Chapter 2- Theories of Child Development
Researchers and educators hold several distinct sets of beliefs, or theories, about how children grow and
develop. One theory hold that children simply mature as they grow older. Another is that the environment
shapes what children become. (Nature v. Nurture)
I.
Theories defined
A. A theory is a system of beliefs about something.
B. A child development theory is an integrated collection of beliefs about why children
behave, think, and feel as they do
C. How a teacher responds to incidents depends on what he or she believes about why a
student behaves as he does. The teacher's decisions will also depend upon his or her
theory about the child's development
D. No single universally accepted theory exists
E. Theories about children are extremely practical
F. A theory can guide professional practice by ensuring that there is an underlying purpose
for classroom routines and that the process of educating young children is carried out
consistently
II.
Maturationist theory
A. This theory holds that children learn and behave as they do because they have inborn
predispositions to do so; what we become is genetically predetermined.
B. There is little importance in a child's environment
C. A metaphor for this theory is that of a child being like a growing plant. Given the basic
nutrients of life loving care, safety, and a healthy diet-children will grow and flourish in a
predetermined way.
D. Children who are placed in rigidly academic classrooms or are expected to perform
difficult tasks before they are ready are likely to exhibit problematic behaviors
E. Studies of identical twins raised apart have been found to show similar characteristic in
many different areas of development, including activity level, sociability, attention span,
impulsivity, introgression/extroversion, and propensity to mental health problems such as
schizophrenia or alcoholism
F. Personality traits such as boldness or timidity can be identified in infancy and persist into
adulthood
IV.
Critique and multicultural analysis of the Maturationist point of view
A. Studies have found that environment plays an important role in child development
B. Research on IQ shows that there exists a heritability ratio-a mathematical estimate of the
role of genetics in determining intelligence.
C. Estimates suggest that over half of innate intelligence can be explained by environment
D. Although its messages of tolerance and acceptance of differences are valuable, care
should be taken not to assign too great a role to genetics which could lead to inaction in
the classroom when children need support
E. Racial differences in children's behavior and learning are just that-differences not genetic
deficits
V.
Behaviorist theory
A. Behaviorists contend that all that children are and will become is derived from
experience.
B. From this point of view, a child's mind is a blank slate to be filled by the environment
C. Behaviorists believe that children are born with certain rudimentary facilities such as an
ability to learn and a nervous system that allows perceptual and motor growth
D. Advancement in any area of learning is simply a change in behavior
E. John Watson was the first to apply one form of behaviorism, classical conditioning to
children's learning.
F. Watson believed that through environmental conditioning a child could be shaped
behavior by behavior to become almost any type of person
G. B.F. Skinner developed a system of operant conditioning in which he attempted to show
that if children's desirable behaviors are rewarded systematically by adults, children are
more likely to perform those behaviors
H. A principle of operant conditioning is that children's behavior can be shaped only
gradually
I. Breaking down learning into manageable units and rewarding small steps forward are key
features of operant conditioning
J. Reinforcers such as verbal praise and tangible rewards should be given only after positive
behaviors have been performed. Punishment should not be used; undesirable behavior
should simply be ignored
K. Social cognitive learning theory- Albert Bandura argues that children acquire new
behaviors merely by observing others perform them
L. Children are most apt to learn behaviors they observe if they see these being reinforced
M. In his social cognitive learning study, Bandura found that children were more likely to
behave aggressively if they watched a model punch a doll and then receive rewards for
this
N. Teachers can help one child to interact positively by openly praising another who is
behaving appropriately
VII.
Critique and multicultural analysis of behaviorist point of view
A. A major concern has been that modeling and reinforcement do not fully explain learning
B. Children demonstrate many behaviors and learning in other areas that cannot be explained by an
imitation and reinforcement theory
C. Learning is more complex than a mere change in overt behavior
D. Development is internal and personal; it involves the mental action of children not just external
behavior by adults
E. Some families or cultural groups never use positive reinforcement, yet their children grow and
learn
F. Which behaviors should be reinforced and upon whose values, histories, and worldviews should
these decisions be based?
VIII.
Psychoanalytic theory
A. Psychoanalysts contend that children's emotional health stems from an ability to resolve
key conflicts between their internal desires and impulses and pressures from the outside
world
B. Sigmund Freud claimed that needs and desires are located in the id.
C. The id creates a constant pressure to satisfy basic drives
D. The ego emerges in early infancy to keep the id in check and redirects the demands of the
id so that need fulfillment is sought only at appropriate times
E. At the end of early childhood the superego appears within the personality and comprises
the conscience in which all the values and mores of one's culture are included
F. Erik Erikson proposed eight ages through which humans must pass from birth to
adulthood if they are to feel competent and self-fulfilled
G. He proposed that healthy personality growth is characterized by a resolution of inner
conflicts
H. Each stage of emotional development involves a struggle between two opposing
emotional states-positive and negative
I. The role of teachers and parents in this process is to assist children in striving toward
positive emotional states which are critical to their particular stage of development
J. Four of Erikson's stages involve conflicts in early childhood.
K. The first of these conflicts between trust and mistrust occurs in infancy (Security v.
Insecurity)
L. The second of these conflicts between autonomy and shame and doubt occurs during the
toddler years
M. The emotionally healthy toddler gradually acquires a sense of autonomy-a feeling of
individuality and uniqueness apart from his or her parents
N. Children who develop a strong sense of autonomy as toddlers will desire to take action
and assert themselves during their preschool years
O. The urge to make creative efforts is called initiative
P. Moderate feelings of guilt can play a positive role in development while overwhelming
guilt inhibits emotional growth
Q. Children who have genuine successes in the early years and whose accomplishments are
accepted and appreciated by adults and peers will develop a sense of industry while those
who consistently experience failure and lack of acceptance will develop a sense of
inferiority
X.
Critique and multicultural analysis of psychoanalytic point of view
A. It does not explain development of the whole child only a narrow range of emotional
states
B. The theory does not appreciate the interrelatedness of intellectual, physical, social, and
emotional growth
C. The theories tend to view the development of male children as normal or ideal and
portray unique features of female development as deficient
XI.
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
A. The cognitive -developmental theory holds that mental growth is the most important
element in children's development
B. All aspects of human life are directly influenced by thinking and language
C. Learning involves intricate and internal mental actions; learning occurs through elaborate
processes inside the learner's mind, not outside of it
D. Jean Piaget integrated elements of psychology biology, philosophy, and logic into a
comprehensive explanation of how knowledge is acquired
E. Knowledge is constructed through the action of the learner
F. Piaget suggested use of assimilation-assimilating new phenomenon into something
already known and accommodation-modifying previous understandings
G. If accommodation did not occur, learners would never modify their thinking about things
H. If assimilation did not occur there would be no previous understanding to rely on
I. The ideal learning arrangement is one in which the child is confronted with a conflict or
dilemma that is personally meaningful but which causes puzzlement and requires a
modification of previous thinking
J. Humans advance through stages of cognitive development or intellectual development
K. Each stage of a child's life are marked by qualitatively different kinds of thinking
L. Babies are in the sensorimotor stage-they rely on action and the senses to know things
M. Preschoolers are in the preoperational stage-they are able to use internal thought but still
rely on perception and physical cues in the immediate environment for learning
N. Children in the elementary years are in the concrete operational stage- they engage in
purely abstract thought which is not tied to the physical
XIII.
Critique and multicultural analysis of cognitive-developmental point of view
A. Many multicultural scholars view cognitive-developmental perspectives as quite sensitive
to cultural and gender diversity because it focuses on developmental processes such as
assimilation and accommodation and because it does not emphasize the acquisition of
specific knowledge or skills which can vary in importance across cultures
XIV.
Sociocultural theory
A. Theorists of this group believe that thinking and learning are not as internal and
individual as Piaget proposed but are highly influenced by language, social interaction,
and culture
B. The originator of this theory, Lev Vygotsky argues that children construct knowledge
through action
C. He proposed that children engage in two distinct and independent mental activities in the
earliest months of life-nonverbal thought and nonconceptual speech
D. In nonverbal thought, children observe objects or events or perform actions without using
language
E. In nonconceptual speech, a child utters words or phrases without thinking about what
they mean
F. Language and thinking are at first separate processes
G. Eventually toddlers associates objects with labels
H. During the preschool and primary years, children engage in verbal thought in which
language and thinking are integrated and mutually supportive
I. Self-directed speech is a behavior that shows that young children are using language to
guide learning
J. Language is not merely a mode of expression but a fundamental tool for constructing
knowledge
K. Vygotsky proposes that teachers and parents scaffold children's learning-use language
and other social interactions to guide thinking
L. When children are faced with problems they can solve on their own adults should not
interfere
M. Independent thinking is an ultimate goal of teaching or parenting
N. If tasks are too challenging adults should offer direct solutions
O. When tasks are only slightly above a child's ability, adults can ask questions or give hints
that allow the child to solve problems independently
P. Parents and teachers should watch for moments when indirect guidance can be given-the
zone of proximal development
XVI.
Critique and multicultural analysis of Sociocultural point of view
A. Vygotsky's theory has been viewed as particularly practical with direct applications to
teaching and parenting
B. The Sociocultural theory receives high marks from multicultural scholars because it
views development as social and collective, rather than purely individual
XVII.
Ecological systems theory
A. This theory emphasizes the influence of the many institutions and settings-the
community, the school, the political system-within which children live
B. Urie Bronfenbrenner, the originator of this theory, maintains that the family, local social
service agencies, schools, state and federal governments, the media, and the current
political thinking of the time all must be considered in a comprehensive explanation of
human development
C. Ecology refers to the settings and institutions that influence the growing human being
D. He suggests that these ecologies lie in systems around the developing human
E. The first layer-microsystem-is comprised of all institutions, experiences, and influences
within the child's immediate environment including the family, pediatric services, the
school, teachers or child care providers, and peers
F. Interconnections among the units of the microsystem comprise the second layermesosystem
G. The exosystem is comprised of institutions or persons that do not actually touch
children's lives but which indirectly affect their experiences (ex. Friend of the family)
H. The final system is the macrosystem which contains the overarching values, ideologies,
laws, worldviews, and customs of a particular culture or society
XIX.
Critique and multicultural analysis
A. Certain risk factors-conditions that may lead to poor development-have been identified.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
poverty
lack of social services
violence in the community
poor housing
family disharmony
child abuse
B. Protective factors-conditions that may insulate children from the negative effects of
poverty or community violence-have been studied
1.
2.
3.
4.
positive home environment
attachment to parents
adequate housing and safe neighborhoods
positive preschool experience
C. The ecological theory has been viewed as culturally sensitive
D. Because ecological systems theory focuses on the social,
political, and
economic contexts in which development occurs, it is believed to be most
useful in identifying social issues concerning children in poverty of those
of historically under-represented groups