The Turbulent Sixties
(Kennedy-Nixon)
1. John F. Kennedy, democrat, was elected President of the United
States during the Election of 1960. John F. Kennedy served from
1961 to 1963. His vice president was Lyndon Baines Johnson,
democrat from Texas. Kennedy was 42 when elected president. He
was the only catholic ever elected and the youngest president.
A. The election of 1960 was a highly contested election. John F.
Kennedy, democrat, was running against Richard Nixon,
republican. Both were former friends who had served in the
Senate together. Both were very popular and the vote was close.
Kennedy barely won the election and many historians say it was
because the Chicago Graveyard votes. The republicans felt that
it was a stolen election and that Richard Nixon truly won the
Presidency. Nixon had served as the VP under President
Eisenhower and will later run for the United States Presidency
again and will be elected. This was the first election where TV
took hold of voting, shaping political opinions and influencing
voters. The first televised debates were aired between Kennedy
and Nixon. Kennedy appeared charismatic and Nixon very
stoic. Nixon had recently undergone knee surgery and was in
severe pain standing for long periods of time. Kennedy won the
debates.
B. Main issues of the campaign: Cold War and the economy.
Both candidates promised to boost the economy and portrayed
themselves as “Cold Warriors.” In other words, they both
pledged to stop the spread of communism. Kennedy feared a
“missile gap” stating that the United States lagged behind the
Soviet Union in missile production. Nixon denied this claim and
urged Americans to look at his experience—he had the experience
to guide America in the Cold War—he had been VP to
Eisenhower. Americans feared the spread of communism and
elected Kennedy.
B. Kennedy Mystique: Catholic & young—brought a Camelot
appeal to the presidency. He had a young wife, Jacqueline, and 2
small children: Caroline and John Jr. Reporters followed the
family everywhere. He also had a large extended family, many
involved in politics.
C. Kennedy’s Domestic Programs & International Affairs
1. New Frontier: Kennedy’s legislative agenda—proposed
legislation. The New Frontier proposed to: (a) aid
education, (b) create a Dept. of Urban Affairs, (c) help
migrant workers, and (d) improve the American economy.
Many of his programs were blocked by republicans and
southern democrats. Democrats from the south feared that
the New Frontier gave the President to much power and
spent excessively—they opposed the program.
2. During JFK’s presidency he promoted women’s rights. He
created the Presidential Commission for the Status of
Women and appointed Esther Peterson to the Women’s
Bureau of the dept. of Labor.
3. The Supreme Court made several rulings that change
domestic life in America. The Supreme Court Chief Justice
was Earl Warren. He was nominated by Eisenhower
(Republican) in 1953. The court became known as the
Warren Court. Due Process was extended to the states.
This meant that the 14th Amendment was extended to state
governments and that no individual could be treated
unfairly and that the courts must follow consistent
procedures when trying individuals. Warren Court ruled
on several cases that extended individual rights through due
process. Examples were:
(a) Brown v. Board of Education 1954: segregation in public
schools was ruled to be unconstitutional;
(b) Baker v. Carr 1962: federal courts would hear law suits
that sought to make states redraw electoral districts.
This case ruled one man one vote—equal representation
in voting districts. This outlawed gerrymandering—
creating voting districts to ensure a specific party
victory.
(c) Mapp v. Ohio 1961: any evidence that was seized
unlawfully could not be admissible into court—illegal!
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(d) Gideon v. Wainwright 1963:suspects who were arrested
were entitled to a court appointed attorney if they could
not afford one.
(e) Escobedo v. Illinois 1964: a person accused has a right
to an attorney during questioning.
(f) Miranda v. Arizona 1966: a policeman must inform a
person of the rights before they are arrested (you have
the right to remain silent, to an attorney, etc.).
(g) Engle v. Vitale 1962: state mandated prayer is schools
was ruled unconstitutional—outlawed teacher/principal
led school prayer.
4. Kennedy & the Cold War
(a) Flexible response Doctrine: Kennedy felt that
Eisenhower relied to heavily upon nuclear weapons and
that they should only be used in EXTREME situations.
JFK developed the flexible response doctrine which
stated that if nations needed help fighting off communist
nations, the president would push for a build u of
weapons and troops. JFK created the military “Special
Forces” which were a unit specifically designed to fight
guerilla warfare. This group became known as the
Green Berets.
(b) JFK sent aid to other nations. Especially Latin
America. He created the Alliance for Progress which
was a plan to aid Latin American governments. Over 10
years the USA pledged $20 billion to help Latin America
fight communism.
(c) JFK started the Peace Corps. This was an organization
of young Americans who went to 3rd world countries to
provide humanitarian services and provide stability.
(c) JFK institutes the Space Race! JFK stressed sending a
man to the moon. He felt that this was essential to
proving that capitalism was better than communism—
why? Who knows! In 1962 John Glenn became the 1st
American to orbit the Earth. 3 years later Saturn V
launched Apollo—a capsule that launched 3 men into
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orbit. July 16, 1969, Saturn V launched Neil Armstrong,
Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins were in Apollo. These
men landed on the moon. Armstrong’s famous quote:
“That’s one small step for man, one great leap for
mankind.”
(d) Bay of Pigs Fiasco: The first Cold war crisis for
Kennedy occurred in Cuba—90 miles off the coast of
Florida. Fidel Castro, a communist, had overthrown the
Cuban government. Castro immediately established ties
with the Soviet Union and this outraged Americans.
Under President Eisenhower, the CIA (Central
Intelligence Agency) had trained Cuban exiles to invade
the island. This was intended to ignite an uprising
against Castro. JFK approved of the plan and made
some changes. On April 17, 1961, 1400 armed Cuban
exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of
Cuba. The invasion was a disaster! The exiles boats hit
coral reefs, JFK cancelled air support and most of the
exiles were captured by Castro forces. The invasion
exposed an American plot to overthrow a neighbor’s
government.
(e) Construction of the Berlin Wall: June 1961
Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, wanted
to stop the flood of Germans pouring out of Communist
East Germany. He demanded that USA recognize
Communist east Germany and Great Britain, France
and the USA pull out of West Germany. JFK refused!
(f) Cuban Missile Crisis 1962—American intelligence
learned that Soviet technicians and equipment arrived
at Cuba. October 22, JFK announced on TV that USA
spy planes had taken photos of Soviet long range
missiles in Cuba. JFK ordered a naval blockade to stop
the USSR from delivering missiles to Cuba. JFK
ordered that USSR dismantle missiles already in Cuba.
Americans were on the brink of war. USSR offered the
USA a deal—they would remove missiles in Cuba if the
USA would remove missiles in Turkey (Russia’s
neighbor). The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the USA to
brink of a nuclear war. 2 things occurred: (1) a Nuclear
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Test Ban treaty was agreed to by USSR and USA, and
(2) a HOTLINE was created so that Kennedy and
Khrushchev could talk at any time.
4. Civil Rights during Kennedy’s years
Many black voters had supported JFK—so civil rights
was a domestic legislative focus. African Americans began
to push for desegregation in the south—it was maoving
slow. 1960 Greensboro Sit-in—spurred a series of other sit
ins. The sit-in movements sought equal treatment in
transportation, housing, education, employment, and voter
registration. Martin Luther King Jr. took the stage and
became the leader of the Civil Rights Movement. Major
legislation occurred after Kennedy was assassinated. Both
Kennedy and Eisenhower laid the foundation for the Civil
Rights Movement.
5. Death of President—November 22, 1963—John F.
Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald, a
Communist sympathizer. JFK was riding in a car with his
wife in Dallas, Texas when this occurred. Lyndon Baines
Johnson, VP, was sworn in as the President of the United
States of America. Oswald had lived in the USSR for a
period. As Oswald was being escorted from a jail, Jack
Ruby, assassinated Lee Harvey Oswald to protect others
who were involved in the crime. In 1964 the Warren
Commission (a group created to investigate the Kennedy
assassination) ruled that Oswald acted alone.
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THE PRESIDENCY OF LYNDON BAINES JOHNSON
6. Lyndon Baines Johnson assumed the role of President on November
22, 1963. He was sworn in on Air Force One in Dallas, Texas, on the
day of Kennedy’s assassination. Johnson decided to continue
Kennedy’s plan and push for Civil Rights, fighting poverty and
maintaining a strong stand against the spread of communism.
In 1964 Johnson (democrat) ran against Barry Goldwater
(republican) who was an outspoken conservative. Johnson won
the election by a landslide.
7. Johnson’s Domestic Affairs & International relations
a. The Great Society: During his campaign he promised to
Fight to end poverty. The Great Society was Johnson’s
vision for a more perfect and equitable nation. The
economy was strong and there was no reason why poverty
could not de decreased. Many African-Americans had
brought grievances that had to be addressed. Great
Society’s goals addressed 4 areas: health and welfare,
(2) education, (3) “War on Poverty”, and (4) Consumer and
Environmental Protection.
HEALTH AND WELFARE REFORMS UNDER GREAT
SOCIETY:
(1) Medicare-insurance for the elderly;
(2) Medicaid—insurance for the poor; and
(3) Child Nutrition Act—started school breakfast
programs;
EDUACTION PROGRAMS UNDER GREAT SOCIETY:
(4) Head Start—early educational intervention for
disadvantaged children;
(5) Education Act 1965—created billions of dollars for
elementary and secondary schools to be built in
America—the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act also provided funding for adult literacy and
education;
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(6) Higher Education Act- support college work study
programs, loans, scholarships, grants, etc for middle
income students;
WAR ON POVERTY GREAT SOCIETY REFORMS
(7) Office of Economic Opportunity-sought to improve life
in inner cities, such as: Job Corps, education training
for at risk children, etc.
(8) Housing and Urban Development (HUD)-established
new housing subsidy programs and made federal loans
and grants for housing easier to obtain.
(9) Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development
Act-helped revitalize urban areas through a variety of
social and economic programs.
CONSUMER AND ENVIROMENTAL PROTECTION
(10) Water Quality and Clean Air Act- supported standards
for the quality of air and water.
(11) Highway Safety Act-created training standards for
emergency technicians and supported a team effort
between federal, state and local highway officials.
(12) Fair Packaging and Labeling Act- required all
consumer products to have informative labels that
listed ingredients.
(B) CIVIL RIGHTS UNDER THE JOHNSON PRESIDENCY
Civil Rights had been a domestic agenda briefly addressed by
Harry Truman. President Dwight Eisenhower saw the true
start of the Civil Rights Movement and during his presidency
advances were made. John F. Kennedy expanded Civil Rights
and upon his death Johnson decided to carry out his ideas and
see that Civil Rights was achieved.
(1) March on Washington 1963—Martin Luther King, Jr. led
a group of over 200,000 people of all races to Washington
DC. He gave his “I Have a Dream Speech.” As a result,
the Civil Rights Act of 1964- this bill gave the federal
government the authority to enforce school desegregation
orders and to prohibit racial discrimination in all kinds of
public accommodations and employment.
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(2) 24th Amendment to the United States Constitution was
passed. The 24th Amendment abolished the poll tax in
federal elections. Its passage brought about Freedom
Summer-1964 blacks joined hands with many white civil
rights workers from the north who came to MS to register
blacks to vote.
(3) Voting Rights Act of 1965- In Selma, Alabama African
Americans made up 50% of the population and only 1%
were voters. This authorized the Attorney General of the
United States to send federal examiners to register
qualified voters, bypassing local officials who refused to
register African-Americans.
(4) Watts Riot, Los Angeles
5 days after Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act, a riot
broke out in an African-American neighborhood called the
Watts neighborhood in Los Angeles. It lasted 6 days and
took 14,000 National Guardsmen and 1500 law officers to
restore order. $45 million dollars worth of property was
destroyed in this riot. 34 people were killed and 900
injured. Nearly 400o fire destroyed 1300 buildings. The
loss was estimated to be $250 million. President Johnson
appointed the Kerner Commission to study the problem.
They made recommendations to prevent future riots. The
commission blamed white racism and white society for
most of the problems in the inner city.
(5) Black Power Movement erupted under Johnson’s
administration. Many young blacks thought this meant
literal black power for self defense reasons during the
movement. This was a clear rejection of Martin Luther
King Jr.’s ideas. The leader of SNCC (Student NonViolent Coordinating Committee) was Stokley Carmichael.
He promoted the idea that black power actually meant that
Africans should control their social, economic and political
direction of the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm X and
the Nation of Islam-Malcolm X became a symbol for the
Black Power Movement. He preached black nationalism.
He sought for blacks to segregate themselves from whites.
Irony is Malcolm X loved white women!
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(6) Black Panthers were a group Malcolm X followers. They
developed a 10 point program as their goals. Three
examples of these goals are: (a) black empowerment,
(b) end to racial oppression, (c) control of major institution
and services within the African American community,
such as hospitals, schools, etc.
(7) In Memphis, Tennessee, April 4, 1968, Martin Luther
King Jr. is assassinated by a sniper. Later that rear,
Robert Kennedy (JFK’s brother) sought the democratic
nomination to run for president and he was also
assassinated.
8. PRESIDENT EISENHOWER, KENNEDY, JOHNSON AND
NIXON DURING THE VIETNAM WAR
Dwight Eisenhower’s Presidency
In 1945 the United States became involved in Vietnam. Vietnam had been
an unnoticed French colony until Japan seized it. After World War II,
France wanted to take Vietnam back—reclaim it! Under Ho Chi Minh, the
communist leader of Vietnam, a nationalist movement started.
Ho Chi Ming immediately asked the United States for help and the United
States refused. Ho Chi Minh then formed the Vietminh. Ho Chi Minh was
aided by the Soviet Union and China in their fight against the French. At
Dien Bien Phu, a North Vietnamese town, the French were surrounded and
destroyed. The French asked United States President, Dwight Eisenhower,
for help. Eisenhower believed in the domino theory, once one country fell
to communism, they would all fall. Eisenhower wanted Vietnam free but did
not want to intervene. On May 7, 1954, the French started negotiations with
Ho Chi Minh at the Geneva Accords. This was a meeting that was held in
Switzerland to discuss the situation in Vietnam. Vietnam was divided upon
the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh was given the territory above the 17th parallel
and it became communist. The territory below the 17th parallel was anticommunist and wanted democratic elections. Ngo Dinh Diem led the south.
Ngo Dinh Diem was a Catholic, which was a minority in South Vietnam.
Diem had agreed to allow elections to take place in his country and later
stopped that from occurring. He stopped the proposed democratic elections
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in 1956 because he feared that North and South Vietnam would be reunited.
This decision started his downfall. Many of the South Vietnamese were
Buddhist and they feared that Ngo Dinh Diem would also eventually decide
to inflict his Catholic beliefs upon them. Diem created a religious crisis in
the south. He developed harsh policies on anyone who was Buddhist.
Several Buddhist monks actually set themselves on fire and this was aired on
national TV. They began to doubt his dedication to freedom since he stopped
the elections. It is also important to know that Ho Chi Minh never accepted
the 17th parallel as the division between the two countries. In Ho Chi Minh’s
mind, there was no division in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh launched a civil war
in the south. H formed the Viet Cong, which were communist guerillas in
the south. The Viet Cong’s role was to infiltrate the south, appear to support
Diem and eventually overthrow him. At this point the United States decided
to increase their involvement in Vietnam. President Eisenhower immediately
sent 650 military advisors to train the South Vietnamese to defend
themselves.
John F. Kennedy’s Presidency
Diem had created a religious crisis/war in the south. His harsh policies
against the Buddhist, as well as, their televised suicides, had drawn national
attention to South Vietnam. John F. Kennedy had become the United
States President and he realized that the war could not be won without the
removal of Diem. In November of 1963, a coup e tat was staged to
overthrow the South Vietnamese government. Diem was executed, as well
as his brother. John F. Kennedy was shocked by the executions. Kennedy
knew that Diem needed to be removed from the government, but he did not
want him executed. John F. Kennedy realized that South Vietnam needed a
stable government, but he was killed himself before he could ensure this.
John F. Kennedy’s VP, Lyndon Johnson became President.
PRESIDENT LYNDON JOHNSON
Once Lyndon Johnson takes over, a policy of escalation was started.
During Johnson’s 1st month as President over 5000 more troops were sent to
South Vietnam. In the Gulf of Tonkin, in international waters. American
vessels were attacked unprovoked. Lyndon Johnson asked the United States
Congress for a war resolution. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution, which gave the President the power to take “all necessary
measures.” Critics declared that the Vietnam War was an “illegal war”
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because Congress had not declared war. However, Lyndon Johnson sent
increasing military support to save the South Vietnamese government in
Saigon. The controversy over the legality of the war caused two groups to
arise: the HAWKS and DOVES. The hawks were avid supporters of the
war. They believed that the Soviet Union had encouraged the North
Vietnamese to take over South Vietnam. The hawks wanted to stop the
aggression in Vietnam. The doves thought that Vietnam was in the midst of
a civil war between the North Communist and Nationalist. The doves felt the
issue was a “Vietnam” issue.
In February of 1965, in Pleiku, the VC or Viet Cong attacked United
States military base killing 7 marines. Lyndon Johnson ordered aerial
bombings in the north and two battalions of marines were sent to Da
Nang in South Vietnam. After Pleiku, President Johnson authorized
Operation Rolling Thunder, which were prolonged air attacks on
targets in North Vietnam. By the end of 1965, over 184,000 troops were
in Vietnam. By 1967, the United States had over 500,000 troops in
Vietnam and in 1969 there were over 540,000.
In January 1968, on the Vietnamese Lunar New Year, the Viet Cong
launched an all out surprise attack. The Tet attacks were made on all
military bases in South Vietnam. The United States counterattacked (TET
Offensive) and was victorious. Vietnam was called “Television’s War”
because there were journalists everywhere. Every night in the United States,
citizens could watch the horrors of war. The Tet Offensive was viewed by
millions and was not viewed as a victory at home. The My Lai Massacre
caused major protest within the United States. My Lai was a small village in
South Vietnam. The US troops thought that the village members were
sheltering over 250 Viet Cong. The problem in the south was that the enemy
was hard to identify. The Viet Cong may be friendly by day and fight at
night. In other words, many men and women in the south that they believed
were in support of the United States attacked the troops. In My Lai, a
company of troops under William Calley moved into the village and killed
from 175 to 400 Vietnamese. The My Lai Massacre was brutally criticized
by American journalist because many of the 175 to 400 killed were elderly,
women and children. There were no Viet Cong found in the village.
Lyndon Johnson was advised to add 200,000 more troops after The TET
Offensive. Johnson had turned against escalation and chooses not to send
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more troops. Johnson realized that the war was a very unpopular war in the
United States. On March 31, 1968, Lyndon Johnson went on TV to advise
United States citizens that he would not seek re-election of the Presidency.
Johnson realized that the protest against the war had ruined his political
career. 1968 was one of the most violent years of protest in American
history. For example, there were major protest, murders and race riots that
occurred in 1968. Many citizens protested against the TET Offensive. Many
voters protested because President Johnson choose to not seek re-election,
while others celebrated. Race riots broke out in many US cities destroying
property and lives. Robert Kennedy, John F. Kennedy’s brother, had
received the Democratic nomination to run for President he was murdered in
1968. Martin Luther King, Jr. had also been very successful in getting
Congress to pass Civil Rights legislation and he was murdered in 1968.
George Wallace, the governor of Alabama, ran as a 3rd party candidate.
Wallace had years earlier stood in the door of the University of Alabama
prohibiting a black student from entering the university. Wallace ran on a
segregationist ticket and he was also shot.
President Richard Nixon
Lyndon Johnson leaves office and Richard Nixon takes over as the United
States President. Nixon opposed escalation, he promised to end the
involvement in Vietnam. He developed a plan called vietnamization, which
would reduce the number of United States soldiers in Vietnam.
Vietnamization would replace United States soldiers with soldiers from
South Vietnam. In other words, the South would have to learn to defend
themselves and not depend on the United States. Nixon’s policy was a
withdrawal policy. The United States would continue to give South
Vietnam money, weapons and training to conduct the war against the Ho Chi
Minh and the Viet cong. In 1969, there were 540,000 troops in Vietnam, but
by 1972 only 30,000 remained. There were 2 occasions were Nixon
advanced the war defying his policy of Vietnamization. Ho Chi Minh was
using Laos and Cambodia to re-supply the Viet Cong in South Vietnam. On
April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the Cambodia Incursion. The Cambodia
Incursion attacked communist sanctuaries in Cambodia. Nixon also launched
a drive into Laos to stop Ho Chi Minh’s supply line. The Ho Chi Minh Trail
went into Laos. There were many protests from expansion into Laos and
Cambodia. Demonstrations took place at Kent State University in Ohio.
The state police killed two students. Demonstrations also took place at
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Jackson State in Jackson, Mississippi. President Nixon conducted secret
meetings with the north Vietnamese. His talks failed and he ordered massive
B-52 bombings until North Vietnam agreed to armistice. Because of the
bombings, over 500 prisoners of war (POW’s) were released. The war did
not end between the north and the south.
By 1975, South Vietnam fell to North Vietnam and became communist. In
1973, the Paris Peace Conference was held and it was agreed that the
United States would withdraw from Vietnam, all prisoners of war would be
released, the US troops would withdraw from Laos and Cambodia, and there
could be no more troops of military assistance to South Vietnam. The war
cost over $118 billion dollars. The United States lost 58,132 troops and
303,640 American troops were wounded. South Vietnam lost 184,546
troops and 495,931 were wounded. South Vietnam lost 451,00 civilian
causalities and over 935,000 were wounded. North Vietnam lost 927,124
troops and there is no estimate on the number that was wounded. Cambodia
had over 2 million causalities and Laos 1 million. The United States
economy was affected by the war, inflation was outrageous. Inflation
simply means there is an increase in the money supply and credit available.
Inflation may sound good, however, it causes the price of goods to rise
drastically. The press leaked the Pentagon Papers which directly discussed
how many United States Congressman publicly supported the war while in
session opposed the war. The Pentagon papers also discussed many mistakes
that were made by the military during the war. The Pentagon Papers caused
outrage with the United States.
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