THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY
INITIAL
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY
COURSE
March 2012
Environmental Health and Safety
Radiation Protection Office
228 Academic Projects Building
University Park, PA 16802-2303
Phone: (814) 865-6391
Fax: (814) 865-7225
Web: http://www.ehs.psu.edu
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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this training is to provide to you the basic information needed to work safely with
radioactive material, maintain your exposure as low as reasonably achievable, and help you comply with
all the rules and regulations implemented by the U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection, and Penn State University.
All users of radioactive material and Supervisors of radioactive material laboratories are required to
complete this initial radiation safety course prior to beginning work with radioactive material. Training
consists of two parts:
 An online, independent study portion that includes a 40 question examination
 A classroom lectures that will include hand-on use of radiation detection instruments
Personnel who only use exempt radioactive material, such as small check sources, or Generally Licensed
sources, such as krypton-85 deionizers and nickel-63 equipped gas chromatographs, are exempted from
this initial radiation safety training course.
This training is broken down into the 10 sections listed below:
1. Fundamentals
2. Regulatory Requirements
3. Working Safely with Radioactive Material
4. Ordering and Receiving Radioactive Material
5. Instrumentation and Surveying
6. Waste
7. Exposure Control and Personal Dosimetry
8. Spills and Emergency Procedures
9. Violations
10. Summary
The exam questions are included at the end of each section. Take a few minutes to answer the questions
that go with that information and to mark your answers on your answer sheet. Multiple choice questions
are worth 3 points and each, and “True or False” questions are worth 2 points. Successful completion of
this initial training requires completing the online review, the classroom hands-on portion, and a grade of
at least 70% on the take home test.
This initial course only covers the fundamental radiation safety and regulatory requirements. It cannot
teach you the specific handling and experimental techniques that use radioactive material. So, after
completing this course you will still need additional training from your Supervisor and coworkers
regarding the specific tasks you will be performing.
Note:
Cover photo courtesy of the National Institutes of Health Image Bank;
http://www.media.nih.gov/imagebank/display.aspx?ID=610; "Scientist conducting research for
the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Division of Intramural
Research"
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1. FUNDAMENTALS
In 1895, while working in his laboratory, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered a previously unknown
phenomenon: rays that could penetrate solid objects. Roentgen called these “X-rays.” In 1896, Henri
Becquerel reported observing a similar event caused by uranium ore. Soon after, Pierre and Marie Curie
identified two new elements found within the ore, polonium and radium, that emitted these invisible rays.
It was Marie Curie who gave the name to this newly discovered property - Radioactivity!
In the years following Roentgen’s and Becquerel’s discoveries, scientists also discovered ways to produce
radioactive material using particle accelerators and nuclear reactors. These discoveries set the stage for
using radiation in medicine, industry, and research.
Radioactive material has been a natural part of our environment since the beginning of time. Uranium,
thorium, and radium are found in varying concentrations in the earth’s crust and mineral deposits
throughout the world. These are referred to as naturally occurring radioactive material.
Today, man-made and naturally occurring radioactive material is part of our daily lives. Radiation and
radioactive material have specialized uses in consumer products, research, medicine, industry, electricity
generation, and weaponry. Because of regulations governing its use and the enhanced safety precautions
utilized, when radioactive material is used as intended in conformance to the requirements these uses
present a very low health risk to occupational workers and the general public.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
All matter is made up of atoms. The three basic components of the atom are protons, neutrons, and
electrons. The central portion of the atom is the nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
Electrons orbit the nucleus.
Protons
 Are located in the atom’s nucleus
 Have a positive electrical charge
 Determine the element’s identity
Neutrons
 Are located in the atom’s nucleus
 Have a neutral electrical charge
 Determine the nuclear properties of the atom
Electrons
 Orbit the nucleus
 Have a negative electrical charge
 Determine the chemical properties of an atom
A specific atom can be depicted in the following way:
A
Z
X
A = Mass Number = total number of protons and neutrons
X = Element’s symbol
Z = Atomic Number = number of protons
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For example:
14
6
C
A = 14 protons and neutrons
X = Carbon
Z = 6 protons
Atoms of a particular element will have the same number of protons but may have a different number of
neutrons. These variants are called isotopes. Each individual isotope can be represented several different
ways. Carbon-14, 14C, 14C, or C-14 are all equivalent ways of identifying this isotope of carbon.
Isotopes of the same element have the same
chemical properties, regardless of the
number of neutrons. The nuclear properties
of isotopes, however, can be quite different.
Only certain combinations of neutrons and
protons result in stable atoms. For example,
this illustration shows three isotopes of
hydrogen. The orange and blue spheres
represent protons and neutrons, respectively.
All three isotopes have the same chemical
properties; however, H-3, known as tritium,
is a radioactive isotope, or radioisotope.
Radioactive material is any material in which some of the atoms present are radioactive atoms. It can be a
solid, liquid, or a gas. More importantly, radioactive material spontaneously emits ionizing radiation.
Ionizing Radiation
There are many different kinds of radiation. Visible light, heat, radio waves, and microwaves are all
examples of radiation that, as a group, are referred to as electromagnetic radiation. The graphic below
shows the electromagnetic energy spectrum. As the graphic illustrates, radiation such as radio waves and
microwaves are much lower in energy than cosmic rays. These lower energy radiations are referred to as
non-ionizing radiation. Higher energy radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays are referred to as
ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove electrons from atoms. The process of removing electrons
from atoms is called ionization. Ionizing radiation’s ability to remove electrons from atoms is what
makes it potentially hazardous. In this course, when we speak of radiation we are talking about ionizing
radiation. The ionization process is illustrated in the graphic on the following page.
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Radiation
Radiation is the term given to the energy transmitted by means of
particles or electromagnetic waves. For reference, radiation
energy is given in units of electron volts. By definition, 1 electron
volt (1 eV) is equal to the amount of kinetic energy gained by a
single unbound electron when it accelerates through an electric
potential difference of one volt in a vacuum. This is equal to
1.602 × 10−19 Joules of energy. The energy of alpha, beta,
gamma, X-ray, and neutron radiation is typically given in units of
kilo-electron volts (1 keV = 1000 eV) or mega-electron volts (1
MeV = 1000 keV).
Radioactivity and Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity, or radioactive decay, is the natural property of certain nuclides to spontaneously emit
energy in the form of ionizing radiation in order for the nucleus to reach a more stable energy state.
When a radioactive atom decays it changes from one element into another element. For example, the
naturally radioactive element uranium will decay through multiple steps until it becomes a stable isotope
of lead. This stabilizing process may take from a fraction of a second to billions of years, depending on
the isotope or isotopes in the decay chain.
Radioactivity is measured in the number of nuclear transformations or disintegrations that occur in a
sample during a specific time. This is known as the activity of the material. The conventional unit of
activity is the curie (Ci), which is 3.7 x 1010 (37,000,000,000) or 37 billion disintegrations per second. In
the International System of Units (SI), the unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq), which equals 1
disintegration per second (dps). Both the curie and becquerel measure the same thing—activity. The
Curie and the Becquerel are related by the following relationship:
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 becquerels (Bqs)
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second (dps)
1 Ci = 2.22 x 1012 disintegrations per minute (dpm)
1 Ci = 1,000,000 microcuries (µCi)
1 Ci - 1000 millicuries (mCi)
One curie is a large amount of activity, whereas one becquerel is a very small amount of activity. For
simplicity, prefixes are often used to change the magnitude of the unit. Many of the commonly used
prefixes are shown in the table below.
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Each radioactive nuclide has its own unique characteristic pattern of decay. The three aspects associated
with this pattern are:
 The type of radiation emitted (alpha, beta, gamma, neutron)
 The energy of the emission
 The rate of decay, or half-life
TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION
The four basic types of ionizing radiation are alpha, beta, gamma (including X-rays), and neutron
radiation. All four types differ in their penetrating power and the manner in which they affect human
tissue. To give you a general understanding of each type, they are discussed here.
Alpha
Alpha radiation consists of high-energy particles ejected from the nucleus of a radioactive atom. An
alpha particle has 2 protons and 2 neutrons; in essence, the nucleus of a helium atom. It carries an
electrical charge of +2 since there are no electrons to balance the electrical charge of the 2 protons.
Compared to beta or neutron particles, alpha particles are relatively large, heavy, and have a higher
electric charge. Alpha particles lose their energy very rapidly due to their mass and electrical charge.
They have a low penetrating ability and short range of travel, only a few inches in air, so external
shielding is not required. A few inches of air, a sheet of paper, or the dead (outer) layer of skin that
surrounds our bodies easily stops alpha particles. Alpha radiation poses no biological hazard outside the
body. The hazard from alpha-emitting material occurs when the material is inhaled or ingested. Once
inside the body, the alpha radiation can cause significant harm to individual cells or organs.
In alpha decay, the parent nuclide loses 2 protons and 2 neutrons. This is illustrated in the decay scheme
shown here:
210
Po
→
84
206
4
Pb
He++
+
82
+
5.304 MeV
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Beta
Beta radiation consists of particles that are smaller, lighter, and travel farther than alpha radiation. A beta
particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus and carries an electrical charge of -1. The energy of the
beta particle varies depending on the specific radionuclide from which it originated. Because they are
smaller and lighter, beta radiation is typically more penetrating than alpha radiation.
In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron, as illustrated in the decay scheme
shown here:
32
P
15
→
32
S
16
+
e-
+
1.71 MeV
Outside the body, beta radiation constitutes only a slight hazard. Because beta radiation penetrates only a
fraction of an inch into living skin tissue, it does not reach the major organs of the body. In air, beta
radiation can travel several meters. High levels of beta radiation can cause damage to the skin and eyes.
Beta radiation may be blocked or shielded by Plexiglas, aluminum, thick cardboard, or even several layers
of clothing.
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Internally, beta radiation is less hazardous than alpha radiation because beta particles travel farther than
alpha particles and, as a result, the energy deposited by the beta radiation is spread out over a larger
volume of tissue. This causes less harm to individual cells or organs.
Some nuclides emit positively charged beta particles called positrons. These have the same range in
tissue or other materials as negatively charged beta particles. A positron will combine with an electron
and emit two high energy photons in opposite directions.
Gamma and X-rays
The difference between X-ray and gamma radiation is their point of origin. Gamma radiation is energy
emitted from the nucleus of an atom as the nucleus reaches a more stable energy state. X-rays result from
the electrons orbiting the nucleus as they move between the discreet energy levels of the orbital electron
shells. X-rays are also generated by the rapid deceleration of an electron, including beta particles. This is
referred to as Bremsstrahlung radiation and is how X-rays are generated in an X-ray tube.
Gamma radiation, like X-rays, is electromagnetic radiation. This means that it does not consist of
particles like alpha and beta radiation but, rather, waves of energy that have no mass and no electrical
charge. Because they have no mass and no electrical charge, they are able to travel great distances and
require dense material as shielding. Gamma radiation poses a hazard to the entire body because it can
easily penetrate human tissue. Lead, steel, and concrete are commonly used to shield gamma radiation.
Neutron
Neutron radiation is energetic neutron particles ejected from the nucleus of an atom. Neutron radiation
can travel great distances and is highly penetrating like gamma radiation. It is best shielded with high
hydrogen content material such as water, plastic, or concrete.
Linear Energy Transfer and Penetrability
Radiation loses its energy by interacting with atoms as it passes through material. The denser the
material, the more atoms there are to interact with, and greater the amount of energy lost. Since alpha
and beta radiation have both mass and an electrical charge, they interact much more readily with
matter than gamma radiation, which has no mass or electrical charge.
Linear Energy Transfer (LET) is used to describe the amount of energy imparted locally by ionizing
radiation in a target. The higher the value of a particle’s LET, the greater the amount of damage that
particle could potentially cause to the target.
Penetrability is the ability of radiation to
penetrate matter. Alpha particles have a
low penetrability, and they can be shielded
with a piece of paper. For beta particles,
this value is considerably higher. Plexiglas
is usually used to stop betas. Gamma rays
have the highest penetrability of the three,
requiring lead or thick concrete for
shielding. The figure shown here
illustrates relative LET and penetrability
values of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
Half-Life, or Rate of Decay
The rate of radioactive decay is unique to each type of radioactive atom and each radioisotope can be
characterized by its half-life; the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay to
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another form. Different radioisotopes will have different half-lives. It is important to note that
radioactivity, regardless of the material, is constantly decreasing. The table below lists some common
radioisotopes used at Penn State and their respective half-life.
Radioisotope
H-3
C-14
P-32
P-33
S-35
Ca-45
Fe-55
Co-60
Zn-65
I-125
Half-life
12.33 years
5730 years
14.26 days
25.34 days
87.51 days
162.61 days
2.73 years
5.27 years
243.8 days
60.1 days
Emission
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
Beta
X-rays
Beta and Gamma
X and Gamma
X and Gamma
Energy in MeV
0.019
0.156
1.711
0.249
0.167
0.258
0.231
2.824
1.352
0.179
Activity Calculation
The decay process is a predictable and measurable event that can be determined using the variables in the
equation below.
A = A0e-t
Where:
A = Activity at time, t
A0 = Initial activity
 = Ln 2 / half-life
t = Elapsed time
Example:
If you have 1 mCi of P-32 initially, how much P-32 would remain after 8 weeks? P-32 has a half-life of
14.26 days. The units of time must be the same so they will cancel out, so 8 weeks must be converted to
56 days.
A = (Initial Activity) e-[(Ln 2 / half-life) (elapsed time)]
A = (1 mCi) e-[(0.693 / 14.26 days) (56 days)]
A = (1 mCi) e-[(.0486 / days) (56 days)]
A = (1 mCi) e-(2.72)
A = (1 mCi) (0.0659)
A = 0.0659 mCi
Radioactive Contamination
One of the most important concepts to understand is the differences between radioactive material,
radiation, and contamination. Radiation is the energy emitted by radioactive material. Contamination is
the radioactive material in an undesired location.
A person can be exposed to radiation and not become contaminated. On the other hand, radioactive
contamination emits radiation. Radioactive contamination is serious because as long as the material is on
you, your clothing, or inside your body, you are still being exposed. While a short term exposure may not
be dangerous, prolonged or very close exposure may be. And once radioactive material gets inside the
body, it can be difficult to remove.
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The photo on the left illustrates the difference between radioactive material and radiation. The photo on
the right illustrates contamination by showing a research isotope package that has broken open with the
contents spilled on the ground.
For the low level activity sources used here at Penn State, it is the contamination hazard that is usually the
greatest concern. This is because most of the radioactive material used is in an unsealed and dispersible
form. And if you were to become either externally or internally contaminated, the amount of exposure
you receive could be significant.
EXAM QUESTIONS
1.
Microwaves, radio waves and infrared rays are forms of ionizing radiation.
A. True
B. False
2.
If a researcher receives an order of 250 microcuries H-3 today, how much activity will be
left 700 days from now? Assume H-3 has a half-life of 12.33 years and 365 days per
year.
A. 224.5 millicuries
B. 224.5 microcuries
C. 0.2245 microcuries
D. 0.0 microcuries
3.
Gamma radiation is more penetrating than either alpha or beta radiation because?
A. Gamma radiation has mass
B. Gamma radiation has an electrical charge
C. Both A and B are correct
D. Neither A or B is correct
4.
Which of the following is true about beta radiation?
A. Can cause damage to the eyes
B. Less penetrating than alpha and gamma radiation
C. Is not an internal radiation hazard
D. Is seldom used as a research isotope
5.
Radiation and contamination are the same thing.
A. True
B. False
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2. REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
In Pennsylvania, radioactive material is regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the
Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Radiation Protection (DEP). The
regulations of the NRC are published in Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations. State regulations for
radioactive material can be found in Title 25 of the Pennsylvania Code. Web links for these regulations
can be found in Section 10 of this training.
Penn State University is licensed by the NRC and DEP to possess and use radioactive material for
research and development applications. These licenses require a radiation safety program be in place to
ensure compliance with regulations and the safety of those who will be working with radioactive material.
Let’s take a look at the duties and responsibilities of those involved in the University's radiation safety
program.
Vice-President for Research and Dean of the Graduate School
The Vice-President for Research and Dean of the Graduate School is the senior University official
responsible to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for the safe
use of radioactive material. They are also responsible for appointing members to the University Isotopes
Committee which oversee the use of radioactive material at Penn State.
University Isotopes Committee
The University Isotopes Committee (UIC) is responsible for administering the licenses issued to the
University and insuring that the radiation safety program meets federal, state, and University regulations.
It is administered through the Office for Research Protections. The Committee is made up of faculty
members representing areas of research and teaching that are the predominant users of radioactive
material along with a member who represents senior management.
The Committee reviews all “Requests for Authorization to Use Radioactive Material,” and either
approves or disapproves such requests. The Committee has the authority to withdraw its authorization to
use radioactive material and to order an experimenter to take whatever action the Committee considers
necessary to correct unsafe conditions or a violation of a license or regulation.
The Committee is also responsible for specifying training requirements, specifying requirements for
radiation and contamination surveys, and for establishing the “University Rules and Procedures for the
Use of Radioactive Material.” A link to this document can be found in Section 10 of this training.
Radiation Safety Officer
The Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) is responsible for ensuring the safe use of radioactive material at all
Penn State locations, except the Hershey Medical Center and the Pennsylvania College of Technology.
The RSO and staff of the Radiation Protection Office have the authority to immediately stop any
operation involving the use of radioactive material in which health and safety may be compromised or
may result in noncompliance with regulations. The Vice-President for Research and Dean of the
Graduate School has delegated to the RSO the responsibility for:
 Managing the radiation safety program
 Identifying radiation safety problems
 Initiating, recommending, or providing corrective actions
 Verifying implementation of corrective actions
 Ensuring compliance with all applicable regulations
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Penn State’s Radiation Safety Officer is Mr. Eric J. Boeldt, Certified Health Physicist. He oversees the
Radiation Protection Office that provides radiation safety services and monitors the use of radioactive
material for the UIC.
The Radiation Protection Office, part of the Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) group, is responsible
for radiation monitoring, waste disposal, and providing assistance with the use of radioactive material.
Their offices are located at 228 Academic Projects Building, with administrative offices at 6 Eisenhower
Parking Deck. They can be contacted during normal working hours at 814-865-6391.
Authorized Supervisors
All Authorized Supervisors must have a college degree at the bachelor level or equivalent training and
experience in the physical or biological sciences, or engineering. They must have at least forty hours of
training and experience in the safe handling of radioactive material, the characteristics of ionizing
radiation, units of radiation dose and quantities, radiation detection instrumentation, and biological
hazards of exposure to radiation appropriate to the type and forms of radioactive material to be used. In
general, only faculty will be authorized to supervise laboratories that will be working with radioactive
material.
The Authorized Supervisor is responsible for all activities involving radioactive material under an
Authorization approved by the UIC. The Supervisor is also responsible for the actions of all personnel
working under their Authorization. The responsibilities of the Supervisor include, but are not limited to:
 Ensuring the health and safety of everyone whose work they control
 Ensuring that all persons using radioactive material under their Authorization complete all
radiation safety training and annual retraining required by the University Isotopes Committee
 Ensuring, by periodic monitoring, that all those using radioactive material under the Supervisors’
Authorizations are properly trained in the techniques to be used in the Supervisor’s laboratory
 Notifying EHS immediately in the event of any radiological emergency
 Decontamination of any facilities contaminated by material used under the Supervisor's
Authorization
 Maintaining a current record of the radioactive material in their possession
 Securely storing all radioactive material
 Preparing, classifying, and describing radioactive waste prior to the collection of the waste for
disposal
 Directing all purchases, transfers, and shipments of radioactive material to EHS for processing
and approval
 Notifying EHS and arranging for someone to assume responsibility for their Authorizations prior
to terminating employment at the University or for leaving the area for more than six consecutive
weeks
 Reporting to their laboratories immediately upon being notified of an emergency (fire,
contamination, flood, equipment malfunction, large spill, etc.) and must provide all possible
advice and assistance with regard to the hazards from radiation or radioactive material
 Promptly responding to annual EHS requests for an itemized inventory of the Supervisor’s store
of radioactive material and certifying the results of such inventory in a timely manner
 Promptly ensuring that all laboratory members comply with annual retraining requirements and
certifying completion in a timely manner to EHS
Authorized Supervisors are also responsible for promptly paying an equal share of the Department of
Environmental Protection’s annual Radioactive Material license fee. Those who do not authorize
payment of this fee will have their Authorizations to Use Radioactive Material revoked.
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Individual Users
Each individual user, including the Supervisor, is ultimately responsible for the safe use of the radiation
sources to which he or she has access. Each individual user shall:
 Immediately report to EHS or the UIC any condition that may lead to or cause a violation of the
regulations or University's radioactive material license conditions
 Keep their exposure as low as reasonably achievable
 Be familiar and comply with all sections of the “Rules and Procedures for Users of Radioactive
Material at The Pennsylvania State University” applicable to their work
 Be familiar with the nature of the radiation sources in their work area, the extent of their potential
risk, and the proper means of working with them safely
 Wear assigned personal monitoring devices in an approved manner
 Monitor for contamination after each use of radioactive material
 Immediately initiate the clean-up of minor spills
 Dispose of radioactive waste in an approved manner
 See that sources, containers, and the area are properly labeled and posted
 Assist the Supervisor in maintaining required records and inventories
 Take no action that would interfere with the responsibilities of their laboratory Supervisor
 Prevent unauthorized persons from having access to radiation sources in their area
 Protect service personnel, allowing no maintenance or repairs of area facilities or equipment
unless the material or area has been checked for radioactive contamination
 Notify their Supervisor and EHS of any unexpected problems
 Be prepared to handle accidents or injuries with common sense and in the spirit of the Emergency
Procedures
 Notify and seek the assistance of his or her immediate Supervisor and EHS as soon as possible in
emergencies
 The UIC expects that all individuals who use or store radioactive material will promptly comply
with annual retraining requirements and certify completion in a timely manner to EHS
RAISING SAFETY CONCERNS
Anyone working with radioactive material that may have a concern about their personal safety, the safety
of the general public, or the safety of the environment should promptly report the matter to their
Supervisor. If the Supervisor is unable to answer or address their concerns to their satisfaction, they are
encouraged to contact EHS to report the situation. EHS has been directed by the UIC to investigate and
take appropriate actions.
If the person raising the concern is not satisfied with the action taken by EHS, that person is free to
contact the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
with his or her concerns. The University is required to post the “Notice to Employees” form in areas
where it can be viewed by all persons working with radioactive material. This form lists some of the
responsibilities of the regulating agency (Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Pennsylvania
Department of Environmental Protection) and responsibilities of the persons working with radioactive
material. It also includes the address and telephone number of the regulatory agency so that a concerned
individual may contact that agency directly.
Anyone raising a safety concern to the regulatory agency is protected by law. That person may not be
retaliated against in any way by their coworkers, Supervisor, Environmental Health and Safety, or the
University. Such retaliation is unlawful and is contrary to maintaining a safety-conscious environment.
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Any person who feels that he or she has been retaliated against should promptly report this matter to the
Radiation Safety Officer, or to a member of the University Isotopes Committee.
EXAM QUESTIONS
6. Who is responsible for the safe use of radioactive material at Penn State?
A. Vice-President for Research and Dean of the Graduate School
B. Individual users of radioactive material
C. The Radiation Safety Officer
D. All of the above
7. Radiation safety concerns should first be brought to the attention of your Supervisor or
Environmental Health and Safety. If you do not feel your concerns have been addressed, you
may also bring your concerns directly to the attention of the Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection, Bureau of Radiation Protection.
A. True
B. False
8. Individuals applying to become an Authorized Supervisor are NOT required to have any
previous experience working with radioactive material.
A. True
B. False
9. Individual users of radioactive material are responsible for all of the following, EXCEPT what?
A. Specifying contamination survey requirements
B. Notifying Environmental Health and Safety of unexpected problems
C. Monitoring for contamination after using radioactive material
D. Preventing unauthorized persons from accessing radioactive material
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3. WORKING SAFELY WITH RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Obtaining an Authorization to Use Radioactive Material
Licensed radioactive material may only be used by or under the direct supervision of an Authorized
Supervisor approved by the University Isotopes Committee (UIC). Penn State faculty or staff wishing to
become a radioactive material Supervisor must request permission to do so by submitting a completed
"Request for Authorization to Use Radioactive Material" form to the Office for Research Protections
(ORP).
A copy of the Authorization request form is available on the Environmental Health and Safety (EHS)
website. The Authorization must contain specific information regarding the planned use of
radioactive material. Some of the information that must be submitted includes:
 Supervisor contact information
 List of all individuals who will be working under the Authorization
 List of all radionuclides and their chemical forms intended for use
 Maximum possession limit for each isotope
 List of all rooms where radioactive material will be used
 Procedures to be followed
ORP will forward the request onto EHS for review. EHS will then submit the request to the UIC with a
recommendation for approval, disapproval, or approval with conditions. If approved by the UIC, the
Authorization will be valid for a specific time period, usually one to three years.
The Authorized Supervisor may only work with radioactive material within the limits and conditions
specified in the approved Authorization. Any modification or change, such as the use new protocols, a
room not listed on the Authorization, a new isotope or chemical form, may require an amendment to the
Authorization. Any changes should be discussed with EHS in advance to determine if an amendment is
necessary. For continuing work, a new Authorization request must be submitted to the ORP prior to the
expiration of an existing Authorization. This is to ensure that each Authorization is periodically reviewed
and reflects current usage. If the request to continue work is received before the Authorization is set to
expire, the work may continue until the UIC acts on the new request.
It is important to note that the University’s radioactive material licenses specifically prohibit the
following uses:
 Tracer studies involving direct release of licensed material to the environment
 Administering radioactive material to humans
 Adding material to food, beverage, cosmetic, drug or any other product designed for ingestion or
inhalation by, or application to, humans
Research involving these types of uses should be discussed with EHS as early as possible. This would
require the University to obtain a license amendment from the appropriate regulatory agency.
Amendment requests may take several months or even years to obtain.
Good Work Practices
The fundamental principles for working safely with radioactive material can be summarized in three
simple words: Time, Distance, and Shielding.
 Minimize the amount of time spent near radioactive material
 Maximize your distance from the radioactive material
 Shield yourself from the source’s radiation
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These principles need to be balanced in a research environment in order to carry out important and
necessary work. To apply them properly so that you can complete your experiment safely while
minimizing your potential exposure, you should follow these steps:
Plan Your Procedure Detail the steps that must be performed, including the order in which they must
be completed. Plan to work behind a shield. Neatly write up your procedure to
help you remember the seemingly small things that could ruin your experiment if
not properly performed.
Practice the Steps
Practice, practice, practice. Set up your area, complete with necessary equipment
and supplies and perform all the required experimental steps. Watch yourself to
see if you are storing your tools or materials in an awkward location. This prior
practice will speed your work and reduce your exposure time. In addition, it will
reduce the likelihood of spilling or performing the steps in the wrong order.
Prepare the Work
Be certain that you have all the tools and materials present. Do you have enough
gloves and pipette tips? Did you pre-heat the hot plate? Did you reserve the
centrifuge? Do you have ice? Does the cell culture incubator have enough CO2
to last the weekend? Did you thaw everything you need? Did you pre-label all
of the little tubes so you will not confuse product A with product B?
Survey the Area
A quick pre-use survey may save you lots of decontamination time. If the
previous worker left the bench contaminated, you do not want to be responsible
for spreading the problem or cleaning up that person’s mess.
Do the Work
Schedule plenty of time so you do not have to rush, particularly the first few
times. We have all tried to hurry simple tasks that caused us to waste a lot of
time. Eliminate as many distractions as possible prior to starting. Every time
you have a couple free minutes review your procedure, check for problems, and
survey your hands.
Re-Survey the Area
Re-survey yourself and the work area when finished and cleanup any problems.
Review Your Work
Think what steps you could have done differently to minimize your exposure.
Could you build a little tool to help you hold the stock vial? Does your lab need
to purchase a different shield or pipette with a longer handle?
Revise the Procedure Learn from your experience. Update procedures to reflect improvements in the
experimental process. Share your experiences and improvements with your coworkers at a lab meeting. The discussion may spark suggestions that may
improve everyone’s work.
Each laboratory may have its own methods and policies for working with radioactive material, but there
are some fundamental practices that must be used by everyone. Lab coats, gloves, and safety glasses
must be worn whenever working with radioactive material in a dispersible form. When handling the
primary vial of radioactivity, or performing tasks where contamination is highly likely, multiple pairs of
gloves should be worn. This will allow you to remove the outer contaminated gloves while still having
another layer of protection underneath.
As shown in the pictures on the following page, the person on the left is not wearing any gloves and will
contaminate their hand if they touch the vial of radioactive material.
15
Be sure to label all areas where radioactive material is used. Clearly marking off areas will alert all lab
personnel and those who may not be familiar with your lab exactly where they should take some
precautions such as wearing gloves in areas with the potential for radiological contamination. Label all
equipment specifically designated for radioactive material storage or use, including:
 Refrigerators and freezers
 Centrifuges, gel dryers, and heating blocks
 Pipettors, flasks, beakers and tube racks
The pictures shown here are good examples of how work areas and items should be identified.
Spending time organizing your work processes will save you time and effort in the long run, and it will
probably also provide you with more reliable results.
Rules for the Care of Vertebrate Animals Containing Radioactive Material
Prior to beginning work with radioactive material in animals, Supervisors must obtain approval from the
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) and the UIC. All animal husbandry carried out
by the research personnel must be documented and approved by the IACUC. Training may be requested
from the Office for Research Protections.
All animal housing and facilities must meet or surpass the standards set forth in "The Guide for the Care
and Use of Laboratory Animals" published by the Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources. This guide
is a publication of the National Research Council's Commission on Life Sciences.
16
Researchers must have training in the general use of radioactive material by EHS and specific training
related to radioactive animal care by the laboratory's Authorized Supervisor. This training must include
specific instructions requiring that laboratory staff:
 Clearly identify with "Caution - Radioactive Material" labels the cages of animals that contain
radioactive material
 Post signs indicating whether or not animal-care technicians are responsible for the care of the
non-radioactive animals
 Dispose of sharps used to deliver radioactive material to animals in sharps containers that have
also been labeled for radioactive waste
 Perform all feeding and cleaning of animals
 Clean and decontaminate cages and facilities
 Perform regular contamination surveys to prevent the spread of contamination, and to ensure that
radiation levels are maintained as low as reasonably achievable
 Place radioactive animals, animal waste, and animal tissue into zip-lock plastic bags indelibly
labeled with "Caution - Radioactive Material", radionuclide, activity, date, Supervisor's name,
and the mass of the contents
 Autoclave all paper and plastic animal-contaminated waste prior to placing this material in EHS
radioactive waste containers
 Add bleach, at a 10% final volume, to all liquid waste containers that will contain biological
waste prior to placing biological waste in the container
 Contact EHS for waste collection after a few pounds of frozen waste is collected
 Package all animal and other wastes for transfer to EHS when research is complete
 Contact EHS to perform pre-release surveys to allow reuse of room and equipment
Animal care technicians retain responsibility for general room cleaning such as the sanitizing of the sinks,
floors, etc., but are not allowed to clean the cages of animals that contain radioactive material.
EXAM QUESTIONS
10. A pipettor should only be labeled as radioactive if it is contaminated.
A. True
B. False
11. Gloves and lab coats must be worn whenever working with unsealed radioactive material.
A. True
B. False
12. Which of the following is NOT permitted by Penn State's radioactive material licenses?
A. Use in animals
B. Use in humans
C. Both are permitted under Penn State's licenses
D. Neither is permitted under Penn State's licenses
13. Authorizations to use radioactive material are approved by whom?
A. Office for Research Protections
B. Radiation Safety Office
C. Environmental Health and Safety
D. University Isotopes Committee
17
4. ORDERING AND RECEIVING RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
All purchases and transfers of radioactive material must be made through Environmental Health and
Safety (EHS). This includes transfers between Authorized Supervisors at the University as well as
between the University and other institutions.
Ordering Radioactive Material
All orders for radioactive material must be approved by EHS. Purchasing Services will not process a
radioactive material until it has been approved by EHS. The most efficient and quickest way to complete
the order is to submit the request through eBuy+. Orders submitted through eBuy+ are electronically
routed to EHS for approval. If you prefer not to use eBuy+, then you will need to submit a single or
standing purchase order request through Purchasing Services, then bring or mail a copy of the request
form to the EHS office in 228 Academic Projects Building for approval.
All shipments of radioactive material to Penn State are to be delivered to EHS and must be addressed as
follows:
Environmental Health and Safety
ATTN: Authorized Supervisor’s Name
228 Academic Projects Building
University Park, PA 16802
Please be sure to use the Authorized Supervisor’s name when placing the order. Using someone else’s
name may cause your package delivery to be delayed.
Orders for radioactive material should NEVER be made using a personal or University credit card.
Doing so is a violation of University policy and may lead to suspension of a Supervisor's
Authorization to use radioactive material.
Receiving Radioactive Material
After EHS receives a radioactive material shipment it is checked to ensure radiation and contamination
levels on the package and its contents are acceptable for delivery to your lab. An inventory form with a
unique tracking number is generated for each shipment. EHS will add the isotope and activity to the
Supervisor's current inventory. EHS will also verify that the isotope, chemical form, and total activity
ordered is permitted under that Supervisor’s Authorization and will not exceed their total possession limit.
EHS will deliver the shipment
to the laboratory that placed the
order. Any member of the lab
may sign for the shipment.
Once signed for, the lab then
assumes full responsibility for
securing the material and
allowing only authorized and
trained staff to use the material.
A copy of the inventory form,
shown here, is left with the lab
so that lab personnel can track
the amount of radioactive
material remaining as it is used.
18
This form must be filled out and returned to EHS after the material is used up and disposed to the
radioactive waste. As you can see in the example above, lab personnel have kept track of the
radioactive material used from that particular stock vial. Once it is used up, the stock vial must be
disposed of into the solid radioactive waste.
Supervisors are considered to be in possession of each isotope order until EHS receives back the
inventory form. Failing to return inventory forms could lead to EHS denying a request or a shipment
of radioactive material if it would result in the Supervisor exceeding their authorized possession limit.
After receiving a package and removing the radioactive material, all radioactive markings and labels
on the package must be removed or defaced before placing the clean package in the regular trash.
The pictures shown here are examples of what a radioactive material shipping package may look like
when we bring them to your lab and how the empty boxes should look before you place them in the
trash or out for recycling. The box on the top right has had the label removed, whereas the box below
it has had the label and proper shipping name clearly defaced using an indelible black marker.
If a radioactive material shipment happens to be delivered directly to your laboratory, do not open the
package. Call EHS immediately so the required checks and paperwork can be completed.
Transfers between Authorized Supervisors
EHS must be notified prior to any transfer of radioactive material between Supervisors. This is to ensure
that the intended recipient is authorized to possess and use the material, and to ensure that possession
limits are not exceeded. EHS will also need to update their records to reflect the new isotope inventory
balances for each laboratory.
Transporting Radioactive Material
Transportation of radioactive material is strictly regulated by federal and state regulations. Requirements
for containers, labeling, marking, and shipping papers are detailed and complex. Therefore, all motorvehicle shipments of radioactive material, on or off campus, must be approved in advance by EHS staff.
This includes shipments by the U.S. Postal Service, common carriers, and University vehicles. Contact
EHS at least one week in advance of any required off-campus or across-campus transfer of radioactive
material.
19
EHS will provide instruction as required by the Department of Transportation and Nuclear Regulatory
Commission regulations to laboratory groups that may need to transport radioactive material by motor
vehicle.
Small amounts (< 50 µCi) of radioactive material may be walked between authorized laboratories in
different buildings without notifying EHS as long as the Supervisor is authorized to use radioactive
material in both locations. Whenever radioactive material is walked between buildings, it must be
double-sealed to prevent leakage, and the outside of the package must be labeled with your laboratory
address and phone number. The inner package must be labeled with the words: RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL.
EXAM QUESTIONS
14. When should researchers have radioactive material delivered from the vendor straight to their
lab?
A. Anytime
B. When the Authorized Supervisor places the order
C. When the order is for less than 1 mCi
D. Never
15. Which of the following statements concerning the radioactive material inventory sheet is NOT
true?
A. Inventory sheets will be left with the lab when the isotope is delivered
B. Inventory sheets should be used to track the amount of material used
C. Inventory sheets must be returned to Environmental Health and Safety
D. Inventory sheets can be disposed of in the radioactive waste with the vial
16. Radioactive markings must be removed or defaced from radioactive material packages after
removing the radioactive material and before disposing of the clean, empty package.
A. True
B. False
17. Orders for radioactive material can be made through Penn State Purchasing Services using a
standing order, single purchase order, eBuy+, or a credit card.
A. True
B. False
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5. INSTRUMENTATION AND SURVEYING
Surveys are performed to determine the radiation and contamination levels in a laboratory or on a piece of
equipment. Radiation surveys are made to measure the radiation levels in an area due to the presence of
ionizing radiation, even though contamination is not necessarily present. Contamination surveys are
performed to detect the presence of both fixed and removable levels of radioactive material. This is
accomplished by scanning the area with an appropriate contamination survey meter, and by taking smears
or wipes of the area to see if the material is readily transferrable.
Scanning is performed by moving a hand-held radiation detector slowly over an area to look for small
amounts of loose or fixed radioactive material. The meter’s speaker must be on at all times because the
speaker is not tied to the response time of the meter and use of the speaker allows free use of the detector
without continuous observation of the meter’s dial. Areas with radiation levels more than twice the
normal background count rate should be investigated to determine if contamination is present and if
decontamination is necessary.
To smear or wipe survey means to use small bits of paper or other material to dust about 100 cm2 of
surface area. The paper bits are then placed into a shielded radiation detector such as an automatic
gamma counter or a liquid scintillation counter to determine the amount of radioactive material collected.
The smear survey is the most sensitive technique for detecting transferable contamination.
Fixed contamination is present when radiation is detected with a survey instrument but wipe or smear
tests show no transferable contamination. The immediate hazard of fixed contamination is the radiation
level adjacent to the contaminated surface. There is also the possibility that the contamination will
become loose at a later time. Thus, even fixed contamination should be reduced to the lowest possible
level. In some cases it may be necessary to fix the contamination to the surface with paint, tape, or other
coatings to prevent the spread of contamination while the radioactive material decays. The sticker, tape
or paint should have the words “Radioactive Material,” list the isotope, date, and give the activity in
counts per minute (cpm). Disposal may be required for objects with fixed contamination from
radionuclides with a long half-life.
Liquid Scintillation Counters
The ability to detect beta and gamma radiation depends mostly on their energy. For example,
hydrogen-3 (tritium) emits a beta particle with a maximum energy of 18.6 keV (0.0186 MeV). It
does not have enough energy to travel more than an inch in air, or even enough energy to pass
through the thin window of a Geiger-Mueller (GM) pancake detector. It will lose all of its energy
before it can interact with the detector and be counted. When surveying for H-3 contamination, you
must always take smears and count them in a liquid scintillation counter (LSC).
21
Portable Hand-Held Instruments
For the majority of radioactive material used on campus, a hand-held survey meter will be the
instrument of choice. The instrument shown below on the left is a “pancake” style Geiger-Mueller
(GM) detector probe. This gas filled detector is capable of detecting alpha, beta, and gamma
radiation. It is commonly used to survey for medium and high energy beta emitting isotopes such as
C-14, S-35, and P-32. The detector shown on the right is called a Sodium Iodide or NaI detector. It
is designed to be more efficient at detecting low energy gamma and X-ray sources such as I-125. It
cannot detect medium energy beta emitting sources like C-14 or S-35.
Pancake Geiger-Mueller Probe
Sodium Iodide (NaI) Probe
The portable survey instruments shown above cannot detect H-3. Although Fe-55 can be detected
with a pancake GM, its detection efficiency is so low that you should take smears of the work area
and count them in a LSC. The detection efficiency for Fe-55 in an LSC is approximately equal to the
detection efficiency of H-3 (tritium).
Each radiological instrument and detector combination has its specific uses and limitations. It is
important to understand these differences in order to choose the correct instrument for the right
application. The table below summarizes the best techniques to use when surveying for specific
radionuclides.
Radioisotope
H-3
C-14
P-32
P-33
S-35
Ca-45
Fe-55
Co-60
Zn-65
I-125
Recommended Contamination Survey Methods
Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM & Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM
Pancake GM & Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM & Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM & Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM & Smears / Liquid Scintillation Counting
Pancake GM
Pancake GM
Sodium Iodide (NaI)
There are several factors that are common to all radiological instruments. Factors that you need to
consider when surveying for contamination are described below.
22
Detector Efficiency
Efficiencies are determined by dividing the observed count rate, such as counts per minute (cpm),
from a calibrated source by the actual disintegration rate of that same source in disintegrations per
minute (dpm).
Efficiency = Count Rate (cpm) / Source Activity (dpm)
If we know the efficiency of the instrument we are using, the above equation can be rearranged in
order to determine the activity.
Source Activity (dpm) = Count Rate (cpm) / Efficiency
For example, if we have determined that the C-14 detection efficiency for a pancake GM is only 10%
and we detect 2,200 cpm of C-14 during a survey, we can determine the activity.
Activity in dpm = 2,200 cpm / 0.10 = 22,000 dpm = 2.2 x 104 dpm
We learned earlier that 1 Curie (Ci) is equal to about 2.2 x 1012 dpm, so now we can convert the
above answer to Ci.
2.2 x 104 dpm x (1 Ci / 2.2 x 1012 dpm) = 1 x 10-8 Ci
This can easily be converted to the more useful level of microcuries (Ci).
1 x 10-8 Ci x (106 Ci / Ci) = 1 x 10–2 Ci = 0.01 Ci
Background Radiation Levels
The difference between measurements of background radiation and a radiation reading produced by
contamination may be slight. It is important to understand that there is always some background level
of gamma radiation. It can be very low but is never truly “zero.” It is important to determine the
background, naturally occurring radiation level prior to performing a survey. Determine background
radiation levels by observing the meter reading in an area away where you know there are no
radioactive sources.
Background levels indicated by contamination survey instruments can vary significantly by the
instruments sensitivity. A pancake Geiger-Mueller (GM) thin window type detector may have a
normal background reading of 50 to 100 counts per minute where a gamma scintillator may have a
normal background in the range of 200 to 500 counts per minute. An alpha scintillation detector may
have a normal background level of 0 to 5 counts per minute.
Time, Distance, and Shielding
The self-protection measures of time, distance, and shielding are also relevant to proper survey
technique. This is especially true when performing surveys for radiological contamination.
Time
Radiation detection equipment needs time to respond to the radiation field that may
be present. Radiation will not chase the detector. You must give the detector time to
respond and display the reading. Survey too quickly and you may see no response at
all.
23
Distance
Holding the instrument too far away from the item you are surveying may also give
you the false impression that radiation levels are acceptable or an item is not
contaminated. Radiation intensities can drop off rapidly the farther away you move
from a source.
Shielding
For contamination monitoring, any type of shielding can affect your readings.
Moisture and clothing can easily absorb the energy from alpha and beta particles.
For medium energy beta emitters, such as C-14, S-35, and P-33, do not use a plastic
cover to protect your detector from contamination. For high energy beta emitters like
P-32 you may wrap the detector with thin plastic wrap to protect the pancake probe
from accidental contamination.
University Policy
Users of radioactive material are required to perform surveys of their work area after each use of
dispersible radioactive material using methods and detection equipment appropriate to the types and
amounts of radionuclides present. Whenever removable contamination is detected, the object must be
decontaminated, disposed, or contained to prevent the spread of contamination.
Decontamination of areas that are not readily accessible is not required. For areas inside glove boxes,
interior of centrifuges, or insides of pumps, the amount of contamination allowed is limited by the
radiation level on the outside of the containers. Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) must be
contacted if radiation is detectable outside the item.
Equipment that has been used with radioactive material such as refrigerators, freezers, incubators, or
centrifuges, must be surveyed by EHS staff prior to its release for unrestricted use or sending the item to
salvage. This also applies to equipment that is being repaired, either on or off campus, by people who are
not familiar with radioactive material.
Performing A Survey
The portable hand-held contamination survey meters in the laboratory are inspected and calibrated by
the Radiation Protection Office. A calibration sticker is placed on the meter listing the expected
check source response and nominal correction factor values to use to convert from counts per minute
to disintegrations. These values should only be used to estimate surface contamination activity levels.
They should not be used to estimate activity from waste containers.
When using a portable survey meter to monitor for external contamination, follow these steps:
 Verify that the instrument is in good working order
 Turn the monitor on, check the battery response, and replace batteries if needed
 Check the calibration sticker for expected check source response
 Verify the instrument responds correctly to
the expected check source level, ± 20%
 Establish the background for the instrument
 If the meter is so equipped, the audio output
should be turned on so that the audio can be
heard during the survey
 Hold the probe approximately 1/2 inch from
the surface being surveyed for beta and
gamma contamination, and approximately
1/4 inch for alpha contamination
24




Do not allow the probe to touch the area being surveyed to avoid contaminating the probe
Move the probe slowly over the surface, approximately 1 – 2 inches per second
If the count rate increases during the survey, pause for 5 to 10 seconds over the area to
provide adequate time for instrument response
If the instrument gives a consistent and positive increase above the expected background
level, contamination is probably present and needs to be addressed
When working with dispersible radioactive material, be sure to keep
the survey meter on and near your work station. Also be sure to check
your hands and gloves frequently. After finishing your experiment
you must perform a thorough contamination survey. How you survey
is as important as what you survey. You must understand that when
we talk about contamination control we are talking about accounting
for individual radioactive atoms. Performing a good contamination
survey is time consuming and requires patience. But the simple fact is
that you can potentially contaminate everything you touch!
 Check yourself using the guide shown here
 Check both the tops and bottoms of your shoes
 Check the bench top and equipment (centrifuge, heating block,
tube holders, pipettors, etc.)
 Check the sink, faucet handles, and paper towel dispenser
 Check drawer handles and door handles
 Check the floor where you were working and around the
radioactive waste containers
If you do find contamination, do not panic. Decontamination can usually be accomplished using
standard cleaners like Formula 409® or soap and water. If contamination is found on your personal
clothing or skin, contact Environmental Health and Safety as soon as possible.
Additional information on survey instruments and survey techniques will be reviewed with you
during the hands-on portion of this training.
EXAM QUESTIONS
18. A pancake Geiger Mueller (GM) probe should be used to survey for H-3 contamination.
A. True
B. False
19. You must survey your laboratory and work area for contamination after each use of unsealed
radioactive material.
A. True
B. False
20. When performing a contamination survey with a portable hand-held instrument, which of the
following statements is NOT true?
A. The probe should be moved slowly over the surface at 1 - 2 inches per minute
B. The probe should be less than 1/2 inch off the surface for beta contamination
C. If the count rate increases, pause for 5 -10 seconds over the area
D. The instrument should be set to the lowest scale
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6. WASTE
The University provides for the disposal of radioactive waste in a number of ways, including storage for
decay, release to the sewer system, and shipment to commercial burial sites. Storage for decay is used for
most radioactive waste, but it is not suitable in all cases. It is important that experimenters purchase and
use only as much radioactive material as is required for their experiments and minimize the amount of
waste they produce. The University is also committed to minimizing the release of radioactive material to
the environment. Radioactive material should not be released to hood exhausts or sink drains expressly
for disposal purposes without prior written approval from Environmental Health and Safety (EHS).
There are several different radioactive waste streams generated as the result of the research done here at
Penn State. Each of these is described in detail below. In general, solid and liquid wastes will need to be
kept separate. H-3 and C-14 waste can be mixed together due to their very long half-lives. Otherwise,
use separate waste containers for each isotope used in the laboratory. Since the majority of waste
generated has short half-lives, each container is held for a different length of time before it is processed.
For example, P-32 waste is typically stored for at least 140 days before being processed. On the other
hand, S-35 is held for almost 2.5 years.
Special disposal and handling procedures are required for radioactive wastes containing explosive,
pyrophoric, or Environmental Protection Agency listed hazardous materials. Contact EHS for additional
information and disposal guidance for these waste streams.
Solid Waste
Solid radioactive waste must be packaged in the waste containers provided by EHS. There are two types
of containers currently used, a 10-gallon capacity cardboard box and an 18-gallon capacity steel can. In
general, the metal cans should be used for high energy beta and gamma emitting isotopes. Solid waste
containers must be kept covered at all times.
With the exception of microliter amounts of liquid in a
microfuge tube or moist paper towels, no liquids or
containers with any liquid in them may be placed in
solid waste containers. Milliliter quantities of liquids
must be poured off into the liquid waste container, and
the empty contaminated container placed into the solid
radioactive waste.
Also, do not place any lead into the solid waste
container. Contact EHS to arrange for a special
pickup of any clean or contaminated lead items.
Each container is tagged with a card on which the
description and activity of the waste must be recorded
each time radioactive material is placed in the
container. An example of the solid waste card is
shown on the following page.
As the generator of the waste, you are responsible for filling in the required information. This includes
the types of material added to the container (gloves, paper, pipette tips, etc.), the date it was added, and
the approximate amount of radioactivity. To calculate the activity of radioactive material in your solid
radioactive waste, remember: Activity at start – Activity in liquid – Activity in samples = Activity in solid
waste. Once full or no longer needed, you must sign the form and contact EHS for pickup.
26
Liquid Waste
Liquid waste must be placed in EHS supplied liquid-waste containers. No solid material, such as pipette
tips, gloves, paper towels, etc., should be placed into the liquid waste container. Like solid waste,
separate containers should be used for each isotope except for H-3 and C-14 which may be collected
together.
Aqueous and organic wastes should also be collected in separate containers. Be sure to segregate liquid
wastes containing hazardous chemicals such as benzene, chloroform, pesticides, or heavy metals from
non-hazardous liquid wastes. Disposal of radioactive wastes that contain hazardous material can be
difficult and expensive, usually costing in excess of $5000 per gallon. If you require these chemicals to
perform an experiment, please consult with EHS prior to use. In addition, liquid waste containing milk,
blood, homogenized tissue, etc. should be kept frozen or treated with chemicals to inhibit decomposition
27
until it is collected.
The liquid waste jug should be kept closed and with the lid on and secure except for when waste is being
added. This is required to prevent radioactive liquid waste from evaporating into the lab which could
pose an inhalation hazard. It will also help prevent a possible spill if the container is knocked over. And
like other liquid hazardous wastes, all radioactive liquid waste containers must be stored in secondary
containers supplied by EHS.
Liquid radioactive wastes should never
be disposed of in your laboratory sinks.
In practice, the primary solution and the
first rinse of the container holding the
liquid waste should be collected in the
liquid radioactive waste jug. For
example, if you were running an
electrophoresis experiment, the buffer
solution used in the gel rig will be
contaminated. This solution and the
first rinse of the gel and the gel rig
should be treated as liquid radioactive
waste. Then you may wash the slightly
contaminated gel rig in a laboratory
sink designated for washing radioactive
lab ware.
An example of the liquid waste card,
shown here, is included on all liquid
radioactive waste containers. As the
generator of the waste you are
responsible for filling in the required
information, including activity, and all
chemical names and Chemical
Abstracts Services (CAS) Registry
Numbers. The waste must also have a
pH between 5 and 9. Wastes with a pH
above or below these values must be
neutralized before EHS can transport it
for disposal. Waste will not be picked
up if any information is missing. Once
full or no longer needed, you must sign
the form and contact EHS for pickup.
You must determine the activity of radioactive material in each jug.
If you generate P-32 or I-125 liquid waste, there are charts available
on the EHS website that show you how to estimate the total activity
based on the count rate you get on the side of the jug using a
contamination survey meter. Here is the link:
http://www.ehs.psu.edu/radprot/liquid_rad_analysis.cfm
If you use H-3, C-14, S-35, Fe-55, or other low and medium energy
isotopes, you must take a sample of the liquid waste and count it in a
28
liquid scintillation counter. Be sure to convert from the activity in the sample to the total activity in the
jug.
Liquid Scintillation Counting Vials
Like other radioactive waste streams, liquid scintillation counting (LSC) vials must be segregated by
isotope. However, DO NOT EMPTY the scintillation cocktail into the liquid radioactive waste. Ensure
that the lid on each vial is tightly secured and place the used vials into the cardboard trays that the empty
vials originally came in, or EHS can provide you trays if you need them. Store the trays in the plastic
boxes provided by EHS.
Laboratories should only use non-hazardous and non-flammable (flashpoint greater than 140 degrees
Fahrenheit) scintillation cocktails. Examples include Fisher Scientific’s Scintisafe Econo, National
Diagnostics Ecoscint, Packard’s Ultima Gold, and many others. Hazardous and flammable cocktails such
as toluene or benzene must be approved by EHS and the University Isotopes Committee (UIC) prior to
use.
Animal Waste
Animal carcasses, bedding, excreta, blood, milk and any other biological material contaminated with
radioactive material require special handling for disposal. It is essential that arrangements for the storage
and disposal of these types of waste be made with EHS before starting animal experiments. In general:
 Place radioactive animals, animal waste, and animal tissue into plastic bags
 Mark the bags as “Radioactive Material” along with a tag identifying the radionuclide, activity,
date, and Supervisor’s name
 Keep the waste in the Supervisor’s laboratory freezer until frozen solid
 Contact EHS for a waste pickup after several pounds of waste have been generated
Bio-hazardous Radioactive Waste
University safety policies require that all waste be made biologically inactive before it is collected.
Radioactive biological wastes include pathogens, microbes, cells, or viruses. For liquid waste that is both
radioactive and bio-hazardous, place one liter of household-strength bleach into each waste container
before adding the liquid waste. This will provide a 10% final-volume of bleach in the container. Solid
bio-hazardous radioactive waste must be autoclaved prior to placing it into the solid radioactive waste
container. This is required to protect EHS staff from exposure to bio-hazardous material. Additional
information can be found in Penn State Safety Policies SY24, Use of Bio-hazardous Materials in
Research and Instruction, and SY29, Infectious Waste Disposal.
Sharps
All razor blades, hypodermic needles, scalpels, Pasteur
pipettes, and other sharps must be placed in an appropriate
sharps container. Ensure the sharps container is marked as
“Radioactive”. When full or no longer needed, close and seal
the container and place it into a solid radioactive waste can or
box. If the sharps have been used with bio-hazardous material
such as human blood, the sharps container must first be
autoclaved before placing it into the solid radioactive waste
container.
Requesting a Waste Pickup
29
To have your radioactive waste collected, request a pickup through the EHS webpage:
http://www.ehs.psu.edu/hazmat/radpick_test.cfm . Fill in the request form with all the necessary
information. Be sure to indicate if you need empty containers to replace the ones being picked up.
Remember:
 All radioactive material, including waste, must be stored in a secure manner at all times
 EHS provides all radioactive waste containers
 Use separate waste containers for each isotope, except for H-3 and C-14 which can be mixed
 Do not add lead or other hazardous materials to any waste container without EHS approval
 Waste containers will not be collected if either the chemical or the radioactive contents are not
properly listed and the waste tag signed with a legible signature
EXAM QUESTIONS
21. On liquid radioactive waste tags, the generator is required to supply information pertaining to the
chemicals present in the waste. Which of the following is the correct way to fill out the tag?
Chemical Name
CAS #
Amount
(No formulas)
0000-00-0
milliliters or grams
A.
MEOH
67561
250
B.
MEOH
C.
Methanol
67-56-1
250 ml
D.
Methanol
Unknown
10%
22. A 1-mL sample of liquid H-3 waste is taken from a jug containing a total of 10-L (l0,000 mL).
The sample is counted in a liquid scintillation counter. LSC results indicate 11,100 cpm H-3.
Assuming the LSC's efficiency for H-3 is 50%, what activity of H-3 should be listed on the tag
for this container?
A. 0.10 mCi
B. 10.0 mCi
C. 0.10 µCi
D. 10.0 µCi
23. Solid radioactive bio-hazardous waste can be placed directly into the solid radioactive waste
container without prior treatment because the waste will eventually be incinerated.
A. True
B. False
24. Needles, razor blades, scalpels, and Pasteur pipettes can be placed directly into the solid
radioactive waste container because the waste will eventually be incinerated.
A. True
B. False
25. Which of the following statements is true?
A. Contaminated lead should be placed into a solid radioactive waste container
B. P-32 and S-35 should be placed into separate waste containers
C. P-32 can be placed in an H-3 container because H-3 has a longer half-life
D. Liquid scintillation cocktail vials should have the liquid poured off into the
liquid radioactive waste and the empty solid vial placed into the solid waste
30
7. EXPOSURE CONTROL AND PERSONNEL MONITORING
Radiation exposure is measured in the traditional units of roentgen (R), rad, and rem:
 Roentgen (R) is a measure of the charge produced in air from ionization by gamma and X-rays
only.
 Radiation absorbed dose (rad) is a measure of the energy deposited by any type of ionizing
radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, X-ray, neutron) in a unit mass of any type of material.
 The rem is a unit of dose equivalence, a common scale for equating relative hazards of various
types of ionization in terms of equivalent risk.
Because one roentgen, rad, or rem of radiation is a fairly large amount of radiation, exposure levels are
typically given in units of mR, mrad, or mrem. 1000 millirem would be equal to 1 rem of exposure.
Radiation is a natural part of our environment. We are all exposed to radiation every day of our lives
from natural background sources such as from the sun, outer space, and from radioactive material that is
found naturally in the earth’s air and soil. According to the National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements Report No. 160, the average person is exposed to a dose of approximately 620 mrem per
year: approximately 300 mrem from natural sources and 320 mrem from man-made source such as X-rays
and other medical procedures.
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
Occupational exposure means the exposure to ionizing radiation that occurs while working with
radioactive material. It includes internal exposure to radioactive material as well as external exposure
to radiation. Everyone trained by Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) and working under a
Supervisor's Authorization to use radioactive material is considered "occupationally exposed" to
radiation.
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations (10 CFR 20.1201) limit the annual occupational
dose to individuals to:
 5,000 mrem total effective dose equivalent (whole body exposure)
 15,000 mrem eye dose equivalent
 50,000 mrem shallow dose equivalent to the skin or any extremity (hands)
 50,000 mrem to any individual organ or tissue other than the eye
 For minors (personnel under 18 years of age) the limits are 10% of these listed.
 500 mrem over the duration of the pregnancy to the fetus of a declared pregnant woman
At Penn State, occupational radiation exposures are almost always less than 100 mrem a year for
whole body exposures and less than 200 mrem for extremity exposures.
NRC regulations require that the total effective dose equivalent to individuals not working with
radioactive material may not exceed 100 mrem per year or 2 mrem in any one hour. These public
exposure limits apply to anyone not explicitly trained to work with radioactive material or radiation
producing equipment.
Exposure Limits During Pregnancy
The exposure to the fetus of a declared pregnant woman may not exceed 500 mrem during the
duration of the pregnancy. A "declared pregnant woman" is a radiation worker who is pregnant and
has officially declared her pregnancy in writing to the Radiation Safety Officer. An example of the
type of letter required is shown below.
31
“I, (your name) am a radiation worker at Penn State working in Professor (name)’s laboratory
in (room and building). I am pregnant and my child was conceived on or about (date) and is
expected on or about (date). I normally work with the following types and amounts of
radioactive material: (example: P-32, 1 mCi per week).”
Include your signature, date of letter, e-mail address, and phone number. After the letter is received,
a member of the EHS staff will contact you in order to discuss your current radiological work
situation and determine if any extra precautions or monitoring may be needed.
PERSONNEL DOSIMETRY
The University supplies personal monitoring equipment to persons who receive or might receive an
effective dose equivalent in excess of 10% of the annual occupation dose limits. Personal monitoring
equipment is also required for anyone working at the Breazeale Nuclear Reactor or who enters a high
radiation area. A high radiation area is an area where radiation levels are in excess of 100 mrem per
hour.
Even though it is unlikely that any University personnel would receive more than 10% of the limits,
personal monitoring is required in many instances in order to record and evaluate the dose received.
EHS staff will determine the type of personal monitoring equipment required in each case and will
supply it to the user. Individuals who have been provided with such equipment, for any reason, are
required to use it as specified.
Penn State uses the LUXEL dosimeter supplied by Landauer, Inc. for whole body monitoring and
thermoluminescent ring dosimeters for extremity monitoring. These monitors are capable of
measuring the radiation dose from exposure to X-ray, gamma ray, and higher energy beta radiation.
However, these devices are insensitive to low energy radiation, such as that emitted by H-3, C-14, S35, Ca-45, Fe-55, or I-125. Therefore, dosimeters will not be issued to people who will only be
working with these low energy emitting isotopes.
Dosimeters are typically issued on a quarterly basis. Once you have been issued a dosimeter, you will
receive a replacement badge every January, April, July and October. The quarterly exchange may be
completed through a central department contact or your new badge may arrive by campus mail.
Simply pop out the old badge from its holder and snap in the replacement. Place the old badge back
in the envelope and return to EHS by campus mail as soon as possible. Students taking classes at the
Breazeale Nuclear Reactor, such as NucE 450 and 451, will be issued badges on a semiannual basis.
Dosimeters must be returned to EHS as soon as replacements are received, even though an individual
may not have worked with radiation during the issue period. This is to ensure that the University has
a continuous record for the time periods during which an individual might have been exposed to
radiation. Supervisors must notify EHS to terminate dosimeter service when an individual leaves the
University or discontinues activities that require personal monitoring.
There will be a fee charged for lost or late dosimeters that must be paid by the individual or the
individual’s Supervisor. There may also be a fee charged to Supervisors for not notifying EHS that
persons who had been issued dosimeters have left campus.
Dosimeter records are maintained by EHS and are available to each individual upon written request.
Users will be notified by EHS if their dosimeter has a reading in excess of 10% of the average
quarterly limit, i.e. greater than 125 mrem in one quarter for adults.
32
How to Wear Your Dosimeter
If you have been issued a whole body badge, it should be worn on the upper torso, between your
waist and collar. If wearing a lab coat, they should be worn on the outside of the lab coat.
If you have been issued an extremity ring dosimeter, wear your dosimeter on the hand that would be
closest to the radioactive material. For example, if a right handed person is going to be pipetting from
a stock bottle of radioactive material, you would want to wear your ring badge on your left hand since
that is the hand that will be holding the bottle of radioactive material.
Ring badges should be worn UNDER your gloves so it does not get contaminated. It should also be
facing the source, as shown in the picture here.
Remember
 It is important to understand that a personnel dosimeter can only monitor your radiation
exposure. It cannot protect you from radiation.
 The dosimeters are not self-reading. They will not beep, change color, or notify you of any
exposure to radiation. After they are sent back to EHS, they must be returned to the vendor
for processing and reading.
 Dosimeters will only be issued to personnel who have completed radiation safety training.
 Dosimeters must be stored in an area away from radiation sources, such as your office, when
not in use. They should not be taken home.
 The dosimeter you are issued is only to be used at Penn State facilities.
 All dosimeters, including those that were not used, must be returned to EHS at the end of
each quarter.
 You must immediately report to EHS if you lose or damage your dosimeter.
 You must immediately report to EHS if you suspect you may have been overexposed.
 You should promptly notify EHS when the dosimeter is no longer needed.
 You will be notified of any dosimeter readings in excess of 10% of the regulatory dose limits.
 You may make a written request for your dosimetry results from the EHS office at any time.
 There will be a charge for dosimeters that are not returned promptly (10 days) after the new
dosimeters are issued.
 Under no circumstances may personal monitoring devices be shared.
 Under no circumstances are personal monitoring devices to be tampered with or deliberately
exposed to radiation in order to give a false or inaccurate measurement of the exposure.
 Intentionally exposing a dosimeter to a source in order to generate a false exposure reading
could lead to civil penalties, prosecution, and/or expulsion.
33
BIOASSAYS
In some cases it may be necessary to perform bioassays to determine whether internal exposure to
radioactive material has occurred. Bioassay requirements are established by EHS to insure
compliance with regulations and license conditions. Persons using radioiodine in amounts greater
than 1 millicurie at a time must have bioassays performed within seven days of such use. The assay
will normally be performed by measuring the radiation emitted by radioiodine in the thyroid gland.
EHS staff may extend this time limit under certain circumstances.
Persons using more than 100 mCi of tritium in unsealed form at one time must collect a urine sample
within 72 hours of the exposure and deliver it to EHS for evaluation. EHS staff may extend the time
limit under certain circumstances.
EHS may require bioassays for users of other radionuclides, or smaller amounts, based on the type of
experiment being performed, the amount of radioactive material being used, and the results of surveys
for contamination and airborne radioactivity.
ALARA
ALARA is a program developed in order to keep doses As Low As is Reasonably Achievable. Obtaining
higher doses in order to get an experiment done quicker is NOT “reasonable.” There are three main ways
to keep your doses ALARA: time, distance, and shielding.
Minimize the amount of time you spend in close proximity to a radioactive source. Perform practice runs
(without radioactive material) of experiments and procedures before you actually do them with the
radioactive material. Look for portions of the experiment in which you are unnecessarily exposed to the
radioactive material. You should also try to identify portions of the experiment that can be altered in
order to decrease exposure times.
Maximize the distance between yourself and the radioactive source. The inverse square law states that if
you double the distance between yourself and the source, your dose will decrease by a factor of four. If
you triple it, the dose will decrease nine-fold.
Use appropriate shielding when necessary. Gamma emitting isotopes should be shielded with lead or
leaded acrylic. For all alpha and low to medium energy beta emitters, such as H-3, C-14, and S-35, no
shielding is really necessary since the alpha and beta particles only have enough energy to travel a few
inches in air.
For high energy beta emitters, such as P-32, use Plexiglas shielding. Similar materials such as plastic,
acrylic, or Lucite would also be appropriate. As a general rule, do not use thin sheets of lead to shield
high energy beta emitters. Doing so could result in the production of bremsstrahlung X-rays. As the
negatively charged beta particle passes near the positively charged nucleus of an element, it will be
attracted to the nucleus. This causes the beta particle to rapidly decelerate and give up its kinetic energy
in the form of an X-ray. The denser the material, such as lead, the greater the number and possible energy
of the X-rays produced.
P-32 is typically shipped in Plexiglas vials which will stop nearly all the beta particles, but will produce
some low energy X-rays. Higher activity shipments of P-32 may have a lead shield around the Plexiglas
to help shield the bremsstrahlung X-rays produced in the Plexiglas.
34
ALARA Policy
Federal, state and University regulations limit the amount of radiation dose allowed to adult and
minor radiation workers, members of the public, and the fetus of a declared pregnant radiation
worker. It is the policy of Penn State University, as established by the University Isotopes
Committee, that the release of radioactive material and the exposure of people to ionizing radiation be
kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA). The University's ALARA policy is based on the
following three principles:
 Exposures of personnel to radiation or the release of radioactive material to the environment may
not exceed the limits in the federal and state regulations.
 Unplanned exposure of personnel or uncontrolled releases to the environment that exceed 10% of
permissible limits will be investigated by the Radiation Protection Office to determine whether
the exposures or releases were ALARA and whether action is required to limit future exposures
or releases. Planned operations with estimated exposures or releases that exceed 10% of the
permissible limits will be subject to an ALARA review by Radiation Protection staff prior to
beginning the operation.
 Exposures and releases that do not exceed 10% of the permissible limits are low enough that no
further consideration of ALARA is necessary.
EXAM QUESTIONS
26. The average occupational radiation exposure for workers at Penn State is usually as much as their
average background radiation exposure from natural sources of radiation.
A. True
B. False
27. If you have been issued a personnel dosimeter, your radiation exposure records are maintained
and available from whom?
A. Environmental Health and Safety
B. University Isotopes Committee
C. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
D. Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection
28. What is the allowable dose to a fetus for a woman who has declared her pregnancy in writing to
the Radiation Safety Officer?
A. 500 mrem
B. 500 rem
C. 100 mrem
D. 100 rem
29. The three main ways you can keep your radiation exposure As Low As Reasonably Achievable is
to minimize the distance between yourself and the source, maximize the time near the source, and
use appropriate shielding when necessary.
A. True
B. False
30. P-32 is best shielded using something like Plexiglas, plastic, or acrylic instead of something
denser like thin sheets of lead.
A. True
B. False
35
8. SPILLS AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE
No matter how careful we are, accidents and emergency situations do happen. For any life
threatening emergency, such as a heart attack or fire, call 911 IMMEDIATELY. Lifesaving concerns
take precedence over any concern for radioactive contamination or security requirements.
ALWAYS!
For minor, non-life threatening incidents or spills involving chemical, biological, or radiological
material, during normal working hours call Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) at (814) 8656391. After hours or on the weekends call University Police at (814) 863-1111. The University
Police have contact numbers for all EHS staff. Once they are notified by University Police, EHS will
contact you directly.
If a spill is of a large or unknown quantity, is widespread or the extent of the contamination is
unknown, immediately call EHS and your Supervisor. EHS must be immediately notified whenever
any of the following conditions apply:
 The spill involves greater than 10 microcuries of any radionuclide
 The spill involves any quantity of iodine-125 or iodine-131 in the form of NaI
 The spill involves any quantity of uranium, thorium, or other alpha emitting radionuclide
 The spill has the potential to contaminate areas outside your laboratory such as offices,
hallways, or elevators
 The laboratory is shared by two or more research groups
 Contamination is found on anyone’s shoes, skin, or clothing , excluding laboratory coats and
gloves
 You are not confident that you have the ability to survey and decontaminate the area on your
own.
SMALL SPILLS
If an incident involves a spill of a small quantity of radioactive material, and you are not trained in
how to clean up the spill or do not have proper clean-up materials, call your Supervisor and EHS for
assistance.
On the other hand, if an incident involves a spill of a small quantity of radioactive material in a small
well defined area, it is a material with which you are familiar, and you have been trained in proper
clean-up procedures, then you are expected to immediately address the problem.
A simple concept to remember if you have a spill is you need to learn how to SWIM: STOP the spill,
WARN others in the area, ISOLATE the area, MINIMIZE exposure by cleaning up the spill. In a
little bit more detail, the steps you should take when cleaning up a spill of radioactive material are
shown on the following page.
Notification of EHS is not required but is advisable. EHS staff will not decontaminate your
laboratory. They will be happy to help train, supervise, and monitor your activities to ensure that all
areas have been properly decontaminated.
It is important to understand that there is usually no penalty imposed by the University Isotopes
Committee (UIC) on laboratory groups who detect a spill of radioactive material, take appropriate
corrective measures, and promptly notify EHS.
36
RADIOACTIVE SPILL CLEANUP PROCEDURE
1. STOP the spill.
2. WARN others in the laboratory. This will help minimize the spread of the contamination.
3. ISOLATE the area. Prevent anyone from walking through the spill area. If there is any sign
of hallway contamination, fix ropes across the hall at least 10 feet from the laboratory door on
both sides of the lab. Enforce the no-pass rule and station someone in the hall to stop traffic.
4. MINIMIZE exposure to radioactive material. Laboratory coats and gloves are required.
Shoe covers may be required.
5. CALL FOR HELP. The laboratory Supervisor should be present to organize the cleanup.
The Supervisor should call in all staff and students. Request help from EHS by calling 814865-6391.
6. ESTABLISH A CLEAN AREA. This area should be inside the room if possible, in the hall
if not. Issue plastic bags as shoe covers. Bench paper is handy for covering floors to make a
clean area.
7. SURVEY ALL LAB PERSONNEL. Record the results (e.g., Eric, left shoe: 10,000 cpmGM at 1cm; Kendra, palm of right hand: 950 cpm-GM at 1 cm). Pay special attention to skin
contamination. Measure the contamination levels prior to a quick clean, clean then recheck
to see if the contamination levels are decreasing. Clean the skin with lots of room
temperature water. Survey people in neighboring labs if widespread problems seem possible.
Ask your neighbors to survey their own labs.
8. DETERMINE if the chemical composition of the spill could cause airborne particulate
contamination if the spill were allowed to dry. If possible, mop the spill immediately.
9. SURVEY PUBLIC AREAS. Have someone without contaminated shoes survey the hall,
elevator, stairs, etc. If contamination is found outside the laboratory, expand the roped-off
potentially contaminated area. Laboratory personnel should clean the halls while others
continue to survey the other public areas. Extend the roped off area as necessary. Do not
decontaminate inside laboratories until all public areas are clean.
10. SURVEY THE ROOM. Keep people out of the laboratory until a survey of the room is
completed. Smears are not necessary unless it is a tritium spill, but documentation is
necessary. This is to find the extent of the contamination so that it is not spread further
during the decontamination phase.
11. CLEAN AND DECONTAMINATE ALL AREAS. Work from cleaner areas towards areas
with more contamination. Clean floors and other public areas before benches and private
areas. Survey shoes regularly. Change gloves whenever they are contaminated. Borrow
extra meters, gloves, bench paper, paper towels, and other cleaning tools from neighboring
laboratories. Do not remove contaminated shoes. Place plastic bags over shoes and walk
carefully or stand on paper towels and shuffle carefully.
12. RESURVEY the room to verify that all areas have been properly decontaminated and
document your results.
37
INJURIES
EHS must be notified as soon as possible for any incidents involving a wound and personal
contamination (external or internal). The priority must always be given to life saving measures if the
injured person is seriously hurt. Call 911 immediately for assistance, then call EHS. Make sure that
medical personnel are aware that their patient is contaminated, and that they themselves must, after
delivering their patient to the hospital, be checked for possible contamination.
If an incident involves personal contamination follow this general procedure:
 Remove contaminated clothing
 Flush contaminated skin with an abundance of warm (not hot) water
 After this initial rinse, clean contaminated skin with mild soap
 With small wounds, encourage slight bleeding to flush wounds, then cover with tape to
prevent internal contamination
ACCIDENTS HAPPEN
The picture on the following page is from a real accident that happened several years ago in Althouse
Laboratory. This is an example of a large spill situation.
The bookshelves pulled away from the wall and fell onto the radioactive work bench, knocking over
the secondary container holding two liquid radioactive waste jugs. One of the jugs was full but had
its lid securely tightened. The radioactive liquid waste is still in its jug. The other jug was being
stored without its lid on, and with a funnel in the top of the jug.
THIS IS NOT HOW LIQUID WASTE CONTAINERS SHOULD BE STORED!
This accident happened overnight when no one was in the laboratory. The open jug of liquid waste
spilled all of its contents onto the pile of journals, floor, under the bench at the left, and into the aisle
to the left that you cannot see in this picture.
When laboratory personnel arrived the next day they immediately isolated the area and called
Environmental Health and Safety. They did not attempt to start cleaning it up because this spill was
beyond their capabilities and could have easily led to personal contamination, especially on their
shoes, and potentially spreading contamination outside their laboratory.
IMMEDIATELY CALLING EHS WAS THE RIGHT THING TO DO!
38
39
EXAM QUESTIONS
31. What should you do if discover radioactive contamination on your skin?
A. Notify Environmental Health and Safety
B. Notify your Supervisor
C. Try to remove the contamination using soap and warm water
D. All of the above
32. Who should you immediately call if there is a fire in a radioactive material laboratory?
A. 911
B. Authorized Supervisor
C. Environmental Health and Safety
D. None of the above
33. If you find radioactive contamination on the floor you should call Environmental Health and
Safety so they can decontaminate the floor for you.
A. True
B. False
34. After a small spill of radioactive material in your laboratory you should try and stop the spill,
warn others in the area that you have had a spill, isolate the area around the spill, and begin
cleanup of the spill so as to minimize potential exposure.
A. True
B. False
40
9. VIOLATIONS
While there are many rules and regulations regarding the use of radioactive material, Environmental
Health and Safety (EHS) staff have been directed by the University Isotopes Committee (UIC) to
order the immediate suspension of a Supervisor’s Authorization if they discover:
 Food or drink in a posted “Radioactive Material” room, or
 Radioactive material in a non-radioactive waste container
Suspension means that all work with radioactive material must stop and be put into a safe condition. This
includes experiments that were in process at the time of the suspension. In situations where the violation
is discovered in a room shared by multiple Authorized Supervisors, all Supervisors are immediately
suspended. Use of radioactive material may not resume until the Supervisor has taken action to correct
the problem and has received written approval to resume work from the UIC.
No foods or beverages may be stored,
prepared, or consumed in areas where
radioactive material is authorized or used.
Nor may food or beverage containers be
washed in these laboratory areas. Student
desks and cubicles at the end of laboratory
benches in posted rooms are not approved
for the consumption or storage of food or
drink. Also, the disposal of radioactive
material into normal trash containers, biohazard containers, or anyplace other than
into proper approved radioactive waste
containers is prohibited. It indicates
improper disposal methods and a loss of
control of licensed material.
Another situation that may result in the suspension of an approved Authorization is the failure to maintain
security. All radioactive material, including radioactive waste, must be kept secure from unauthorized
removal, even for short periods of time. This can be accomplished by keeping the laboratory locked at all
times, by securing the material within the lab in locked refrigerators/freezers, or cabinets for waste.
Corrective Actions
In cases involving an immediate suspension, the Supervisor responsible for the violation must prepare
a written statement to the UIC explaining what measures will be taken in order to ensure that such
occurrence which led to the violation will not happen again. The Supervisor should send an email to
the Chair of the UIC and the Radiation Safety Officer. The Chair will then discuss the
communication with the rest of the UIC. The Chair will then notify the Supervisor when the
laboratory may resume work or if there are other corrective actions that may be required by the
Committee.
It is important to understand that the UIC is required to ensure that all users of radioactive material
comply with the regulations and license conditions. State and federal regulators can impose base civil
penalty for violations by an academic licensee starting at $5,000. Individuals are also subject to civil
penalties if they willfully violate state or federal regulations, or the conditions of the radioactive
material licenses. Such violations usually result in corrective actions that affect all persons working
with radioactive material, not just the individuals responsible for the infractions. The UIC does not
hesitate to impose sanctions on those who do not comply with the conditions of their Authorizations.
41
EXAM QUESTIONS
35. When is it okay to eat or drink in an area posted for radioactive material use?
A. Never
B. Birthdays and special occasions like a thesis defense
C. Only if there is no radioactive material actually in the room
D. After 7:00 PM
36. Users of radioactive material can be subject to civil penalties for willfully violating state or
federal regulation, or conditions of the University’s licenses.
A. True
B. False
37. All of the following problems may result in a Supervisor having their Authorization immediately
suspended EXCEPT for what?
A. Contamination found on a refrigerator door handle
B. A cup of coffee in a laboratory posted for radioactive material work
C. A contaminated glove in a biohazard waste container
D. All of the above can result in an immediate suspension
38. A Supervisor who has had their Authorization to use radioactive material suspended can resume
work once they notify the University Isotopes Committee Chair of the violation.
A. True
B. False
42
10. SUMMARY
Though each laboratory may have specific experimental protocols they follow, there are specific rules and
procedures that have been established by the University Isotopes Committee (UIC) that all users must
follow. These University Laboratory Rules and Procedures can be found posted in every radioactive
material use room and are listed below.
1. Radioactive material may only be possessed or used in accordance with Authorizations issued by
the UIC unless specifically exempted by the UIC.
2. Persons working in laboratories in which radioactive material is used must be familiar with the
regulations and radiation safety procedures. New personnel must contact Environmental Health
and Safety (EHS) to arrange for required safety instruction before starting work with radioactive
material.
3. Orders for shipment of radioactive material to and from the University and transfers between
Supervisors within the University must be processed through EHS.
4. Inventory forms for radioactive material must be kept current. Completed inventory forms must
be returned to EHS when the material has been used up or has decayed to an insignificant activity
level.
5. Persons using radioactive material are responsible for conducting routine surveys to detect
contamination or excessive radiation levels each time unsealed radioactive material is used.
6. Persons using radioactive material are responsible for the immediate decontamination of facilities
that become contaminated.
7. Pipetting by mouth is prohibited in laboratories.
8. Persons working with dispersible radioactive material, not in a closed container, must wear
laboratory coats, or other protective clothing and appropriate protective gloves.
9. Eating, drinking, and the storage of food or beverages are prohibited in areas where unsealed
radioactive material is used or stored.
10. Radioactive material must only be discarded into appropriately labeled radioactive waste
containers.
11. All unattended containers holding more than 1 microcurie of radioactive material must be labeled
with the radiation trefoil, “CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL,” the radionuclide present,
the date, the activity, and the name of the person responsible for the material. Items that may
become contaminated or normally contain radioactive material must be labeled with the radiation
trefoil and “CAUTION, RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL.”
12. Licensed radioactive material in storage must be secure from unauthorized removal or access.
Radioactive material not in storage must be controlled and under constant surveillance.
13. The loss or theft of radioactive material must be immediately reported to EHS.
ADDITIONAL TRAINING AND INFORMATION
This initial training only meets the minimum requirements for working with radioactive material at Penn
State. It is the responsibility of the laboratory Supervisor to ensure that each person has had adequate
training in the specific radionuclide techniques associated with their work. Additional training from EHS
may also be required for those working with specific or unusual radiation safety hazards such as those
performing radio-iodinations, high activity sealed sources, special nuclear material, gases, or large
amounts of iodine-125 or phosphorous-32. Please contact EHS and ask to talk with someone from the
Radiation Protection Office to schedule an appointment.
In addition to this initial training, everyone who works with radioactive material, or who is issued a
radiation dosimeter for access to the Radiation Science and Engineering Center facility, is required to
complete an annual retraining provided by EHS. This refresher training is usually a newsletter that all
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users must read and acknowledge that they have reviewed the material. The UIC expects that all
Authorized Supervisors will promptly comply with annual retraining requirements for themselves and
their staff, and certify completion in a timely manner to EHS. Failure for a laboratory group to comply
with the retraining requirement may result in the suspension of the laboratory’s Authorization to Use
Radioactive Material.
Anyone who has not completed three or more consecutive annual retraining sessions must again attend
the Initial Radionuclide Safety Training program given by EHS. This could happen if someone did not
work with radioactive material for three years, or left the University for that time.
COMPLETING THIS INITIAL TRAINING
After you have completed reviewing this material and the take home exam, you will need to register
for the hands-on portion of this this initial training. To register:
 Go to: http://www.ehs.psu.edu/training/index.cfm
 Click on the "EHS On-line Course Registration" link. You will next need to login through
the PSU "Web Access" account, and that will take you directly to the "EHS Course
Registration Page"
 Select the "Courses" tab
 Select "Radiation Safety"
 Select "Radionuclide Safety (Initial)"
 Choose "Enroll" for one of the upcoming available classes
For any questions regarding radiation safety, please contact:
Environmental Health and Safety - Radiation Protection Office
228 Academic Projects Building
University Park, PA 16802-2303
Phone: (814) 865-6391
Fax: (814) 865-7225
http://www.ehs.psu.edu
EXAM QUESTIONS
39. Additional training from Environmental Health and Safety is also required for which of the
following?
A. Those performing radio-iodinations
B. Those using more than 5 mCi of P-32
C. Neither A or B are correct
D. Both A and B are correct
40. After completing this exam you still need to go online and register for the hands-on portion of
this Initial Radionuclide Safety course.
A. True
B. False
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WEB LINKS
Environmental Health and Safety – Radiation Protection
http://www.ehs.psu.edu/radprot/index.cfm
Rules and Procedures for Users of Radioactive Material at The Pennsylvania State University
http://www.ehs.psu.edu/radprot/rad_rules.pdf
Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations
http://www.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/cfrassemble.cgi?title=201110
Title 25 of the Pennsylvania Code
http://www.pacode.com/secure/data/025/025toc.html
Core of the Penn State Breazeale Nuclear Reactor operating at 1 MW thermal power.
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