 Absence seizure (petit mal seizure): momentary lapse in consciousness lasting seconds or tens of seconds with emotionless expression and sometimes purposeless movements (jerking, shaking), after which a flash of vision occurs
 Amphiphile: molecule possessing both hydrophobic (at its “tail”) and hydrophilic (at its “head”) tendencies
 Anatomic location: o Axes
 Anteroposterior (AP, rostrocaudal, craniocaudal, cephalocaudal) axis: head end (anterior, rostral [ beak ], superior [ above ], cranial, cephalic) to rear (posterior, tail, caudal, inferior [ below ] [ tail ]); perpendicular to AP axis at all times
 Dorsoventral (DV) axis: Ventral (belly) to dorsal (spinal cord)
 Left-right (dextro-snister) axis: left to right side of body
 Mediolateral axis: Middle of body (medial) to outside of body (lateral)
 Proximodistal axis: Tip of appendage (distal) to where appendage meets body (proximal)
 Skull: agreed by convention to be on the Frankfurt plane in humans
 Frankfurt plane: plane made by lower margins of orbits and upper margins of ear canals; good approximation of subject standing erect and facing forwards o Planes
 Sagittal (median): divides body into sinister and dexter sides
 Coronal (frontal): divides body into dorsal and ventral sides
 Transverse (horizontal): divides body into anterior and posterior portions
 Angiogenesis: outgrowth of capillaries from vessels, originating in angioblasts
 Angiopoietin: growth factor proteins (Ang1-4) involved in angiogenesis
 Apical membrane: Inner surface of membrane in polarized cells (e.g. epi-/endothelial, neuron); c.f. basolateral
 Arteriovenous malformation (AVM): Connection b/w veins and arteries
 Ataxia [ without order ]: neurological disorder defined by lack of muscle movement coordination; caused by cerebellar damage
 ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC-transporter): transmembrane protein which transport many substrates (e.g. metabolic products, lipids, sterols, drugs) across extra- and intracellular membrantes
 Basolateral membrane: Outer surface of membrane in polarized cells (e.g. epi-/endothelial, neuron); c.f. apical
 Blood pressure (BP): measure of pressure placed on vascular walls; measured in mmHg (millimeters of Hg), listed as x/y where x is systolic (peak) and y is diastolic (resting) o Hypertension (HTN): excessive BP; can be essential (primary) or secondary; secondary means the HTN is from another condition
 Prehypertension: BP between 120/80 and 139/89
 Cardiac arrythmia (dysrythmia): electric over- or underactivity in heart; beats too slowly or too quickly; can kill or be harmless depending on severity; disposes towards stroke/embolus
 Cell junction: protein complexes binding cells together, especially common in endothelium
 Chondrocyte: only cells found in cartilage; produce cartilaginous matrix, consisting of collagen and proteoglycans
 Collagen: connective tissue protein; most abundant protein in mammals, makes up 25% of protein content
 Coronary artery: artery which supports the heart itself
 Cytoplasm: Contents of a cell within its membrane o Cytosol (intracellular fluid, ICF): cytoplasm minus organelles
 Cytoskeleton (CSK): cellular skeleton; enables movement and intracellular transport
 Edema (swelling): Increase in interstitial fluid
 Embolism: Object from one part of body circulates to other part (contrast to clot), blocking blood vessel
 Endocytosis: engulfing material from outside by enveloping it w/membrane o Phagocytosis: cell-eating o Pinocytosis: uptake of solutes and single molecules o Receptor-mediated: Membrane buds inwards, forming cytoplasmic vesicle
 Extracellular matrix (ECM): extracellular tissue that holds cells together; defining feature of connective tissue in animals o Basal lamina: layer formed of laminin and collagen on which epithelium rests; secreted by epithelium o Fibroblast: cell which synthesizes collagen in ECM by secreting collagen and ground substance
 Fibroblast growth factor (FGF): growth factor involved in angiogenesis, wound healing and embryonic dev; responsible for fibroblast growth o Ground substance: part of ECM that isn’t collagenic; water, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, matrix proteins; gelatinous o Proteoglycan: heavily glycosylated protein; found in ECM; regulate movement of molecules through ECM
 Filopodium: bundles of actin in migrating cells, connected by actin-binding proteins (e.g. fibrin); extended at the leading edge of migratory cell; link to substratum at end of migratory path, after which cell is pulled in place
 Foramen: any type of opening

 Glioma: CNS tumor arising from glial cells o Classified by type of cell responsible: ependyoma (ependymal cells), astrocytoma (astrocytes), oligodendroglioma (oligodendrocytes); mixed types (e.g. oligodendroglioma) involve different cell types
 Glycan: chain of monosaccharides; oligo- or polysaccharides o Glycosylation: linking of saccharides, either free or attached to lipids/proteins, to produce glycans
 Glycoprotein: glycosylated protein o Proteoglycan: heavily glycosylated protein; c.f. ECM
 Hypoxia: deficiency of oxygen o Ischemia: restriction of blood supply (and thereby oxygen) o External hypoxia: result of environment e.g. high altitudes
 Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid, intercellular fluid): liquid surrounding cells
 Kinase (phosphotransferase): enzyme that transfers phosphate from high-energy donors (e.g. ATP) to substrates; process is phosphorylation o Protein kinase: most common kinase, modify activity of proteins to transmit signals
 Metabolism [ meta = over, ballein = throw ]: chemical reactions in organisms; organized into metabolic pathways o Catabolism [ cata = down ]: Dissembling of large molecules o Anabolism [ ana = up ]: Assembling of molecules o Metabolic syndrome (X): combination of factors leading to cardiovascular disease or diabetes
 Metastasis: spread of disease from one organ/part to another non-adjacent organ/part, occurs primarily with malignant cancer
 Mitosis: cell division o Mitogen: substance, usually protein, which induces cell division by activating MAP3K
 MAP3K (MKKK): Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase, which activates MAP2K, which in turn activates MAP kinase, which in turn causes further signaling o MAP cascade: Cascade of at least three proteins resulting in the phosphorylation and activation of a MAP kinase.
 Motility: directed cell movement
 Myocte: Muscle cell; can be smooth, skeletal or cardiac
 Myopathy [ myo = muscle]: neuromuscular disease in which muscle fibers don’t function resulting in weakness; primary defect is in muscle
 Nerve growth factor (NGF): protein which differentiates target neurons and assists them in survival
 Nervous system: system of neurons receiving many stimuli within and outside of nervous system; coordinates many organic functions o Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and brainstem
 Brain [encephalon, in the skull ]: Rhombencephalon (hindbrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), prosencephalon (forebrain), meninges, ventricles, cranial nerves, blood-brain barrier
 Rhombencephalon [ rhomb = spinning top ]: Myelencephalon, metencephalon o Myelencephalon: medulla oblongata, part of fourth ventricle, glossopharyngeal nerve (CN
IX), vagus nerve (CN X), accessory nerve (CN XI), hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) and part of vestibulocochlear nerve (CN XIII)
 Medulla oblongata: responsible for autonomic function; lower portion of brainstem anterior to SC, posterior to pons; has open part closer to pons whose “opening” is part of fourth ventricle, and closed part closer to SC o ventromedial (anteriomedial) fissure: fold along length of medulla; contains fold of pia matter; ends at lower border of pons at triangular expansion named foramen cecum [cecum = blind ]
 lower part is interrupted by fibers decussating; this constitutes pyramidal decussation o Metencephalon: pons, cerebellum, part of fourth ventricle, trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), part of vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
 Pons: anterior to medulla; contains reticular formation; mostly white matter
 Locus coeruleus: Located in dorsorostral pons; mass transmits NorE across brain; receives input from medial frontal based on activity of subject, hypothalamus, nucleus paragigantocellularis
 Mesencephalon: Tectum, mesencephalic duct, cerebral penducle, midbrain tegmentum, pretectum
 Prosencephalon: diencephalon, telencephalon o Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, prethalamus, pretectum, third ventricle, and pituitary gland; located at midline of brain, above brainstem o Telencephalon (cerebrum): cerebral cortex, basal ganglia
 Frontal lobe: motor programming, planning, decision-making, logical reasoning o Brodmann’s Area 44 [BA44], aka Broca’s Area: language production

o Ventral premotor [PMv]: Analogous to BA44 o Dorsal premotor [PMd]: simultaneous programming of simultaneous movement
 Temporal lobe: responsible for audition, memory
 Hippocampus: responsible for declarative memory, short-term memory o Superior temporal sulcus [STS]: visual information entry area; responds to biologically relevant actions, incl. Pictures o Medial temporal gyrus [MTG]: subserves language and semantic memory processing, visual perception, and multimodal sensory integration o Fusiform gyrus: facial recognition, color information processing, abstraction, word and number recognition; activated in instances of synesthesia
 Parietal [parietus = wall] lobe: somatosensation
 Meninges: line and protect the CNS; have three layers and three spaces o Dura matter [ hard mother ]: tough outer layer; contains two layers, an outer pericraneum and inner dura mater proper
 Tentorium cerebelli [ tent of the cerebellum ]: dura mater separating cerebellum from inferior occipital lobe o Arachnoid layer: middle vascular layer; returns CSF from base of spinal cord back to brain o Subarachnoid space (cavity): between arachnoid layer and pia matter; found in triangular spaces formed by gyri where arachnoid layer and pia matter are not as close; consists of trabeculæ which extend from arachnoid space and blend into pia matter; CSF flows through channels between trabeculæ; is active in blood brain barrier; continues into spinal cord with arachnoid matter and functions similarly there o Pia matter [ tender mother ]: delicate innermost layer lining brain; remnant of neural crest; joined to dura mater in SC by denticular ligaments
 Denticular ligaments: connect pia mater to dura mater in SC; named for toothlike appearance
 Ventricles: fluid-filled structures; produce CSF through ependymal cells o Lateral ventricles: C-shaped, wrapped around dorsal part of basal ganglia; extends into the frontal, temporal and occipital lobes via the frontal, temporal and occipital horns respectively; occipital and frontal horns don’t produce CSF though the rest does; six layers of embryonic neocortex emerge from here o Third ventricle: found within diencephalons; communicates with fourth ventricle through cerebral aqueduct o Fourth ventricle: found within hindbrain; connected to subarachnoid space by foramen of
Magendie and foramina of Luschka allowing CSF to brainstem, cerebella and neocortex; also connected to central canal allowing CSF to inside of SC
 Lateral recess: fourth ventricle projecting into inferior cerebellar penducle in brainstem
 Median aperture (foramen of Magendie): opening connecting fourth ventricle to subarachnoid space; allows CSF to escape to cisterna magna
 Lateral aperture (foramina of Luschka, LAV4): openings in lateral extremities of lateral recess of fourth ventricle o Interventricular foramina (foramina of Monro): channels that connect paired lateral ventricles to third ventricle at midline of brain; located at medial and inferior aspect of lateral ventricles, bound by fornix and thalamus; allow CSF produced in lateral ventricles to reach third ventricle and thereby rest of ventricular system; contain choroid plexus
 Choroid plexus (CP): area in ventricles where CSF is produced by ependymal cells; one in each ventricle; consists of many capillaries separated from ventricules by choroid epithelial cells; liquid filtered from capillaries becomes CSF, allowing in sodium, chloride and biocarbonate ions as well as water; has large surface areas due to villi in frond shape and microvilli increasing CP surface area; filters CSF by removing waste products and extra NTs o Cerebral aqueduct (mesenphalic duct, aqueductus mesenphali, aqueduct of Sylvus): contains
CSF; within mesencephalon, connects third ventricle to fourth ventricle
 Cranial nerves o Olfactory (I) nerve: projects from olfactory epithelium into olfactory bulb
 Olfactory epithelium: specialized epithelial cells on roof of nasal cavity 7cm behind nostrils; 2cm x 5cm area; olfactory cells congregate to form olfactory nerve
 Olfactory bulb: layers of glomeruli, mitral cells and granule cells, in order of ext->int; output to olfactory cortex, input from amygdala, cortex, HP, SN and locus coeruleus; enhances discrimination between odors and sensitivity, filters out noise, allows

 Olfactory glomerulus: globular collection of axons from 5-10k olfactory receptor neurons of only one receptor type per glomerulus; output to 10-25 mitral cells whose dendrites enter the glomeruli; large input allows detection of faint odors
 Accessory olfactory bulb: dorsal to main olfactory bulb; receives input from vomeronasal organ; projects to amygdala and hippocampus o Optic (II) nerve: projects from retinal ganglia to optic chasim, part of fibers corresponding to center of field of vision (nasal field) decussate, project to lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus; considered part of CNS since it derives from diencephalon (thalamus) o Oculomotor (III) nerve: conveys eye motor information; arises from anterior midbrain; travels between posterior and superior cerebral arteries, through free margin of tentorium cerebelli
 Oculomotor nucleui: send information controlling extraocular muscles to the oculomotor nerve; project from anterior superior colliculi in the periaqueductal gray
 Levator palpebrae superioris: Lifts eyelid
 Superior rectus: Elevates eye
 Inferior rectus: Depresses eye
 Medial rectus: Adduces eye
 Inferior oblique: Rotates eye away from body (extorsion)
 Edinger-Westphal nucleus: sends parasympathetic information; located near oculomotor nuclei; projects to ciliary ganglion, controlling sphincter pupillae muscle and ciliary muscle
 Sphincter pupillae: dilates pupil
 Ciliary [ celare = to conceal ]: Changes shape of lens to accommodate eye to view objects at distances o Trochlear [ trochlea = pulley ] (IV) nerve: controls eye movement through the superior oblique muscle, moving the eye vertically; originates in rostral tegmental periaqueductal gray; projects below the inferior colliculus, circles around to anterior of brainstem, moves anterior toward eye in subarachnoid space, passes between superior posterior cerebral arteries, pierces free margin of tentorium cerebelli, joins internal carotid artery and occulomotor (II) and abducens
(VI) nerves in cavernous sinus, pulls superior oblique muscle over front of eye by pulley
(trochlea) o Trigeminal [ geminare = to produce ] (V) nerve: afferent tactile, proprioceptive and nociceptive information from face; efferent control of facial muscles; has three branches
 Opthalamic nerve (V
1
): sensory fibers only; has three branches
 Nasociliary nerve: controls corneal eyeblink reflex (re: foreign object, bright light)
 Tensor tympani: tenses tympanic membrane, reducing amplitude of sounds, typically responding to chewing
 Tensor veli palatini: below soft palate; aids in chewing; regulates Eustachian tube which regulates pressure in the ear o Abducens [ abduce = to draw away; ab = away, ducere = to lead ] (VI) nerve: controls the lateral rectus, abducting eye; o Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nervous system outside of brain and spinal cord; majority of neurons are here
 Neurite: extension of cell body of neuron; can be axon or dendrite; typically used re: immature neurons due to difficulty in determining which is being observed
 Neuropilin: receptors in neurons which receive semaphorins and VEGF
 Orbit: cavity in skull for eye and its appendages; human orbit takes up 30ml, eye takes up 6.5ml.
 Palsy: paralysis of a body part (symptom)
 Paraneoplastic syndrome: disease resulting from cancer in the body apart from where disease occurs, typically conveyed by humors excreted from tumor cells or an immune response to the tumor
 Periosteum [ peri = around, osteon = bone ]: membrane lining all bones, except for joins of long bones; formed mostly of collagen o Pericranium: another name for periosteum around the skull
 Phosphatase: enzyme which removes phosphate group from substrate
 Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): numerous growth factors, or proteins that regulate cell growth and division; significant in angiogenesis
 Schwann cell: mylenating glial cell in PNS; can myelinate one and only one axon (unlike CNS oligodendrocytes); can regenerate nerves
 Status epilepticus (SE): life-threatening condition in which the brain is in a state of persistent seizure; defined as one continuous unremitting seizure lasting longer than 5-10 minutes, or recurrent seizures without regaining consciousness between seizures for greater than 30 minutes

 Stellar cells: neuron w/many dendrites extending in all directions (hence the name); cerebellar stellar cells synapse onto Perkunje cells
 Substrate: molecule upon which enzyme acts
 Vasculogenesis: de novo creation of vasculature