furthermore, the
strong demand for health, well-being and a subjective experience caused participation
from sports tourists to increase by satisfying their demands.
The leisure industry has been in the limelight as one of the driving force industries
of the next generation in the 21st century and has been widely recognized for its
126 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
potential to be one of the "Top Three Industries in the World" along with IT and the
environmental industry. In the leisure industry, tourism has been advancing most
quickly by combining a variety of cultural content and changing itself from positive
behavior of just looking around nature or historic relics to progressive behavior of
participating in an experience, sport, event or festival. With such social changes, the
sports tourism industry has been rapidly advancing due to the spreading awareness
related to well-being and health. Although there are a variety of definitions by
researchers, countries or objects, this study defines sports tourism as a progressive
tourism activity pursuing subjective and unusual experiences whereby sports and
leisure sports are the subjects or medium. Sports tourism is divided into three types:
participation for appreciating international or local events including the Olympics,
World Cup and World Championships in Athletics, direct participation in sporting
events including domestic or overseas golf, marine sports or ski games, and direct or
indirect participation in a variety of sports-related festivals in communities.
Diverse approaches have recently been implemented to promote sports tourism.
Accordingly, this study investigated the approaches to activate sports tourism for
experimental leisure through a project to cultivate skilled manpower for sports tourism,
as one of the attempts described above.
Trends of Sports Tourism Research
The Industrial Revolution was the innovative momentum for the development of
sports and tourism. Since the propensity to active tourism and experimental tourism
strongly emerged with the development of state-of-the-art science and technology and
the increase in leisure time, the participation in sports tourism has rapidly increased
(Yun, 2006). Accordingly, sports tourism emerged as a very effective strategy to
promote the leisure industry all over the world based on direct and indirect experiences.
Korea also declared the tourism industry to be one of four strategic industries along
with the IT industry, design industry and culture industry; interest in sports tourism has
been increasing. Kim (1994) classified the tourism into three development phases:
amusement tourism for underdeveloped countries, relaxation tourism for developing
countries and experimental tourism for advanced countries. Experimental tourism is
the representative tourism with functions and features enabling a variety of experiences.
While a great deal of research has been discussing the definition of sports tourism,
the concept of sports tourism is not definitely specified. Standeven and De Knop(1998)
defines sports tourism as a tour to directly participate in or watch sports activities, by
leaving home temporarily, whether it is commercial or non-commercial. Han (1999)
insists that sports tourism involves going to a space that is more than 24 hours from
home in order to participate in or enjoy competitive or non-competitive sports activities.
Gibson (1999) defines sports tourism as watching or participating in physical activities
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 127
outside of daily life for a certain period or as leisure-focused tours related to physical
activities. In other words, sports tourism is enjoying sports activities that are a certain
distance from home and staying there for more than 24 hours (Lee, 2003).
No less than the variety of definitions of sports tourism, a number of attempts to
effectively use sports tourism, including changing the awareness of sports tourism,
securing facilities, developing marine sports programs, cultivating professionals and
building a network of sports tourism regions, have been implemented. Furthermore,
substantial attempts have been made for the development of sports tourism including
seeking approaches to contribute to the development of the sports industry by creating
tangible or intangible values of a country or community using tour packages,
reorganization of accommodations or convenience facilities, establishment of sports
museums and malls, and programs for sporting events, sports facilities and sports stars.
A number of researchers have been conducting studies related to sports tourism.
Table 1 shows the research trends classified by year (KSI, August 2008. based on the
search results using the key word "Sports Tourism").
Year
Themes
Journals
Research on satisfaction factors of tourists for
2008
Tourism Management Research Organization
activation of local sports tourism
Exploratory research on experimental fields of
Korean Society for Sport Management
tourism industry
Intrinsic meaning of sports tourism by change of
Korean Philosophy Society for Sport & Dance
2007
culture
Strategy to attract off-season training teams for
Korean Society for the Sociology of Sport
promotion of sports tourism
Sports tourists profile analysis according to Korean Academic Society of Hospitality
marathon club membership
Administration
Research on global sports trends
Korean Society for the Sociology of Sport
Experimental features of sports tourism
Korean Philosophy Society for Sport & Dance
2006 Comparative study on marine tourism industry
Sports Research
between Korea and Japan
Relationship between service quality of ski
resorts, customer satisfaction and intention to Korean Society for Sport Management
revisit.
Analysis of research trends on sports tourism
Korean Philosophy Society for Sport & Dance
Impact of recognized sports tourism values on
satisfaction and intention to join again and to Korean Society of Sport and Leisure Studies
2005 change
Study of developmental approaches of sports Sports Research Institute of Jeju National
tourism on Jeju island
University
Analysis of image difference of sports tourists
2004
Korea Tourism Research Association
sites according to motives
128 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Impact of participation motives of sports tourism
on property evaluation of target sites and Sports Research
recognized values
Study on commercialization strategy of sports
Sports Research
tourism for development of Busan
Study on consumption culture by age of sports Korean Alliance for health, Physical Education,
tourism participants
Recreation & Dance
Study of approaches to activate local sports Journal of Korean Society of Leisure &
tourism by construction of ski resort
Recreation
Strategy to develop sports tourism for Korean Alliance for health, Physical Education,
development of tourism industry of Jeonnam
Recreation & Dance
Analysis of resident consent to development of Tourism Management Research Organization
marine sports tourism
Journal
Analysis of possibility of developing marathon
Tourism Management Research Organization
races in Korea as tourism resource
Study on development of marine leisure sports
tourism for activation of tourism in southern Korean Society of Leisure & Recreation
region of Donghae, Gangwon-do
Table 1 Sports Tourism Research Themes (recent data & existing data supplemented)
Project to Cultivate Skilled Manpower for Sports Tourism
1. Necessity of project to cultivate skilled manpower for sports tourism
At present, there is an increasing attempt in Korea to strategically cultivate culture,
tourism and the leisure sports industry, the driving force of the next generation, based
on the culture leader 2010: C-Korea policy (3Cs: content, creativity, culture), achieve
the goal to make GDP 30,000 USD and, ultimately, to relieve the unbalanced
development of local communities and social polarization. As a part of such attempts,
the relevant ministries, including the Ministry of Finance and Economy announced the
"General Plan for Activation of Service Industry" to relieve regulations and support
education, culture, tourism and the leisure service industry in order to promote the
service industry with high employment absorption and to join the Top 10 Advanced
Countries in leisure sports, and become the tourism hub in Northeast Asia and one of
the Top 5 culture industry leaders in the world.
What draws our attention is the fact that it is the time when we can expect the
limitless growth of the sports tourism industry because the tourism industry
implements the project to cultivate global sports agents in long-term training programs
(1 year) in order to cultivate professional sports marketers with global competitiveness
by establishing the "Skilled Manpower Cultivation Center for the Sports Industry" and
specialization of the sports industry academy by region.
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 129
At present, Korea strengthened its position as the global tourism city by attracting
and developing large-scale sporting events and, furthermore, a number of global
sporting events have been continuously attracted to and held in Korea for the activation
of sports tourism.
In particular, Incheon, one of the three top cities in Korea with a population of 2.65
million was designed as the first free economy zone in Korea and reborn as a global
city with a new driving force for Korea. In addition, with Incheon Asian Games to be
held in 2014 as well as Global Fair and Festival Incheon held in 2009, Incheon is the
best region for the sports tourism industry to make substantial future growth.
Having been strengthening its position as the leading city of international business,
finance, knowledge and information in Northeast Asia by developing a free economy
zone in Songdo, Cheongra and Yeongjong, Incheon has competitiveness and potential
to more easily secure qualified manpower in IT. It is an emerging market with a
population of 23 million in metropolitan areas, an international harbor and Incheon
International Airport, a top-notch airport in terms of service satisfaction.
Incheon secured its position as a deluxe city in the world and a hub city in Northeast
Asia by introducing and promoting its history, culture and tourism in the Global Fair
and Festival that included a variety of events and exhibitions as well as attracted cities,
enterprises and international organizations in the 2009 festival and, accordingly,
advancing the urban development and attracting investments in the free economy zone.
Furthermore, as a successful bidder for the Asian Games in 2014, Incheon has been
concentrating on securing a variety of infrastructures including stadiums and
accommodations that are not currently sufficient for the success of the Asian Games. In
addition to 4 stadiums including Munhak Stadium and Sungui Stadium for 37 games, 5
stadiums including Dream Park, Seowun, Namdong and Songdo have been newly built
for canoeing, horse riding, cycling, rugby and football. Moreover, 10 five-star hotels
with 1,500 to 3,500 rooms will be built in Yeongjong-do and Songdo by 2010 to meet
the demand for accommodations, and a large-scale athletes' village, ecology park and
square will be constructed. As a result, Incheon has more capacity to establish the
infrastructure to continuously support the sports tourism industry by emphasizing
content, sports and tourism, than any other region.
In addition, 8 colleges, which cultivate skilled manpower in sports, are in Incheon.
Skilled manpower with the ability to deploy the work for weaving the contents at the
sports tourism festivals, large-scale events, has been cultivated in area colleges
including the Department of Culture Management at Inha University.
Some researchers point out that the physical infrastructure should be established,
including legal and institutional systems. Plans have been made to cultivate skilled
manpower in sports and implementation of such plans and relevant organizations for
development of sports tourism industry. However, the prerequisite will be the project
130 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
to cultivate skilled manpower in sports tourism in the initial stage to establish the
infrastructure for the sports tourism industry.
2. Current Status of Project to Cultivate Professional Resource in Sports
Tourism in Incheon
The project to cultivate skilled manpower in the tourism and sports industry was
implemented by the Tourism Bureau and Sports Bureau in Ministry of Culture and
Tourism in 2004. At present, the projects to cultivate culture tourism guides and
tourism leaders for local tourism development and to support cultural tourism and
experience programs are underway and the tourism academy is operating, led by the
Tourism Industry Division under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The Sports
Bureau has been accelerating a variety of programs and support to cultivate skilled
manpower in the sports industry who can deal with field work to attract, plan and
operate sports tourism events to keep in pace with the coming sports tourism age,
though it has not been well cultivated.
Furthermore, while several colleges in Korea have project teams to cultivate skilled
manpower in tourism or sports on the strength of manpower cultivation projects of the
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Sports and the Korea Research Foundation, those
projects are inclined to actual or theoretical ability. Therefore, those who are cultivated
in such organizations cannot actually work in the field.
Moreover, in accordance with the results from benchmarking programs to cultivate
skilled manpower in domestic and overseas colleges for the development of a model
education program to cultivate sports tourism event specialists, all the major courses in
tourism and the sports tourism industry in leading colleges were limited only to theory
and were not sufficient to cultivate skilled manpower with executive ability.
As discussed above, selecting proper institutions that can take responsibility for the
continuing operation and cultivation of skilled manpower in this area and to develop
and operate systematic programs to cultivate skilled manpower satisfying the goals in
those institutions is necessary. In addition, securing continuous support, establishing an
infrastructure and accelerating the sports tourism industry, at this industry turning point
when there is a shortage of skilled manpower is required.
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 131
Figure 1. Projects to Cultivate Skilled Manpower in Sports Tourism in Incheon
This project operated and evaluated the academy to cultivate skilled manpower who
can work on site to attract, plan and develop large-scale sports festivals and events
using substantial content, sports and tourism, to maximize the ripple effect as well as to
secure easy accessibility for the public as well as professionals.
At this moment, when sports are the most significant phenomenon in the world and
tourism is the biggest industry in the world, combining tourism with sports will have
maximum synergy. Furthermore, this project to cultivate skilled manpower in sports
tourism will secure the manpower required by the sports tourism industry. On the basis
of the programs in this project, future education and training programs will maximize
these continuing effects and will be linked to local programs in other communities.
3. Project Content
Figure above describes the details of this project to support the academy to cultivate
skilled manpower in sports tourism. The project to cultivate skilled manpower in sports
tourism in Incheon is classified into 3 phases as illustrated in Figure 1. The features of
this project include field experience of trainees including planning and implementing
festivals, beyond the training of skilled manpower. The field experience program was
for the project to cultivate skilled manpower in sports tourism in Incheon. Accordingly,
further projects need to include more changed and developed programs.
4. Contents of Training
The project to cultivate skilled manpower in sports tourism in Incheon is classified
into 4 phases as described in <Table 2> below, and each phase comprises both basic
and advanced courses (segmentation of education program to maximize intensive
education for skilled manpower in sports tourism). Furthermore, planning and
operating experts were selected for practical courses in the advanced programs.
Internship opportunities for related practical work was given to those experts in
cooperation with relevant organizations.
132 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Education Program for Skilled Manpower
in Sports Tourism by Field
1. Sports Tourism Event Professional
Program
2. Sports Tourism Attraction
Professional Program
3. Sports Tourism Resort Professional
Program
4. Sports Tourism Tour Professional
Program
Courses
Basic & Advanced Course (theory & practical
work)
Basic & Advanced Course (theory & practical
work)
Basic & Advanced Course (theory & practical
work)
Basic & Advanced Course (theory & practical
work)
Table 2. Education Program for Professional Resources in Sports Tourism by Major
Approaches to Activate the Projects to Cultivate Skilled
Manpower in Sports Tourism
The concepts of sports tourism and research trends have already been discussed.
Sports tourism emerged as a very important factor to strategically develop. To this end,
a quantity of work is required including improvement of the recognition of sports
tourism, development of diverse programs and content, establishment of infrastructure
among communities or countries, cultivation of professionals and establishment of
sports tourism promotion acts.
Six regions including Incheon (Incheon: School-Industry Cooperation Foundation at
Inha University, Seoul: Sports Science Division at Seonggyungwan University,
Gyeongnam: School-Industry Cooperation Foundation in Yeongsan University,
Jeonbuk: School-Industry Cooperation Foundation at Wongwang University,
Chungbuk: Sports Industry Research Institute at Chungju University, Gangwon-do:
School-Industry Cooperation Foundation at Hanlim Seongsim University) have been
implementing projects to cultivate skilled manpower in sports tourism.
Among them, Incheon classified sports tourism into 4 fields: events, attractions,
resorts and tours. In addition, Incheon planned to host seminars on the cultivation of
skilled manpower in sports tourism and relevant areas. Other regions have been putting
every endeavor into activating sports tourism in consideration of local characteristics.
What is important is that the project shall not be a temporal and independent event.
Hosting a variety of symposiums or seminars on sports tourism as well as exchange
information among regional leaders and establishing qualification standards for the
cultivation of skilled manpower and systematization of relevant programs is required.
It is very important for the success of sports tourism to attract those who are outside
of the industry. In other words, we need to prepare events to attract people from all
over the world to Korea for sports tourism. To this end, private, public and academic
sectors shall induce the maximum synergy through cooperation. In other words, the
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 133
academic sector shall implement seminars and symposiums to exchange information as
well as continuously develop research and programs for the promotion of sports
tourism. The public sector needs to put every endeavor into the institutionalization of
programs to continuously cultivate and manage skilled manpower, establish diverse
policies related to sports tourism and organizations controlling those policies, and
maintain facilities, tools and the environment. Finally, the private sector shall
progressively accept the proposals of diverse policies and programs and actively
deploy businesses including the supply and promotion of the new content of sports
tourism by building the infrastructure.
Figure 2. Approach to Activate Sports Tourism
Tourism doesn't mean enjoying natural landscapes or historic relics anymore. Such
obsolescent tourism can reduce the number of tourists as well as interrupt the growth of
the local economy. Furthermore, it shall be avoided to make sports be the contents as a
temporal event. The concept of integration will be essential. Sports tourism shall not
insist only on sports or tourism itself but produce other effects by integrating both
contents. It is necessary to develop tour programs that tourists can directly experience:
seeing, listening, enjoying and feeling.
In addition, since sports tourism is the most rapidly growing in tourism industry, it
has the potential to satisfy a variety of purposes including sports, health, relaxation,
camping or travel at the same time. This has led to the increase in its participation.
However, one thing can never be dismissed in sports tourism. That is to say, it is a very
important factor differentiating itself from other tourism fields. The components of
sports tourism include events, attractions, resorts and tours(Park, 2008). In other words,
sports tourism shall not be degraded into local programs at which visitors stay for only
a moment or temporal event, only provided that the contents enabling a variety of
dynamic as well as static experiences using facilities and environments are developed.
134 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
To this end, how can we develop the contents of sports tourism? At present, Korea
has strengthened its position as a global tourism city by attracting and developing
large-scale sporting events. Furthermore, a number of global sporting events have been
held in Korea for the activation of sports tourism. Accordingly, developing sports
tourism content that can attract, plan and develop large-scale sports festivals and events
to maximize the ripple effect as well as to secure easy accessibility for the public and
professionals is required. It is very important to develop appropriate sports tourism
content since integration of tourism and sports can maximize synergy at this time when
sports are the most significant phenomenon in the world and tourism is the biggest
industry in the world.
The success of sports tourism can be measured by how many people out of a
relevant region participate in sports tourism there. In order to be successful, events
require a set plan to attract people to the site. In other words, we need to develop
something to attract foreigners into Korea. If the content is not properly developed in
the right place at the right time, sports tourism will fail. While there are a variety of
factors in the development of successful content, it will come from harmony between
the familiarity and uniqueness of the relevant activities. It is important to give the
opportunity to enjoy sports or sports leisure that an individual has never tried before or
to enjoy sports that an individual tried before with a variety of attractions in more
diverse environments. To this end, it is necessary to closely investigate the desires of
tourists before development of such content. Furthermore, a market survey is required
to identify what kinds of sports will be in trend, what places can be developed, and
what facilities can be available for investment. Although people flock to one main
theme, infrastructure including the surrounding landscape, accommodations, easy
transportation and amusement facilities have a significant impact on the success of
sports tourism.
Accordingly, we need to progressively develop unique content combining various
events including sports, sports leisure and recreation which can satisfy the five human
senses. Golf, sports tourism recently raging out, is one of the sports tourism failures in
Korea. The number of Koreans going abroad is increasing more than that of foreigners
coming to Korea. It is very serious to the extent that local authorities in Korea have
planned a variety of policies related to such a tendency. As an example, local
authorities, including the Jeju government, put every endeavor into attracting tourists
by providing free rounds of golf or asking minimum fees for a round of golf.
Nonetheless, what is the reason that the number of people going abroad is increasing?
While there may be a variety of reasons, it is estimated that the costs of using other
facilities including transportation and accommodations are expensive, and there is
nothing more to enjoy than golf. To reduce the number of people going abroad for golf,
an extensive approach related to attractions, resorts, tour facilities and expenses as well
Study on Cultivation of Professional Resources
in Sports Tourism in Incheon, S. Korea 135
as fees for a round of golf shall be established. The contents shall be developed as
explained above for the success of sports tourism.
First, the organization system shall be secured for successful sports tourism. That is
to say, we cannot expect the success of sports tourism with only one, sports or tourism.
In particular, international events require a more systematic management system
related to events.
Second, allowing a greater number of people to enjoy tourism by progressively
developing more attractive content related to sports is necessary. Examples include
tournaments for MBT sports enthusiasts, development of marine sports events for
families and attraction of world championships that have a global reputation.
Furthermore, it will maximize synergy to prepare opportunities for tourists to enjoy
direct participation in such programs.
Third, an extensive management system is required including development of
specialties and characters in consideration of local characteristics as well as
accommodations, transportation, information and discounts for sports tourists.
References
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[2] Han, Cheoleon (1999). A study on sport tourism policies of Korea. Unpublished
dissertation, Korea University.
[3] Lee, Jaehyeong (2003). A study on sports tourism policies of Korea. Korean Journal of
sports management. 8(1), 127-145.
[4] Lee, Taegyun & Kim, Gyusun (2008). A study on spectators’ satisfaction for cultivation
for regional sports tourism. Journal of Daehan tourism management, 22(4), 133-150.
[5] Jeong, Ganghwan (1995). Tourism for global age: development and strategies. Seoul,
Ilshin-Sa.
[6] Park, Jinseop (1994). Introduction of tourism. Seoul: Daewang-Sa.
[7] Park, Sujung (2005). Culture and Man: well-being and leisure culture. Incheon: Inha
University.
[8] Park, Yongbeom (2000). Sports tourism for regional development. Korean Journal of
Leisure and sports studies, (3), 687-698.
[9] Shin, Kyulee (2007). Current status and development of sports tourism experts in Korea.
Korean sports research, 18(4), 967-976.
[10] Standeven, J., & De Knop. P. (1998). Sport tourism. Champaign, IL: Human.
[11] Yun, Ejung (2006). A study on trends of global sports tourism. Journal of Korean society
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Pitman
136 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
On Behavioral Characteristics and Motivations of
Chinese Sports Tourists
Guixia Xia, Zongli Shu, Ping Ren
(Hunan City University, China)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the sports tourists' characteristics,
motivatiosand the segmentation of their behavior in China. Questionnaires were di
stributed to Hubei sports tourism market that engage in sports tourism.The subje
cts completed the questionnaires in half a year survey period of 1st May 2006 t
o 30 October 2006. By the end of
the data collection, a total of 40 usable responses were included in this study. T
he result show that, (1)Demographic characteristics of sports tourism are: female
tourists are more
enthusiastic than male tourists; male and female tourists are almost the same in
numbe (1.06:1), middle-aged tourists serving as the main body; sports tourists i
n general receive a higher education, have better employment and economic an
d social backgrounds. (2)
Sports travelers prefer to choose FIT trips and travel with high freequency in se
ason of spring and autumn. (3)Body-building and extreme sports tourism project
s enjoy the most popularity among tourists. (4) Sports tourism consumption is of
mid-range level, taking
on a "two ends narrow, the middle width" look. (5)The motivations of those spo
rts
tourists are also diversified. Through analysis of factors we can conclude that i
mproving health, pursuing novelty and seeking for relaxation are among the topt
hree.cal statistics.
Just take the consuming.
Key words: sports tourism, characteristics, motivation, China
Introduction
Sport tourism, as a new field generated by cross-penetration of the tourism industry
and the sports industry, is based on sports resources, attracting people to participate in
sports activities and to enjoy the natural taste. It is a wonderful combination of sport
and tourism and is a special kind of leisure lifestyle. Sports Tourism should be
different from the old pattern of tourism and simple physical body-building activities.
Instead, it should be a combination of both. The differences between Sports tourism
and traditional tourism lie not only in consumption purposes, consumer behaviors,
consumption levels and consumption forms, but also in the products of the touring
On Behavioral Characteristics and Motivations of Chinese Sports Tourists
137
destinations, service systems and requirements of service quality. Therefore, to
ensure a comprehensive development of sports tourism, we must firstly get a
comprehensive understanding of the objective situation of the consumer market of
sports tourism and its real needs, and then make a right judgment on its basic
characteristics. Only in this way can there be a targeted development of sports tourism
products. Then we can guide and nurture the sports tourism consumer market to a more
healthily-developed one.
1. What is Sport Tourism?
Over the years various definitions of sport tourism have been put forward.
Hall(1992)suggested that sport tourism is characterized by two behaviors:travel to take
part and travel to watch sport.Most scholars tend to agree that there is an active and a
passive form of sport tourism (e.g.,Gammon & Robinson,1997; Ritchie & Adair, 2002;
Standeven &De Knop 1999). In an attempt to delineate more clearly what consituted
sport in the sport tourism context,Hinch and Higham(2001)used the work of
Mcpherson,Curtis,and Loy(1989)as their guide.For tourism,they used Leiper’s (1990)
tourism attractions framework.Hinch and Higham suggested that “sport tourism is
defined as sport-based travel away form the home environment for a limited
time,where sport is characterized by aunique set of rules,competition related to
physical prowess and playful nature” (p.56).
In contrast, to many of there scholars, I have argued that sport tourism is characterized
by three behavioral sets and can be defined as“Leisure-based travel that takes
individuals temporarily outside of their home communities to participate in physical
activities, to watch physical activities, or to venerate attractions associared with
physical activities” (Gibson, 1998, p.49).
Taking a lead form Redmond’s (1991) essay where he identified the growth in the
popularity of sports-themed vacations, I sugggest there are three types of sport
tourism:(a) active sport tourism where participants travel to take part in sport;(b) event
sport tourism where participants travel to watch sport;and(c)nostalgia sport tourism
where participants visit sports related attractions such as halls of fame,famous stadia,or
sports-themed cruises.
2. Demographic characteristics of the sports tourists
Investigating the participating situation in sports tourism from the perspective of
demographic characteristics is of great significance in the matter of understanding the
current situation of sports tourism expenditure. It will do good to the development of
targeted sports tourism products, making of marketing strategies and improvement of
the services quality of tourism. Gender, age, occupation, education level and other
demographic characteristics are basic characteristics of tourists. They have great
impacts on capacity and behaviors of tourists.
138 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Gender
The reason why gender has great influences on sports tourists is mainly that in the
traditional culture, gender position in society can bring about differences between
employment and income. All these factors result in different consuming expenditures
and structures. Among the respondents, the ratio was 1.06:1, much lower than the
national average tourism ratio of 1.27:1. In another investigation of 760 valid
questionnaires, male visitors who participate in sports tourism are 49.82%, Female
53.23%. Women have a higher passion in participating sports tourism.
Age
People of different age have obviously different physiology, psychology and
lifestyles. These are also consumption factors which influence sports tourism. In the
age structure, among the 400 respondents, 16-25-year-old accounts for 30% ,26-35year-old 30%, 36-45-year-old 18% ,46-55-year-old 10.5%, over the age of 55 11.5% .
Youth is the subject of sports tourism market. Maybe it is because they are relatively
more energetic, much richer and they are more likely to pursue novelty, singularity,
knowledge and excitement.
Occupation
Sports tourists engaged in different professions are different in income and leisure
time, resulting in different characteristics of consuming tendency. According to the
survey, among those occupational compositions of the sports tourism, visitors of
government workers (18.5%), individual workers (15.05%), students (14.5%), foreign
employees (14.0%) are in larger proportions. This is mainly because they are of
relatively higher cultural quality, of stronger sense of leisure, and of much assured
financial resources. In this survey, the number of farmers involved in sports tourism is
zero. This not only reveals the limitations of the sample selection, but also shows that
farmers, in comparison to government workers and foreign employees, are vulnerable
groups in the society. Sports tourism products, in their eyes, are just luxuries and they
are less likely to become sports tourists.
Income
Economic theory suggests that consumer’s income is an important factor to
determine their needs and is one of the indispensible conditions to meet the demand.
As income increases, people's demand changes. Under normal circumstances, people's
level of demand is in a positive correlation with income, which means that the higher
the income, the higher the level of demand. The survey shows that people with a
monthly income of 1001-2000 yuan are the main body sports tourism source market,
accounting for 66.5%; 3001 yuan or more high-income earners are also in a
considerable proportion, reaching 13.5%.The phenomenon is maybe caused by the fact
that the population of middle-level income earners accounts for the vast majority of
national populations, and the high-income group is in a relatively smaller portion. This
is of some reference value to the pricing of the domestic sports tourism products. It
also indicates that, as China has increased its urbanization to a large degree and urban
residents have much more disposable income, sports tourism which combines fitness,
leisure and fashion will surely become an integral part of people's lives.
On Behavioral Characteristics and Motivations of Chinese Sports Tourists
139
Physical decision-making behavioral characteristics of sports
tourists
The selection of touring methods
Sports tourists prefer to ways of travelling with friends or relatives, accompanying
the units, following their organizations and with all their family members. The
percentages are respectively 25%, 24%, 22% and 20.5%, while traveling alone
accounts for 8.5%. The go-in-company way of travelling in the sports tourism structure
fully reflects the fundamental characteristics of Chinese "sound restrained" tourism
culture. With China's rapid economic development, FIT traveling has become the main
form of sports tourism.
The selection of tourist season
Survey shows that sports tourists choose Hubei Province as a tourist destination due
to the seasonality, which is showed by the data: the portion is spring: summer: autumn:
winter =28:9:48:15.This shows that the seasonality of the sports tourism activities is of
an objective existence. Seasonal variation may be resulted from holiday or
characteristics of the sports tourism product itself. Autumn is related to summer
holidays, and spring is closely related to Chinese traditional lunar New Year.
Comparatively, holidays in summer and winter are very few.
The frequency of sports tourism.
In the past one year, among those 400 sports tourists, 84.3% who took part in 1-3
times had tried the sport tourism. It shows that tapping the potential of this part of
people and striving for repeated customers are the centre job of sports tourism
marketing in the future. 10% participated in for 4-6 times, and 5.7% had taken part in
seven more times. These people are sincere supporters and lovers of sports tourism.
Table 1 analysis of the relationship between sports tourism frequency and demographic
characteristics
Gend
er
Age
Educati
on
Occupa
tion
Monthly
income
Char
acteri
st
Life
Circl
e
national
ity
Person
Correlation
.087
-.024
.145**
.423**
.406**
-.099
.163**
.138**
Sig(2-tail)
.090
.638
.005
.005
.000
.001
.001
.007
Notes：①* refers to P＜0.05
** refers to P＜0.01；② Sports Tourism frequency refers to
the number of visits sports tourists has participated in sports tourism over the past 1 year。
As can be seen from Table 1, the number and frequency of sports tourism is in a
positive correlation to education, occupation, monthly income level, family life cycle,
nationality at P = 0.01 level. It illustrates that despite the different sexes, ages and
personality traits of tourists in the past 1 year who participated in sports tourism, the
number is of no significant difference, but in terms of qualifications, occupations,
140 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
monthly income, life cycle and origin, there exists significant differences. Survey
shows that participators who have taken more times in sports tourism over the past1
year have some characteristics as follows: they are of higher education levels, higher
income levels; as for occupational distribution they are more of government
workers, students and retirees；and in the family life cycle, most of them are the single
youth and the elderly married people with children.
The selection of sports tourism project
Looking at the favorite sport project which those sports tourists have selected, we
can see that body-building projects and extreme tourism are on the top of the list (each
27%). the folk category accounts for 25%, the recreation category 14.5%, the view
category 6.5%.
The consumption level of sports tourism
Survey shows that Chinese sports tourists are in the mid-range consumption level,
taking on a "two ends narrow, the middle width" look. Consuming below 100 yuan at a
time accounts for 11%; 101-300 yuan 22%; 301-500 yuan at a time is in the highest
proportion, accounting for 35.5%; 501-1000 yuan 20.5%; consuming more than 1,000
yuan at a time accounts for 11%. The result shows that to a certain extent, Chinese
sports tourism is still in its infancy and simple leisure period. We are still required to
make extra efforts in the course of brand-molding and the overall service enhancement
of the sports tourism.
For further analysis of the influences those demographic factors have on sports
tourists per capita expenditure in sports tourism, the paper conducts a multi-factor
analysis of variance, which can be seen in Table 2. Aside from the factor of career,
other significant factors in the level of Sig <0.01, we can conclude that the differences
of gender, age, education level, monthly income, family life cycle, personality
characteristics, nationality have reached at a significant level. Specifically, in the
aspect of the gender structure ,male capacity in sports tourism consumption is
significantly higher than females; in view of the age structure, people in the age range
of 26-45 are high-consuming sports tourists; judging from the occupational structure,
individual workers, office workers and retirees are high-spending groups; from the
perspective of academic structure, people of high education level are still the main
force of sports tourism consumption, regardless of those obvious differences between
qualifications. According to different levels of sports tourism consumption, developing
marketable products under a targeted marketing tragedy is the magic key to the success
of sports tourism enterprises.
Table 2: of variance analysis between demographic factors and sports
tourism expenditure per capita
Person
Correlation
Gend
er
Age
Occupa
tion
Educati
on
Monthl
y
income
Life
Circl
e
Charact
erist
national
ity
7.381
6.439
1.975
6.325
7.167
9.892
14.175
5.447
On Behavioral Characteristics and Motivations of Chinese Sports Tourists
Sig(2-tail)
.000
.000
.100
.000
.000
.000
.000
141
.000
Motives Analysis of Sports Tourists
The motivation of touring is the starting point of a tourist’s behavior and traveling
decision-making process. Analysis of sports tourism motivation lays the foundation for
the good understanding of functional structure designation of sports tourism products.
The survey adopts Likter’s fifth point scale method (1 = strongly agree, 5 = strongly
oppose). A 16-project- included structural questionnaire is designed to measure sports
tourists’ preferences to sports tourism. 3 factors are extracted after those 16 projects are
orthogonal rotated in the SPSS11.0 software (eigenvalue was greater than 1), KMO =
0.746, the loading volume of those 3 selected factors is greater than 0.65 and the
cumulative variance contribution rate is 69.77%. The questionnaire has been calculated
through the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient test. α = 0.73, so it meets the general
requirements for a reliable questionnaire.
Each factor is named according to its meaning of the attitude statements. F1 is
named as the motivation of improving health. F2 is named the novelty motivation. F3
is named as relaxation motivation.
Among those three motivation factors of sports tourists, the most important one
is the factor of improving health, which is 37.06% influential. This indicates that
development of modern society has brought about radical changes of people’s way of
life. When varieties of "urban disease", "diseases of civilization" rampantly destroy our
ideals, the sports tourists tend to have more accurate and rational recognitions towards
functions of sports tourism. They pay more attention to the concept of "investment in
health," they want to participate in sport tourism to gain the opportunity of getting
personally involved in sports activities and the learning process of physical fitness
knowledge. Through the enjoyment of sports activities, their adaptability in the
natural environment can be greatly enhanced.
References
[1] Gammon and Robinson, "sport and tourism :A conceptual framework",Journal of Sports
Tourism, Vol. 4, No 3. March 1997.
[2] Weiler and Hall, "Adventure,sport and health tourism",
http://www.cababstractsplus.org/abstracts/Abstract.aspx?AcNo=19921850197
[3] Brent Ritchie and Daryl Adair, "The growing recognition of sport tourism",Current Issues
in Tourism, Vol.5,No1. January 2002
[4] Hinch and Higham, "Sport tourism :A framework for research",International Journal of
Tourism Research, Vol.3,No1. Jane 2001.
[5] Gibson, "Sport tourism :A critical analysis of research",Sport Management Review, Vol.1,
No1.November 1998.
[6] Dimanche and Havitz, "Consumer behaviour and tourism: Review and extension of four
study areas",Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, Vol. 3, No 3. February 1995.
142 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Comparative Analysis of Quality Indexes using as
standard the International Journal of Medicine and
Science of
Physical Activity and Sports (2004-2009)
Juan-Carlos Luis-Pascual (Alcala University, Spain)
Jose Luis Pastor Pradillo (Alcala University, Spain)
Abstrat
Comparative analysis of the degree of internalization (Opening Index) and updating
(Price Index) of references of three Physical Education journals written in Spanish with
different levels of indexing. The first, Revista Pedagogical Adal is not in the database
Latindex. The second, Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes is indexed in
the database Latindex. The third, International Journal of Medicine and Science of
Physical Activity and Sports is indexed in Latindex, besides in Journal Citation Report
(JCR) of Thomson Scientific.
Key words: spain, quality, journal, physical education, citation, price index.
Introduction
The objective of this research is to assess the significant differences of the Price
Index and the Opening Index of all articles references published since 2004 until 2009
in each selected journal to identify quality standards that must meet a publication of
Physical Education to become regarded as scientific.
The scientific prestige is not related only by the number of citations of an article but
also by the name of the magazine quotes it. Valenciano Varcárcel, Devís-Devís y
Villamón Herrera (2009, 13) suggest including the “Revista Española de Educación
Física y Deportes” and the “International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical
Activity and Sports” [in Spanish: Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de la
Actividad Física y del Deporte]
There are some criteria for evaluating the excellence of scientific journals, among
the indexes that try to estimate the degree to which an item is disseminated in the
scientific community is the so-called Impact Factor (IF). The Journal Citation Report
(JCR) which is precisely intended for Gonzalez Quiros and Gherab Martin (2006, 85)
"give an impact factor (impact factor) of the most prestigious scientific journals in any
area." Hopkins (2002) adds that this index serves as an indicator of the popularity and
quality of journals.
Other index which tries to evaluate such excellence is the Index of Hirsch or h-Index.
How this factor is estimated? They take all the articles published by a researcher, are
numbered and placed in a ranking of most cited to less, and the h-Index is the number
(of order) of the classification that maintains, at least, the same number of citations.
According to Ball (2007, 737) with the h Index, the impact of the references that had a
Comparative Analysis of Quality Indexes using as standard the International Journal
of Medicine and Science ofPhysical Activity and Sports (2004-2009) 143
scientific paper "Is that it is hard to manipulate by self-citation", which prevents and
avoids the bias of these self-citations in the total count of references.
The rate of consumption is associated with bibliometric analysis of the references.
Pulgarín, Carapeto and Cobos (2004) mention as possible variables for study: the
lifetime of references, Price Index, the index of isolation (perhaps it is clearer to call it
international opening) and the distribution of references.
The production indicator examines the number of articles published over a period of
time; an example is the Lotka Index.
Characteristics of the journals analyzed are:
- The Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes with ISSN: 1133-6366 whose
beginning was in 1949 (with periods of non-publication and a new phase beginning in
2004). Published in Madrid by the Consejo General de Colegios de Licenciados en
Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte (COLEF) a six monthly basis (nowadays
is quarterly) in book format with a circulation of 7,500 copies.
- The International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sports
with ISSN: 1577-0354 whose beginning was in 2000 in Madrid and edited by the
Autonoma University of Madrid, on a quarterly basis in digital format.
- The Revista Pedagogica ADAL with ISSN: 1575-2429 whose beginning was in the
year 1998 in Madrid and published by Association of Physical Education Teachers and
Sports Alternative ADAL, a six monthly basis in paper with a circulation of 2,500
copies (see table N. 4).
Methodology
It uses a database that includes 201 items, 484 authors and 4782 references, carried
out a descriptive bibliometric analysis of the data. The analysis of the dissemination of
scientific and technical journals is done by following the proposed Devís-Devís et al.
(2003) where they use the publication in the databases and the internet publishing. And
for statistical study, analysis of variance and multiple ranges contrast, using the
program STATGRAPHICS Plus 5.1. where are obtained, also, Charts and Figures.
The selected periodic publications which is taken as reference for the study is the
period since January 2004 until March 2009. With these articles we make a
comparative bibliometric analysis of consumption of the references: the percentage of
references less of 5 years (Price Index) and the percentage of references that belong to
another country other than the author of the article (Opening Index).
Results
The review of the different databases (DB) gives the following results:
The International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sports is
indexed in REBIUN, DICE, DIALNET, HERACLES, e-revist@s, LATÍNDEX,
THOMSON SCIENTIFIC e ISOC.
- The Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes is indexed in
REBIUN, DICE, HERACLES, LATINDEX, ISOC e IN-DECS
- The Revista Pedagogica ADAL is indexed in REBIUN.
Search engines scientific content in internet, which we also used give us the
144 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
following information:
- GOOGLE SCHOLAR. The International Journal of Medicine and Science of
Physical Activity and Sports has 245 pages. The Revista Española de
Educación Física y Deportes has 187 pages. The Revista Pedagogica ADAL
has 6 pages.
- SCIRUS. The Revista Pedagogica ADAL has 3 entries. The International
Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sports has 59
entries. The Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes has 99 entries.
(See table N. 1).
Journal
DATABASES/SEARCH
ENGINES
ISSN
International Journal
of Medicine and
Science of Physical
Activity and Sports
1577-0354
Revista Española
de Educación Física
y Deportes
1133-6366
Revista
Pedagogica
ADAL
1575-2429
REBIUN
X
X
X
DICE
X
X
DIALNET
X
HERACLES
X
X
RESH
METABASE
ERIC
SciELO
SCOPUS
LATINDEX
X
X
IN-RECS
X
X
ISOC
X
X
THOMSON IENTIFIC
X
e-revist@s
X
GOOGLE SCHOLAR
X
X
X
SCIRUS
X
X
X
Table N. 1. Comparison of selected journals in DB and search scientific engines.
Price Index provides no statistically significant differences between pairs of average, of journals
analyzed, with a confidence level of 95%.
Comparative Analysis of Quality Indexes using as standard the International Journal
of Medicine and Science ofPhysical Activity and Sports (2004-2009) 145
Figure N. 1. Comparative of Price Index of selected journals
Analyzed Price Index in each journal (see table N. 2) maintains a fixed and stable
trend in the International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and
Sport because of the increased weight of the articles of Biological Sciences and an
average of 32.98%. Most of the data fall within a range, relatively small, between 29%
and 35% (see figure N. 1) indicating a high stability.
In the Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes the Price Index has an
average of 22.53% with a greater dispersion of data, the majority framed between 9%
and 30% (see figure N. 1).
In the Revista Pedagogica Adal the Price Index has an average of 32.04% framed
most of these between 25% and 51% (see figure N. 1).
Median Price Index of
the three journals are located very close, between 28% and 32% (see figure N. 1).
International Journal of Revista Española de Revista Pedagogica
Medicine and Science Educación Física y
ADAL
of Physical Activity
Deportes
and Sport
Price Index 2004
42.07 %
33.33%
0%
Price Index 2005
29,26 %
26,39 %
24,83%
Price Index 2006
31,41 %
29,28 %
53,57%
Price Index 2007
32,71 %
8,09 %
51,06%
Price Index 2008
35,59 %
30,80 %
28,20 %
Price Index 2009
26,85 %
7,30 %
35,52%
Index 2004-2009
32,98 %
22,53 %
32.04%
Table N. 2. Comparative of Price Index of selected journals.
Journal
The aperture ratio, provides statistically significant differences between pairs of
means for the three magazines (see table N. 3), with a p-value = 0.0001 and a
146 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
confidence level of 95% in figure N. 2 shows as data are grouped into homogeneous
blocks, indicating a more international resonance in the case of the International
Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sport.
The Index of Aperture in the International Journal of Medical and Physical Activity
and Sport with an average of 53, 83% has a significantly higher percentage with a
range that fits between 42% and 66% (see figure N. 2) than the other two journals.
The Revista Española de Educación Física y Deportes the Aperture Index is an
average of 31.53% framed most between 23% and 37% (see figure N. 2).
The Revista Pedagogica Adal in the Aperture Index is an average of 13.37% framed
most of these between 4% and 24% (see figure N. 2).
Journal
International Journal of Revista Española de
Revista Pedagogica
Medicine and Science
Educación Física y
ADAL
of Physical Activity and
Deportes
Sport
Aperture 2004
34,48 %
23,08 %
0%
Aperture 2005
52,18 %
36,95 %
8,49 %
Aperture 2006
68,38 %
40 %
23,80 %
Aperture 2007
41,39 %
37,24 %
28,72 %
Aperture 2008
60,80 %
35,12 %
15,38 %
Aperture 2009
65,76 %
16,79 %
3,94 %
Aperture 04-09
53,83 %
31,53 %
13,37 %
Table N. 3. Comparative of Aperture Index of selected journals.
Figure N. 2. Comparative of Aperture Index of selected journals.
A comparative overview of the characteristics of each journal in relation to: the area
of impact, circulation, ISSN, year of onset, periodicity, publisher, place of publication,
URL, Internet presence, the thematic area of the database of Social Sciencies and
Comparative Analysis of Quality Indexes using as standard the International Journal
of Medicine and Science ofPhysical Activity and Sports (2004-2009) 147
Humanities of Spanish National Research Council (ISOC), knowledge area,
classification of United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), Latindex criteria carried out, frequency, Impact Index in 2008 of Spanish
Social-Science Journals (IN-RECS), Price Index, Aperture Index, the number of items
who has a year the number of citations per year and produces, cover (see table N. 4).
Journal
Area of impact
Circulation
ISSN
Year of onset
Periodicity
Publisher
Publication place
Editor
URL
Internet presence
Databases
that
include to it
Thematic Area of
ISOC
Knowledge Area
UNESCO
Classification
Latindex Criteria
carried out
Periodicity
Criteria
Impact
Index
2008 (IN-RECS)
Price Index
Aperture Index
N. citations/ year
N. References /
year
International Journal of
Medicine and Science of
Physical Activity and Sport
International
Electronic Format
1577-0354
2000
Quarterly
Autonoma de Madrid
University
Madrid
Martinez de Haro, V. (2009)
http://cdeporte.rediris.es/
revista/revista.html
Full text
DOAJ – SCI – Heracles– ISOC
ISI Web of Knowledge – DICE
IN-RECS - ReviCien – Latindex e-Revistas – Dialnet - Rebiun
Revista Española de
Revista Pedagogica
Educación Física y
ADAL
Deportes
National
Madrid
7500
2500
1133-6366
1575-2429
2004
1998
Six-monthly
Six-monthly
COLEF
ADAL Teacher Physical
General Council
Education Association
Madrid
Madrid
Pastor Pradillo,
Luis-Pascual, J.C: (2009)
J.L.(2009)
http://www.consejohttp://www.apefadal.es/p
colef.es/publicaciones/ar df/revistaadal19digital.p
chivo-revista-reefd.html
df
Full text
Full text
DICE – Latindex – Dialnet
Rebiun
– Heracles – IN-RECS –
ISOC - Rebiun
Interdisciplinary
Education Sciences
Education Sciences
Multidisciplinary
Physical Education &
Sportive
Multidisciplinary
Social Sciences
34
Physical Education &
Sportive
Physical Education &
Sportive
Social Sciences
Social Sciences
26
26 (estimated)
Yes
Yes
Yes
0.000
0.032
32.98 %
53.83 %
20
473
22.53 %
31.53 %
9
235
32.04 %
13.37 %
7
88
148 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Cover
Table N. 4. Comparative of Physical Education Journals selected.
Discussion
The formal criteria are very important for scientific and technical publishing, but
with some limits. Lawrence (2003) draws our attention to the expenditure of time and
energy devoted by researchers in the handling of your articles to try to publish leading
magazines. That is, the excessive importance of the shape put in danger the quality of
research and the article itself. The quoted author makes a specific reference to the
mathematical precision with which they are using the impact factors in Spain and
Japan. Gonzalez Alcaide et al. (2008) explicit that references indicate the impact of the
articles in the scientific community rather than the quality of the article itself.
The Price Index may serve us to evaluate the quality level of the update of an article
as: high, medium and low. But it also shows us the fluctuation of a journal, in an
overview report on this variable of quality of articles being published in a given year.
Conclusion
A Physical Education journal, as the Revista Pedagogica ADAL, compared with
International Journal of Medicine and Science of Physical Activity and Sports, must
maintain the formal requirements and must get to be indexed in the databases of
Spanish language for become an academic journal. It must improve their quality and
prestige, for example:
-
Increasing Impact Index.
Increases Price Index.
Taking a multidisciplinary character.
Improving the percentage of International Aperture in which bases its
articles.
Publishing all or part (summaries or abstracts) in Open Access, both in
English and Spanish.
The Impact Factor increases if a journal devoted an article to the review of already
published during that year. It also improves if gives priority to articles of work teams (3
or 4 people), the controversial issues (or are all the rage), or the publication of articles
in English as this enhances the universality of the articles and it has more likely to be
cited.
Comparative Analysis of Quality Indexes using as standard the International Journal
of Medicine and Science ofPhysical Activity and Sports (2004-2009) 149
Stability of a journal is greater if it has a multidisciplinary character and it increases
the specialized external evaluator’s number. A large number of subjects increases the
possibility of publishing of other sciences (if is more difficult to publish it is easier to
maintain sufficient quality articles of journal).
Price index of below 20% indicates lack of timeliness and validity of the
bibliographic review done. Therefore denotes a lower quality and is associated with
low prestige journals. Excellence is given by Aperture Index or the universality of
bibliographic references reflecting in articles. Editors of academic journals have to
make an effort to require the better substantiate the items and to do so have, at least,
with 30% of the references of less 5 years or and a minimum of 40% of the from other
countries.
Assessment, criticism and collective advancement of scientific knowledge through
formal channels, transparent, universal, flexible and interactive, as is the use of the
impact factors, consumption or production is needed. There is a correspondence
between the journal title, article quality and number of references obtained, because the
best articles published have sought the best journals. In the case of the Spanish
Scientific Community in Physical Education, the introduction of these quality
standards as those who have expressed in this article, is causing in scientific journals,
an elevation of the standard of formal and methodological requirements of
collaborations published.
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Traditional Games in Catalonia, Spain
151
Traditional Games in Catalonia, Spain
Pere Lavega (Lleida University, Spain)
Jong Young Lee (Univ. of Suwon, South Korea)
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present an overview of traditional field play and games in
Spain, with special reference to Catalonia (an autonomous community located in
northeastern Spain with Barcelona as its capital). Concerned to traditional games in
Catalonia (Spain) after tracing the historical and geographical background of street
play culture, we focus on two traditional games/sports that have became very popular
in recent years: bitlles (skittle games), and castells (human towers). The final remarks
will point out the transformations from play to toys, from games to sports, from rituals
to records, from street to home, and from analogical to digital play cultures.
Key words: traditional games, catalonia, skittles
Traditional Field Play and Games in Spain – Past & Present
The Iberian peninsula is a geographic and cultural space that has historically
developed an important street culture, with the presence of popular games and sports in
public space. Along with a favorable climate, there were frequent cultural exchanges
between the kingdoms of Castille, Catalonia-Aragon and Portugal and the civilizations
with which they had contact -- Greece, Rome, Celts, Arabic, America, Phillipines, etc.
It is precisely in children's and youth's games where the oral and gestural transmission
have allowed the conservation of these games over generations. These games were
historically played in public (street, plaza, park) or semi-public (church, youth groups,
cafés) spaces. The Spanish Civil War (1936-39) represented a break in ludic culture:
on the one hand, bombings and violence interrupted the transmission of street games.
On the other, the prohibition of associations that promoted the culture of games (such
as the Boy Scouts and other civic groups) was followed by an attempt to create an
official youth folklore which the children of the post-war period rejected (Feixa, 1998).
The end of the Franco dictatorship (1975) represented the recovery of the street as a
space for social relations. The concession of political autonomy to the historical
communities (Catalonia, the Basque Country and Galicia) contributed to the rediscover
and/or reinvention of the ludic patrimony of these regions. In Catalonia, the celebration
of the Olympic Games in Barcelona (1992) was particularly relevant. In the Cultural
Olympics celebrated several days before the official games, a festival of traditional
sports (Basque games predominated) was held. And, in the official closing ceremonies,
a spectacular castells performance, with more than ten human towers constructed
simultaneously, surprised spectators and television viewers from around the world.
The large variety of traditional games in Spain can be analyzed from a double
perspective (Lavega, 1995; Parlebas, 1981):
152 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
1. From a praxiological perspective (the internal logic that establishes the rules)
we can classify games according to space (open space games such as chases;
delimited such as hopscotch), time (simultaneous such as cadena, succesive
such as tops, of indefinite duration such as cavall fort), materials (irrelevant in
paper-scissors-rock, with very specific characteristics as in pelota vasca) or type
of social relations (cooperative games such as castells, of opposition such as
pañuelo, or cooperation-opposition such as el pichi).
2. From a sociocultural perspective (the external logic that allows an
understanding of social and cultural conditions) we can classify games by zones
(boys play more in the street and girls close to home), calendar (some games
are played only in certain seasons, others depend on the religious calendar, such
as the mais festival where the young men set up a pine log in the village plaza
and try to climb it to reach the prizes hanging from the top), actors (children's
games like el pichi, intergenerational ones like castells), and betting (among
children any revered object --stickers, marbles -- serve as money).
The Street Play Culture: an Oral History
"It was the time of street and neighborhood gangs. Next to the plaza was an empty lot, where all
those groups got together. Each one had its turf, and we could have shared rituals: skittles
games, football, things like that. Then that was the distribution territory for the various tribes
that existed. I call them that because that was the way we lived it... All free time, and no one
had to organize anything! We were always in the process of finding things out, of learning
about things around us, of battling with other gangs" (Toni)
Playing in the street, after school, let boys and girls appropriate urban space and use
it according to their own needs. Mothers and grandparents were near by and didn't
worry much about the children; often they would also come down to the plaza with a
chair to sew, chat or sing. Until the 1960s, the city was still not very urbanized. All
neighborhoods had empty lots, ruins of buildings, puddles, unpaved streets where
children learned to live together, where they invented and played an enormous variety
of games that changed with the seasons, the climate, the region, gender, and that
ranged from high regimented to anarchic in nature. Girls also participated, although
they were more controlled by their parents. Boys, however, enjoyed great freedom:
they could roam the entire city in search of new experiences ("I imagine us as nomadic
tribes"). The epic stone-throwing battles, for instance, were seen as a ritual that
regulated the relations between various neighborhoods, with precise rules and
locations.
In the life history of an adolescent of the 1950s, lived territory is organized in
concentric circles. The nucleus is formed by the plaza where he lives (the meeting
place of the gang is an empty lot in the ruins of an old convent). This space is
perceived as the exclusive property of the group, who know its every detail, and where
every corner is filled with strong emotional connotations. The second circle is the
neighborhood: it is the known and near urban medium, articulated around the parish
church, stores, bars, and the public school. There are neutral territories (the football
Traditional Games in Catalonia, Spain
153
pitch, the Bishop's palace), but each group carefully marks its own terrain. The rivalry
disappears only during the saint's day celebration in the neighborhood, when the
microgroups are integrated into the greater community. This more extensive territory
forms the third concentric circle. Finally, the open spaces, not urbanized, of the castle
park, the river and the orchard, make up the fourth circle. Certain places of the various
circles magic-mythical markers: the ice wells, the "black hand," the underground
chambers. At the end of the 1960s, adolescents are expelled from the streets, which are
urbanized, more traffic develops. More than anything else, a moral discourse about
the danger of public spaces is disseminated. Other socializing forces (school,
television) start "organizing" youth's lives. In this way, plazas become more and more
places for traffic and not ludic spaces. Children and young people are relegated to the
domestic space and they lose public space as a place for play and games.
Case Studies
After tracing the historical and geographical background of the street play culture,
we now focus on two traditional games/sports that have become very popular in recent
years in Catalonia: bitlles and castells.
1.Bitlles (skittle games)
2. Castells (human towers)
Castells are human towers, performed in Catalonia during Saint's Day celebrations.
Their origins can be found in religious tableau -- moixiganga-- that were created in the
early modern era. To honor the local patron saint, the young people of the village
would create allegorical structures by standing on each other's shoulders and building
towers. The tradition acquired a competitive nature among the various groups, colles,
that existed in the town or neighboring towns and each tried to build the tallest
structure. The religious significance of the structures was soon lost, and the popularity
of the towers themselves lead to the "golden age" of castells at the end of the 19th
century. Structures of 8 and 9 levels were completed regularly during this period.
After a period of decadence that included the Spanish Civil War and the Franco
dictatorship, the 1980s marked the beginning of a renewed popularity of castells. They
are currently the most popular ludic-festive activity, and receive considerable attention
from the media (Miller, 2001).
This is in part due to a process of transformation into sport, with an emphasis on
training and technique. Castells of 9 levels were again performed by groups from Valls
in the1980s, and groups from Vilafranca and Terrassa constructed the first 10 level
castells ever in 1998. Competition has been institutionalized through the celebration,
every 2 years, of a contest among the 18 best groups in the bullring in Tarragona.
Castells are identified according to the number of people per level (between one and
five) and their height, or number of levels (five to ten). The base, the largest part of the
structure, supports and immobilizes the human tower and also serves as a cushion for
the occasional fall. During performances, spectators are often encouraged to join in
the base, as participation in this part of the tower requires little preparation.
154 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
The structure of the castell is formed by more specialized participants who stand on
each other's shoulders with interlocking arms. Each higher level requires smaller and
lighter participants, so that those who crown the structure are normally children
between the ages of 5 and 10. Human towers require a variety of people both in size
and strength, so that it is a group that tends to integrate children, youth and adults in a
ludic activity.
The children who participate in castells are the constant center of attention of the
group, both during performances when they are charged with completing the structure
and practice sessions and other group activities. The groups usually hold practice
sessions just for the children, as well as additional activities like meals, camping trips,
or games to reward them for their performances.
Young people between the ages of 15 and 25 also constitute an important sector of
castell participants. They can fill positions in the structure of the tower (especially if
they joined the group as children and learned how to climb and build towers), in the
group of musicians who play at performances, and in the organization of the group.
The recent increase in castell participation is in great part due to this age group,
who have entered the largest groups to help fill out the base of the enormous 10 level
structures (which can require 500 participants). For both young and adult members, the
castell group represents a place for social relations and leisure time, both before and
after practice sessions as well as during trips to out-of-town performances on
weekends.
Conclusions - Present and Future
In the past few decades, the process of urbanization, integration into the European
Union, consumerism and the impact of cultural globalization have lead to a slow
decadence of some street games and their presence in public space. At the same time,
there has been a renaissance of popular and traditional games. It has been precisely
children and youths who have been responsible for the recover of the street as a space
for sociability.
At the same time, there are interesting changes with the introduction of traditional
games into formal and informal education. The reform of elementary school (6 to 11
year-olds) curriculum has included the concept of play as a sociocultural manifestation,
and the promotion of traditional games. In secondary school, indigenous sports (note
the change in terminology) are included in physical education classes. There have been
interesting experiences, especially in rural areas: often children and their teachers have
recovered games played by their grandparents. Many children were surprised to learn
that some games that they knew by foreign names -- tazos or gogos -- were really
traditional games like patacones or tabas.
Nevertheless, the current reality presents various changes that can be summed up as
follows:
1. From games to toys. The centrality of games as social activity is replaced by the
recent obsession for the objects used for play: toys.
Traditional Games in Catalonia, Spain
155
2. From play to sport. Traditional games are progressively sportivized:
competition, rationalization and records replace cooperation, spontaneity and
ritual.
3. From street to home. Children and youths are losing public space: cars and
urbanization expel them toward shopping malls and the home.
4. From analogic to digital cultures. The traditional field games were based on
the oral and gestural “analogic” culture of children and youth. In the present
situation, the visual and multimedia “digital” cultures are the center
Of course, my son, like most children, loves gameboys and tazos. But when there is
a group of boys in the square near our home, he prefers join them to play street
football, patacons, baldufa or any other of the many field games that are still popular
with children today (and they happen to be the same ones I played when I was child)
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156 Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education (PAJSPE)
www.isdy.net
Editorial Board :
Satoshi Shimizu (Tsukuba University, Japan)
Sundar Urs (Bangalore University, India)
Chen Ning (China West Normal University, China)
Tian Yu Pu (Nanjing Normal University, China)
Zheng Guo Hua (Jiangxi Normal University, China)
Jin Cheng Ji (Lioning Normal University, China)
Cheng Jie (Shanghai University, China)
Lei Qiang (Xian Sports University, China)
Tai Hsia Ling (Taipei Municipal University of Education)
Walter Ho (University of Macau, Chinese Macau)
Jong Lee (University of Suwon, South Korea)
John Saunders (Australian Catholic University, Australia)
Joel Garcia Tubera (Angeles University Foundation, Philippines)
Gilda Uy (University of Philippines, Philippines)
Selina Khoo(University of Malaya, Malaysia)
Wee Eng Ho (University of Technology, Malaysia)
Valery Krasilnikov (Ural State Pedagogical Univ., Russia)
Chuchchai Gomaratut (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)
Vijit Kanungsukkasem (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)