Name________________________________________
THE MONGOLS
The Rise of the Mongols
For centuries, the Mongol people had roamed the eastern steppe in loosely organized nomadic clans.
It took military and political genius to unite the Mongols into a force with a single purpose – conquest.
Genghis Khan Unites the Mongols
Around 1200, a Mongol clan leader named Temujin sought to unify the Mongols under his
leadership. He fought and defeated his rivals one by one. In 1206, Temujin accepted the title of Genghis
Khan, or “universal ruler” of the Mongol clans. Over the next 21 years, Genghis led the Mongols in
conquering much of Asia. While his primary goal was China, he first turned to the Islamic region west of
Mongolia. Genghis launched a campaign of terror across Central Asia. The Mongols destroyed one city
after another, and by 1225, Central Asia was under Mongol control.
Genghis the Conqueror
Several characteristics lay behind Genghis Khan’s success as a conqueror. First, he was a brilliant
organizer. He assembled his Mongol warriors into a mighty fighting force. Genghis followed the model of
the Chinese military by grouping his warriors in armies of 10,000 divided into 1,000-man brigades, 100man companies, and 10-man squads. He put his most battle-proven and loyal men in command of these
units.
Second, Genghis was a gifted strategist and various tricks to confuse his enemy. Sometimes, a small
Mongol cavalry unit would attack, then pretend to gallop away in flight. The enemy usually gave chase,
and the rest of the Mongol army would appear suddenly and slaughter the surprised enemy forces.
Finally, Genghis used cruelty as a weapon. He believed in terrifying his enemies into surrender. If a
city refused to open its gates to him, he might kill the entire population when he finally captured the palace.
The terror the Mongols inspired spread ahead of their armies, which led many town to surrender without a
fight.
The Mongol Empire
In less than 50 years, the Mongols conquered territory from China to Poland, creating the largest
unified land empire in history.
The Khanates and Mongols as Rulers
After Genghis’ death, his sons and grandsons continued his campaign of conquest by conquering
northern China as well as invading Korea and Russia. By 1260, the Mongols had divided their huge empire
into four regions, or khanates, each ruled by a descendant of Genghis Khan.
Many of the areas invaded by the Mongols never recovered. Entire populations of some cities were
wiped out. The Mongols also destroyed irrigation systems and thus the land could no longer support
settlement. While ferocious in war, the Mongols were quite tolerant in peace. They rarely imposed their
beliefs of way of life on those they conquered. Some Mongol rulers even adopted aspects of the people they
ruled. Two of the western Khanates adopted Islam. Growing cultural differences among the khanates
contributed to the eventual splitting up of the empire.
The Mongol Peace
From the mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, the Mongols imposed stability and law and order across
much of Eurasia. This period is sometimes called the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace. The Mongols
guaranteed safe passage for trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from one of end of the empire to
another.
Trade between Europe and Asia had never been more active. Ideas and inventions traveled along with the
trade goods. Many Chinese innovations, such as gunpowder, reached Europe during this period.
The Mongol Empire Expands
Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, assumed the title of Great Khan in 1260. In theory, the
Great Khan ruled the entire Mongol Empire. In reality, the empire had split into four khanates. So, Kublai
focused on extending the power and range of his own khanate, with his hopes on fulfilling the goal of his
grandfather to conquer all of China.
Beginning a New Dynasty
Kublai Khan’s armies finally defeated the Chinese in 1279. Never had a foreigner ever ruled the
whole country of China. As China’s new emperor, he founded a new dynasty called the Yuan Dynasty. The
Yuan era was an important period in Chinese history for several reasons. First, it united China for the first
time in over 300 years. Second, Mongol control opened China to greater foreign contact and trade. Finally,
Kublai and his successors tolerated Chinese culture and made few changes to the system of government.
Kublai enjoyed living a luxurious life as China’s emperor. He built a new square-walled capital at the site
of Beijing as a sign that he intended to make his mark as emperor of China.
Failure to Conquer Japan
After conquering China, Kublai Khan looked to conquer Japan. In 1274 and 1281, Kublai sent huge
fleets against Japan, one of which was the largest seaborne invasion force in history until World War II.
However, a typhoon swept furiously across the Sea of Japan and the Mongol ships were dashed to bits
against the rocky shore. For centuries afterward, the Japanese spoke respectfully of the kamikaze, or
“divine wind”, that had saved Japan.
Mongol Rule in China
Mongol ways would not work in a sophisticated civilization like China’s and the number of
Mongols was few compared to the huge Chinese population. Kublai would need to make use of nonMongol officials to help him rule successfully.
The Mongol rulers had little in common with their Chinese subjects, and the Mongols kept their
separate identity. They lived apart from the Chinese and obeyed different laws. Chinese were kept out of
high government, but served as officials on the local level. High government posts went to Mongols or to
foreigners, who were seen as more trustworthy since they had no local loyalties. Kublai Khan was an able
leader. He restored the Grand Canal and extended it, built a paved highway, and ensured the north a steady
supply of grain and other goods from the southern heartland.
Foreign Trade
Foreign trade increased under Kublai Khan, largely due to the Mongol Peace which made caravan
routes safe for trade and travel. Traders transported Chinese silk and porcelain, which were greatly valued
in Europe and western Asia, over the Silk Roads. They also carried such Chinese inventions as printing,
gunpowder, the compass, paper currency, and playing cards. Kublai further encouraged trade by inviting
foreign merchants to China such as Muslims from India, Central Asia, and Persia. Many European traders,
and travelers, including Christian missionaries, also reached China.
Marco Polo Visits China
The most famous European to visit China in these years was a young Venetian trader, Marco Polo.
He traveled by caravan on the Silk Roads, arriving at Kublai Khan’s court around 1275. He learned several
Asian languages in his travels, and Kublai sent him to various Chinese cities on government missions. Polo
served the Great Khan well for 17 years, and in 1292 left China to return to Venice.
Marco Polo later wrote a story of his travels and adventures. He spoke of China’s fabulous cities, its
fantastic wealth, and its innovations. He described the burning of “black stones” (coal) in Chinese homes,
the practical workings of Kublai’s government, and aspects of Chinese life. Polo’s stories were made into a
book which became an instant success in Europe, although readers saw it as a collection of tall tales.
End of Mongol Rule
During the last years of Kublai’s reign, weaknesses began to appear in Mongol rule. Kublai Khan’s
military expeditions in Southeast Asia suffered humiliating defeats and huge cost in lives and equipment.
The Chinese were overtaxed to cover the government’s burden. After Kublai’s death in 1294, the Yuan
Dynasty began to fade. Four different khans had the throne within 8 years. Rebellions broke out in many
parts of China. The Chinese had resented their Mongol rulers, and Mongol humiliation of the Chinese had
only increased under Kublai’s successors. The rebellions were fueled by famine, flood, disease, growing
economic problems, and corruption. In 1368, Chinese rebels finally overthrew the Mongols. The rebel
leader founded a new dynasty, the Ming.
Name___________________________Date________Per._____
The Rise of the Mongols
Who united the Mongol clans?
For what three reasons was Genghis Khan a successful
conqueror?
The Mongol Empire
How was the Mongol Empire divided
after the death of Genghis Khan?
Contrast what the Mongols were like
in war and what they were like in
times of peace.
The Mongol Empire Expands
Who assumed the title of Great Khan in 1260?
For what three reasons was this era important in Chinese
history?
Describe the Pax Mongolica and
compare this to the Pax Romana.
What does he finally do in 1279 and what new dynasty
does he set up?
What area was Kublai Khan unable to conquer and why?
Mongol Rule in China
Describe the attitude of the Mongols towards the Chinese
and the role of Chinese in Mongol government.
Why were foreigners used in high government posts?
Explain how foreign trade increased under Kublai Khan.
Who was Marco Polo and what is his significance?
The End of Mongol Rule
What are some reasons for the end of the Mongol Empire?