A&P II EXAM 1 REVIEW
Endocrine System
What is the overall function of the endocrine system?
Which two systems in the body regulate homeostasis?
What is a hormone? A paracrine hormone?
What are the differences in structure and function of exocrine and endocrine glands?
Compare the nervous system to the endocrine system. What characteristic do they share? How
are they different?
What are the four classes of hormones? Give an example of each class.
How do lipid soluble hormones enter and affect the target cell?
How do water-soluble hormones differ from lipid soluble hormones? Trace a water soluble
hormone molecule from attaching to its receptor to finally initiating activity in the cell.
Name the organs of the endocrine system. What other organs have selected endocrine
function?
What structure is the regulating link between the nervous and endocrine systems?
Describe the two basic types of neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus. Where do their
products go after leaving the hypothalamus?
What do releasing and inhibiting hormones control?
Give two examples of posterior pituitary hormones.
How are anterior pituitary gland hormones regulated?
What are the five types of secreting cells found in the anterior pituitary and what hormone does
each type secrete?
What are the functions of the human growth hormone (hGH)? What stimulates hGH production?
What inhibits hGH production? What is the effect of hypersecretion in a child? An adult? What is
the effect of hyposecretion of hGH? HGH works with what other molecule as regulators of blood
glucose levels?
What are the functions of TSH? What stimulates the release of TSH? What inhibits its release?
What are the functions of ACTH? What stimulates the release of ACTH? What inhibits release?
What is prolactin? How is it regulated?
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What is the role of FSH in females? In males?
What is the role of LH in females? In males?
What hormone regulates the release of FSH and LH?
How does negative feedback inhibition work in hormone regulation? Give a brief example.
What is the role of oxytocin? How is it regulated?
What is the role of antidiuretic hormone ADH? Where is it produced? What can inhibit ADH and
what is the effect of inhibition of ADH? What is diabetes insipidus?
Where is the pineal gland located? What hormone does it release? What is the control for
melatonin secretion?
Locate the thyroid gland. What two hormones are produced by the follicular cells? What are
their functions? How are these two hormones controlled?
What is a goiter? What causes Grave’s disease? Cretinism? Myxedema?
What hormone is secreted by the parafollicular cells? What stimulates its production? What is its
effect?
Where are the parathyroid glands and what are their function? What hormone do they secrete?
How does PTH affect the bones, kidneys, and GI tract?
What is the effect of hypersecretion and hyposecretion of PTH?
What is the relationship between calcitrol, calcitonin, and PTH?
Locate the adrenal glands. Describe the structure of the adrenals.
What hormones are produced by the medulla? How are they regulated?
Name three classes of hormones produced by the cortex of the adrenals. Give a function of
each and an example of a hormone in each group.
Describe the endocrine cells of the pancreas. What do alpha cells produce? What is its
function? What do beta cells produce? Function? What is the main product of delta cells? What
does it inhibit? What do the F cells produce and what is its effect?
Describe the basis of type I and type II diabetes mellitus. What is gestational diabetes?
What happens in hyperinsulism?
What hormones do the ovaries produce? What is their function?
What hormones do the testes produce? What is their function?
What are eicosanoids? Give two examples. What is the function of each?
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Digestive System
Define metabolism, anabolism, and catabolism. Why does the cell need energy?
Describe the organs of the digestive system. List the accessory organs.
What are the four components of the digestive process?
Define peritoneum. What is the parietal and visceral peritoneum?
What is retroperitoneal?
Locate the lesser omentum, greater omentum, mesentery, mesocolon, and falciform ligament.
Describe the four tunics of the digestive tract, including any subsections. What is the basic
function of each layer?
Know the types of teeth and numbers of each in the adult and child mouth.
What is the function of the tongue?
Describe the three sets of salivary glands. What do the all produce? What is the function of this
fluid? How is salivation controlled?
What happens when we “swallow” food?
Describe the esophagus and its function. Which sphincter is between the esophagus and
stomach? What happens if it doesn’t close properly?
Describe the structure of the stomach, including regions, sphincters, muscles, and specialized
cells such as mucus, parietal, and chief cells. What are G cells?
What is chyme? What digestion occurs in the stomach? What does the stomach absorb?
How is HCl formed by the parietal cells? What is alkaline tide?
Describe the different stages of secretion and motility beginning in the stomach, and moving
through the GI tract.
What is the role of ACh? Histamine? Gastrin? CCK? Secretin? Where is each produced and
where do they exert their effect?
How does the pancreas contribute to digestion? What enzymes are found in pancreatic juice?
Where does this liquid exit the pancreas? What other duct joins it before entering the
duodenum? What regulates pancreatic secretion?
What is the functional unit of the liver? What other organ also acts as a homeostatic organ?
What are the functional cells of the liver?
Describe the portal triad and the lobule.
What is the role of the central vein? The sinusoids, bile canaliculi, Kupffer cells and bile duct?
Describe the composition and function of bile. Where is it stored? What is jaundice?
How is bile secretion regulated?
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What are other functions of the liver beside digestion?
What is glycogenesis? Glycogenolysis? Gluconeogenesis?
Describe the location and function of the gallbladder. How is bile release regulated? What are
gallstones?
What are the three sections of the small intestine?
Describe the structure of the villi. Follow a nutrient molecule from the lumen of the small
intestine, through its absorption, transportation through the liver, until it reaches the vena cava.
What are the crypts of Lieberkuhn? Brunner’s glands? Brush border enzymes?
Peyer’s patches?
Describe the movement of food through the small intestine.
How does facilitated and active transport work to move molecules from the lumen into the cells?
What is a micelle? Chylomicron? How are water, vitamins, and sodium transported?
Describe the structures of the large intestine. What is the overall function of this segment? What
other functions occur here?
What is the role of the bacteria in the large intestine (colon)?
Describe the process of defecation. What are the controls? What happens in constipation?
Diarrhea? Read the role of dietary fiber.
Metabolism – refer to notes from lecture.
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A&P II EXAM 2 REVIEW
Blood
Review the different types of body fluids and where you find each.
What are three basic functions of blood?
What is the normal pH and volume of blood? How does volume differ in males and females
(generally)?
Describe the two main components of blood. What % is each?
What does the hematocrit value tell you?
Describe plasma and give the 3 major plasma proteins, including their basic function.
What do we mean by “hemopoietic stem cells”?
List the 5 precursor blood cells and describe their names at maturity.
Describe an erythrocyte. What is its basic function?
What is erythropoiesis? How is it regulated?
What are reticulocytes? How do they differ from mature RBCs?
What is the life expectancy of a RBC?
What are the two categories of leukocytes?
List three granulocytes and describe their appearance and function.
List two types of agranulocytes and describe appearance and function.
Which is the largest leukocyte? Smallest? Most common?
Describe platelets. What is their function?
Describe the hemoglobin molecule. What is the importance of iron?
How many oxygen molecules are transported by one hemoglobin molecule?
What other gas can be carried by hemoglobin?
Name two factors that could lead to a diagnosis of anemia.
Trace the destruction of a RBC. Where does it occur? What happens to the globin portion, the
iron portion, and the non-iron portion of heme?
What is a platelet plug? How does it form?
Describe the coagulation process, beginning with prothrombin fibrin.
What is the difference in the extrinsic and intrinsic pathway of clot formation? What common
pathway do they share? Why is calcium important?
What is the difference in an embolus and thrombus?
What is a natural anticoagulant in our bodies?
How do clots dissolve? What is the natural role of tPA and why is it given to some patients?
Know the antigen, antibody (-ies), donor, and recipient status for blood types A, B, AB, and O.
What is the Rh factor? Know how to determine if blood is compatible. What mother/ baby Rh
combination might be dangerous? What is the name of the Rh disorder that affects fetuses?
What is polycythemia? Leukemia? Hemophilia? Anemia?
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Heart
Describe the size, location, and shape of the heart. Where is the base? Apex?
Describe the three-layered pericardium. Where is the pericardial cavity and what is is its
function?
Describe the three layers of the heart.
How are heart muscle cells connected to each other? How do they differ in contraction from
skeletal or smooth muscle cells?
Draw the heart chambers, labeling the chambers, valves, openings into and out of the heart.
Label the interatrial and interventricular septa.
Where would you find pectinate, trabeculae carneae, and papillary muscles?
Describe the structure and functions of the four valves of the heart. How do they contribute to
the “heart sounds”?
Trace blood from its entry into the right atrium until it completes the pulmonary and systemic
circulation and returns to the right atrium.
Describe several differences between fetal and adult circulation.
How is the heart itself nourished and maintained? What are the two main coronary arteries and
their branches? Name the main coronary veins. What are anastomoses?
Where is the coronary sinus and where does it empty into the heart?
Be familiar with common disorders and diseases mentioned in class and in your notes.
What is the role of the SA node? The AV node?
Trace the conduction pathway beginning with the SA node. When do the atria contract? When
do the ventricles contract?
How does the intrinsic conduction pathway relate to an ECG? What is happening at the P, QRS,
and T waves?
Why is the SA node considered the “natural pacemaker” of the heart?
What factors can affect the rate of the heart?
How long is the cardiac cycle? How much of this time is in systole? Diastole?
Review activities associated with change in membrane potential of the heart muscle.
Describe, depolarization, plateau, and repolarization. How does the plateau stage affect the
absolute refractory stage? Why is this important?
Review the cardiac cycle diagram FIG 20.14. Know what is happening to the volume, pressure,
and ECG at each division (relaxation, ventricular filling, atrial systole, ventricular systole). Think
your way through this, DON’T try to memorize it!!
What is end diastolic volume? End systolic volume?
How do we calculate stroke volume?
What is cardiac output (CO)? How is it calculated? Remember, a change in either component
will affect the total CO.
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Describe how preload stretch, contractility, and afterload affect stroke volume.
What is the Frank-Starling law of the heart?
What factors affect venous return?
What factors increase contractility? Decrease contractility?
How is the heart rate regulated? What factors will affect HR?
What is congestive heart failure?
What are some risk factors for heart disease?
When does the heart start beating in the fetus?
Blood Vessels and Hemodynamics
Describe the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
How do arteries and veins differ?
How does the structure of a capillary support its function?
Describe a capillary bed, including vessels leading into and exiting the bed. What are
thoroughfare channels? Where are precapillary sphincters?
Note the structure of various capillaries in FIG 21.4
What is the “blood reservoir”?
Name two pressures that affect bulk flow in capillaries. What components contribute to each
type of pressure?
How do you compute net filtration pressure? Know how to interpret NFP and direction of fluid
movement.
What is the average normal blood pressure? What do the numbers mean?
What is pulse pressure?
What is mean arterial blood pressure? How is it calculated?
Describe how the following factors affect blood pressure:
Viscosity of blood
Blood volume
Cardiac output
Peripheral resistance
How does velocity, diameter of vessels, and length of vessels affect peripheral resistance?
How do baroreceptors and chemoreceptors regulate BP in the short term?
Remember, long term BP control is a renal function – to be discussed later.
Briefly describe thr rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
How do the following hormones regulate BP?
Renin
Epi and NE
ADH
Atrial natriuretic peptide
PTH and calcitrol
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What is “shock”? Describe the stages
Review hepatic and pulmonary circulation.
Describe fetal circulation. Mention structures unique to the fetus and what they are called after
birth.
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A&P II EXAM 3 REVIEW
Lymphatic System
What is meant by: lymph system; resistance; susceptibility; pathogen; non-specific resistance;
and specific immunity?
Name 3 functions of the lymph system.
Describe the lymphatic system, including the vessels, nodes, trunks, ducts, and accessory
organs and tissues.
Describe the contribution of the following to the nonspecific immune response:
Skin and mucous membranes
Chemicals
Interferon
Complement
Natural killer cells
Phagocytosis
Inflammation
Fever
What are the two pathways of complement activation? What are the functions of complement?
Describe the process of phagocytosis by macrophages.
What changes occur in the inflammatory process? What are the signs of inflammation? What
cellular responses trigger these symptoms?
How does the specific immune response differ from the nonspecific?
How do B cells and T cells recognize foreign antigens?
What are the two types of MHC antigens discussed in class and where would you find each?
Contrast humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity and cell mediated immunity, including the types
of cells involved, the targets of each branch, and how they are activated.
What is the role of macrophages in the immune response?
How are B cells activated? Describe the process of formation of specific antibodies after
activation.
Name the 5 classes of antibodies and give a pertinent characteristic of each
Describe 3-5 functions of antibodies.
How are T cells activated?
What are CD4 and CD8 cells? What is their role in the specific cellular response?
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What is the role of the interleukins?
Describe the 4 types of T cells and give their function.
What are memory cells? Why are they important?
What is meant by a secondary response? How does it differ from the initial response to foreign
antigens?
Respiratory System
Review the structure of the respiratory system.
How does the cartilage change as you move down the respiratory tree? What is the significance
of the changes?
What is the function of an alveolus? Describe its structure. Describe the association with
capillaries. What are the relationships between the membranes? Why is this important?
What are the 2 layers of the pleural membranes? Where is each found? What is the space
between the membranes? How does the membrane structure contribute to lung expansion and
passive breathing?
What is atmospheric pressure? Describe Boyle’s law. How does it relate to changes in
breathing? What happens to lung volume and pressure as you inhale? Exhale?
What is eupnea? apnea? dyspnea? tachypnea?
What is the function of alveolar surfactant and where is it produced?
What do we mean by compliance? Resistance?
Know the volumes and definitions of: tidal, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, residual, vital
capacity, total lung capacity, and dead space.
State Dalton’s Law.
State Henry’s Law.
What do these two laws have to do with respiration?
Know the pO2 and pCO2 for capillaries, alveoli, and tissues. Understand how they affect the
diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the capillary-alveolar membranes and capillary-tissue
cell membranes.
Describe (not list) 6 factors that affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
What can cause hypoxia?
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
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Write the carbonic acid/bicarbonate reaction. What causes it to shift to the right? to the left?
What is the chloride shift? Why does it occur?
Go over the summary (XIV) in your notes!! It is very important that you understand the
relationships between exchanges at the alveoli and at the tissue cells, the role of hemoglobin,
the buffer system of carbonic acid and its affect on CO2 levels.
Describe the nervous system control of respiration. Where is the basic rhythm set? What
centers can alter the rhythm? Where are these centers located?
What role do chemoreceptors play on regulation of respiration?
What stimulates deep breathing? Slow, shallow breathing? What is the result of
hyperventilation?
How do the following affect respiration: BP; the limbic system; temperature; pain?
What effect does exercise have on respiration? Why?
Urinary Review
Name 4 functions of the kidneys
How much blood is filtered by the kidneys daily?
What happens to most of the filtrate? How much is usually excreted as urine?
Describe the organs and structures that make up the urinary system.
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
Draw the nephron, including the afferent arteriole, glolmerular (Bowman’s) capsule, glomeruli,
efferent arteriole, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and
collecting ducts. Where are the peritubular capillaries? What are the vasa recta?
What are the 3 functions of the nephron? What do these terms mean?
Describe the parietal and visceral layers in Bowman’s capsule.
Describe the structure of the glomeruli capillaries. How does this enhance filtration?
Follow the filtrate as it leaves Bowman’s capsule until it exits the kidney.
What are the differences between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons?
Where do you find the following specialized cells and what is their function: macula densa cells,
juxtaglomerular cells, principle cells, and intercalated cells.
What is the normal blood pressure entering the afferent arteriole?
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What is the net filtration pressure?
Define the following terms and give their role in determining NFP: GBHP, CHP, and BCOP.
What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
What happens if the GFR is too high? Too low?
The GFR is regulated by three mechanisms: autoregulation, hormonal, and neural. Describe
how each of these affects GFR.
Describe the renin-angiotensin system, including necessary components and site of production.
What effect does angiotensin II have on arterioles? on the adrenal cortex? on the thirst center?
and on the posterior pituitary?
Where is ANP produced and what is its function?
What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the kidneys?
What is reabsorption? Where does this process begin?
What is tubular secretion? What function does it serve?
What is reabsorbed in the PCT? Is the filtrate hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic to blood as the
filtrate reaches the end of the PCT?
What do we mean by maximum transport rate?
What effect does sodium reabsorption have on water reabsorption?
What happens to the tonicity of the filtrate as it goes down the descending loop of Henle?
The descending loop is permeable to what molecules?
The ascending loop of Henle is permeable to what molecules? How does this affect the tonicity
of the filtrate?
How does aldosterone affect the reabsorption of sodium in the DCT? What ion is secreted into
the tubular filtrate from this area?
How does ADH affect the collecting ducts?
What factors stimulate the production of ADH and aldosterone?
When ADH is present, is dilute or concentrated urine produced?
Why does alcohol have a diuretic affect?
Describe the countercurrent relationship of the descending and ascending loops and how they
maintain the osmolarity of the medulla. How do the vasa recta contribute?
What is the role of urea in the medullary region?
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How much urine (average) is eliminated daily by an adult?
What is the BUN value? What does it measure?
What is kidney dialysis?
Describe micturition, stimuli and controls.
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A&P II EXAM 4 REVIEW
Fluid, Electrolyte, Acid-base Balance
What are the two major fluid compartments of the body?
What are the two components of extracellular fluid?
What is an electrolyte? Give several examples. How do electrolytes contribute to osmolarity?
What is the most abundant anion and cation in: Extracellular fluid; intracellular fluid?
Why are there more proteins in plasma than interstitial fluid?
What organ excretes excess sodium? Which hormones regulate sodium levels?
Which hormone is stimulated if potassium levels are high, resulting in K+ secretion into filtrate?
What is the general role of bicarbonate in plasma? Can it be reabsorbed and/or secreted to
maintain pH?
What is the most abundant mineral in the body? What two hormones regulate its levels?
When would oral rehydration therapy (ORT) be necessary?
What is water intoxication?
What is the normal pH range of blood?
Name three controls that maintain pH homeostasis in the body.
What is a buffer?
Explain how the bicarbonate system functions to maintain pH.
Name two other buffer systems.
Describe how respiration can affect blood pH.
If a patient is hyperventilating, might this produce acidosis or alkalosis? What about the effect of
small shallow breaths?
What effect does acidosis have on the CNS? Effect of alkalosis on the CNS?
How do the kidneys maintain pH levels?
What is compensation? What disorders would be compensated by respiratory mechanisms?
What disorders would be compensated by metabolic mechanisms?
What are the normal blood ranges for pCO2 and HCO3?
Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis are primarily disorders of the blood ______ levels.
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In respiratory acidosis, the pCO2 levels are ________; in alkalosis, they are ________.
What can cause respiratory acidosis?
What can cause respiratory alkalosis?
In metabolic acidosis, what effect is noted in the HCO3 levels?
In metabolic alkalosis, what effect is noted in the HCO3 levels?
For extra credit: know how to evaluate an acidosis/alkalosis problem and determine if
compensation is occurring.
Reproduction Notes
What is a gonad, a gamete, and gametogenesis?
Describe the function of: testes, seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, and urethra.
One spermatagonium cell produces how many spermatids? How does meiosis affect the
chromosome number of the sperm? Where does formation of sperm and meiosis occur?
Why are the sperm genetically different from each other?
What are the major functions of testosterone?
Describe the function and target cell of FSH and LH.
How is sperm formation hormonally inhibited?
What is the average volume of semen ejaculated? Average number of sperm?
How does the alkaline semen help sperm survive the female genital tract?
Describe the structure of the penis. What is the function of erectile tissue?
Outline the process of oogenesis. How is it different from spermatogenesis in males?
What stage of meiosis is present in the oocytes at birth?
Describe a primary follicle – what stimulates its growth and meiotic activity?
What is a secondary oocyte? What meiotic stage is it in at ovulation?
Describe the corpus luteum and corpus albicans.
What is the role of estrogen in the female? FSH? LH? Progesterone? Relaxin? Inhibin?
What happens in the proliferative stage of the uterus? Secretory stage? Menstrual stage?
When does ovulation generally occur in the female cycle? What hormone triggers this event?
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What happens if fertilization does not occur?
What are fraternal twins? Identical twins? cojoined twins
For how long after ovulation is the egg viable? Where does fertilization usually occur in the
female reproductive structures?
What is menarche? Menopause?
What is the difference between birth control and contraception?
Name homologous structures in the male and female reproductive system.
Describe the mammary glands.
What are the roles of progesterone, prolactin, and oxytocin in the breast?
What are Wolffian and Müllerian ducts? What does each become?
How are the sexual organs of a fetus determined and developed?
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A&P II FINAL EXAM NOTES – HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE
Human Development
Describe the secondary oocyte, including the stage of meiosis at ovulation, polar body, zona
pellucida, corona radiata.
What happens to the ovum as a sperm penetrates (meiosis)? When is fertilization complete?
Define: a zygote, fraternal twins, and identical twins
What is a blastomere? Blastocyst? Morula? Trophoblast? Inner cell mass? Blastocele?
When and where does implantation occur?
What effect does implantation have on the corpus luteum?
Home pregnancy tests are based on detection of what hormone?
What is the decidua basalis? Decidua capsularis?
Describe the three primary germ layers and which tissues originate from them
What are the roles of the following fetal membranes: amnion, yolk sac, and chorion?
What two components make up the placenta? What are some functions of the placenta? When
does it begin secreting hormones to maintain pregnancy?
What is the difference in an embryo and fetus?
Describe the relationship between the chorionic villi and the maternal sinuses. What necessary
events happen here?
Describe the components of the umbilical cord – what does each do?
When does the heart first beat? CNS function? Fetus move? Surfactant produced?
What is the role of hCG? Estrogen and progesterone? Relaxin? Inhibin? Prolactin? Oxytocin?
What is the normal human gestation period?
Describe the three diagnostic tests: ultrasound (sonogram), chorionic villi testing, and
amniocentesis. What information will each give you?
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Inheritance
Define the following terms: homologous chromosomes, sister chromatids, alleles, genes,
mutation, genotype, phenotype, dominant, recessive, homozygous, hererozygous, nondisjunction
Know how to work a simple monohybrid cross and how to set up and work a dihybrid cross
What is a karyotype? A pedigree?
How many autosomes do humans have?
How many sex chromosomes do humans have?
Which gamete determines the sex of the embryo?
What is an X-linked recessive disorder? Give several examples.
Why are they more common in males?
Know how to work simple X-linked problems and interpret results by sex and condition.
What is the result of:
a third copy of chromosome 21?
XO?
XXY?
Fragile X syndrome?
Give an example of multiple alleles and of polygenic inheritance.
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