TASHKENT MEDICAL ACADEMY
DEPARTMENT OF “HISTOLOGY AND MEDICAL BIOLOGY”
BLOOD AND LYMPH

Blood and lymph
Knowledge of the morphology of blood to your doctor of any profile. Blood is a tissue responsive to variations in the physiological condition of the body.
The blood is part of the blood. Blood system includes: 1) blood, 2) hematopoietic organs, 3) lymph. All components of the blood system develops from the mesenchyme. Blood is localized in the blood vessels and heart, lymph - the lymph vessels. Bodies of blood are: red bone marrow, thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, lymph nodules, digestive tract, respiratory tract and other organs. Between all components of the blood there is a strong genetic and functional relationship. The genetic link is that all components of the blood system stem from the same source.
The functional relationship between the blood and the blood is that blood continuously for several days killed millions of cells. At the same time of the blood under normal conditions, a same number of blood cells, ie, the level of blood cells differ consistently. Balance between loss and formation of new blood cells provided by regulation of the nervous and endocrine systems, and interstitial microenvironment in regulation of the blood itself.
What is the microenvironment? This stromal cells and macrophages, which are around developing blood cells in the organs of hematopoiesis. In the microenvironment produced hemopoetins that stimulate the process of hematopoiesis.
What is "interstitial regulation"? The fact is that in the mature granulocytes produced keylons that inhibit the development of young granulocytes.
There is a close relationship between the blood and lymph. This relationship can be demonstrated as follows. In the connective tissue is the main intercellular substance (interstitial fluid). In the formation of intercellular substance is involved blood. How so?
From plasma in connective tissue come water, proteins and other organic matter and mineral salts. This is the main intercellular substance of connective tissue. Here, next to blood capillaries are blind-ended lymphatic capillaries.
Blindly ending - which means that they look like rubber cap eye dropper. Through the wall of lymphatic capillaries enters the main substance (drained) in their lumen, ie, the components of the intercellular substance coming from the plasma pass through the connective tissue, penetrate into lymphatic capillaries and converted into lymph.
In the same way from the blood capillaries into the lymph may enter and blood cells, which are of lymphatic vessels may be recycled back into the blood.
There is a close relationship between lymph and blood bodies. Lymph from lymph capillaries enters the bearing lymph vessels draining into the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes - this is one of the varieties of hematopoiesis. Lymph passes through lymph nodes, purified from bacteria, bacterial toxins and other harmful substances. In addition, the lymph nodes in the lymph flowing received lymphocytes.
Thus, lymph, free from harmful substances and enriched lymphocytes, enters into larger lymphatic vessels, and then in the right breast and lymph ducts that empty into the veins of the neck, ie, purified and enriched lymphocytes basic

intercellular substance returns to the blood. From the blood and the blood came back.
There are close links between the connective tissue, blood and lymph. The fact is that as between the connective tissue and lymph occurs metabolism, and between lymph and blood, too, by the metabolism. Exchange of substances between blood and lymph is only through the connective tissue.
The structure of the blood . Blood refers to the tissues of the internal environment. Therefore, as in all the tissues of the internal environment, it consists of cells and intercellular substance. Intercellular substance is blood plasma to the cellular elements include erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. In other tissues, the internal environment of the intercellular substance is semifluid consistency
(loose connective tissue) or dense texture (dense connective tissue, cartilage and bone tissue). Therefore, the internal environment of different tissues have different functions. The blood carries the trophic and protective functions, the connective tissue - support-mechanical, trophic and protective, cartilage and bone tissue - support-mechanical and mechanical protection function.
Blood cells constitute about 40-45%, everything else - blood plasma. The amount of blood in the human body is 5-9% of body weight.
Functions of blood: 1) transport, 2) respiratory, and 3) trophic, 4) protection, and 5) homeostatic (maintain constant internal environment).
Blood plasma contains 90-93% water, 6-7.5% of the proteins, among them - albumin, globulins and fibrinogen, and the remaining 2.5-4% are other organic matter and mineral salts. At the expense of salt is maintained constant osmotic pressure of blood plasma. If removed from the blood plasma fibrinogen, the serum remains. Blood plasma has a pH of - 7.36.
Erythrocytes. Red blood cells are in 1 liter of men's blood 4-5.5 h1012, women have slightly less, ie, 3.7-5h1012. The increased number of red blood cells called polycythemia, low - eritropeniey.
Red blood cells have a different shape. 80% of all red blood cells are biconcave erythrocyte shape (diskotsity), they have thicker edge (2-2.5 mm), and the center thinner (1 mm), so the central part of the erythrocyte is lighter.
In addition, there are other discocytes forms: 1) planocytes 2) stomatocytes 3) bifosses 4) Saddles 5) spherical, or spherocytes 6) echinocytes, which has branches. Spherocytes and echinocytes - are cells that complete their life cycle.
Discocytes diameter can be varied. 75% have a diameter of 8.7 discocytes um, they're called normocytes, 12.5% - 4.5-6 microns (microcytes), 12.5% - more than
8 mm (macrocyte).
Erythrocyte - it akaryote or postcellular structure, it lacks the nucleus and organelles. Cytolemma erythrocyte has a thickness of 20 nm. On the surface plasmolemma can be adsorbed glycoproteins, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, hormones, drugs and other substances. The inner surface of plasmolemma localized glycolytic enzymes, Na +-ATPase, K +-ATPase. This adjoins the surface of hemoglobin.
Cytolemma erythrocytes is composed of lipids and proteins in approximately equal amounts of glycolipids and glycoproteins - 5%.

Lipids are two layers of lipid molecules. The composition of the outer layer consists of phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin, in the inner layer - phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine.
Proteins are membrane (glycophorin and protein band 3)-membrane
(spektrin, protein band 4.1, actin).
Glycophorin its central end is connected to the "nodal complex", passes through a layer bilipid cytolemme and transcends it, is involved in the formation of glycocalyx and performs the function of the receptor.
Protein band 3 - transmembrane glycoprotein, its polypeptide chain often runs in one direction and another in bilipid layer forms a hydrophilic pores in this layer, through which the anions are HCO3-and Cl in a time when red blood cells give C02 and HCO3-anion is replaced by an anion Cl. Membrane protein spektrin is given thread a length of about 100 nm, consists of two polypeptide chains
(alpha-and beta-), with one end connected to the actin filaments' nodal complex ", the function of the cytoskeleton, which is preserved thanks to the correct form discocytes Spectrin associated with protein band 3 with protein ankirina.
"Nodular complex" consists of actin, a protein band 4.1 and all proteins spectrin and glycophorin.
Oligosaccharides of glycoproteins and glycolipids form a glycocalyx. They determine the presence of agglutinogens on the surface of red blood cells.
Agglyutiiogeny erythrocytes - A and B.
Agglutinins of blood plasma - the alpha and beta.
If the blood at the same time would be "foreign" agglutinogen A and agglutinin alpha or "foreign" agglutinogen and agglutinin in beta, there will be bonding (agglutination) of erythrocytes.
Blood group. On the content of agglutinogens of red blood cells and plasma agglutinins are 4 blood types:
Group 1 (0) - no agglutinogens, is agglutinins alpha and beta;
Group II (A) - is agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta;
Group III (B) - is agglutinogen and agglutinin in alpha;
Group IV (AB) - is agglyutiiogeny A and B, no agglutinins.
On the surface of red blood cells in 86% of people have the Rh factor - agglutinogen (Rh). In 14% of people do not have the Rh factor (Rh negative).
Transfusion of Rh-positive blood of Rh-negative recipient formed Rh antibodies, which cause hemolysis.
At tsitolemme erythrocytes adsorb excess of amino acids, so the amino acid content in the blood plasma remains at the same level.
The composition of the erythrocyte is about 40% of solid matter, everything else - water. 95% of solid (dry) of a substance is hemoglobin. Hemoglobin consists of protein - globin and iron-containing pigment - heme. There are 2 types of hemoglobin: a) hemoglobin A, ie, hemoglobin adults, and 2) hemoglobin F (fetal) - hemoglobin of the fetus. In the adult human body contains 98% hemoglobin A, in the fetus or newborn - 20%, the rest of fetal hemoglobin.

After the death of macrophage phagocytized erythrocyte spleen. In the macrophage hemoglobin breaks down into bilirubin and hemosiderin containing iron.
Hemosiderin iron passes into the blood plasma and plasma protein combines with transferrin also contain iron. This compound is phagocytized by macrophages special bone marrow. Then, these macrophages transfer molecules of iron to developing red blood cells, why they are called cells.
Erythrocyte energy provided by glycolytic reactions. At the expense of glycolysis in the erythrocyte synthesized ATP and NAD-H2. ATP is necessary as an energy source, through which are transported through cytolemma various substances, including ions K +, Na +, which saved the optimal balance between the osmotic pressure of blood plasma and red blood cells, and provides the correct form of the erythrocytes. NAD-H2 is required to maintain hemoglobin in the active state, ie, NAD-H2 prevents the transformation of hemoglobin to methemoglobin.
Methemoglobin - this is a strong connection hemoglobin with any chemical. This hemoglobin can not carry oxygen or carbon dioxide. In heavy smokers of the hemoglobin contained about 10%. It is absolutely useless to the smoker. For unstable compounds include hemoglobin oxyhemoglobin (hemoglobin compound with oxygen) and carboxyhemoglobin (the compound of hemoglobin with carbon dioxide). The amount of hemoglobin in 1 liter of blood of a healthy person is 120-
160, the
In human blood is 1-5% of young erythrocytes - reticulocytes. In reticulocytes remnants of EPS, ribosomes and mitochondria. When subvital color in reticulocyte visible remnants of these organelles as reticulofilamentose substance. From this the name of the young red blood cell - reticulocyte. In reticulocytes on the remains of EPS by globin protein synthesis necessary for formation of hemoglobin. Reticulocytes ripen in the sinusoids of bone marrow or peripheral blood vessels.
The life span of an erythrocyte is 120 days. After this process is disturbed in erythrocytes glycolysis. This is disruptive to the synthesis of ATP and NAD-H2, erythrocytes at the same time loses its shape and becomes ehinotsit or annulocyte; disturbed permeability of Na + and K + across cytolemma, which leads to increased osmotic pressure inside the erythrocyte. Increasing the osmotic pressure increases the flow of water inside an erythrocyte, which then swells and ruptures cytolemma, and hemoglobin released in the blood plasma (hemolysis). Normal red blood cells also can undergo hemolysis when the blood type, distilled water or hypotonic solution, as this will decrease the osmotic pressure of blood plasma.
After hemolysis of red blood cell hemoglobin goes, there is only tsitolemma.
Hemolyzed red blood cells are red blood cells are called shadows.
If you violate the synthesis of NAD-H2 hemoglobin converted to methemoglobin.
With the aging of red blood cells on their surface sialic acid content is reduced, which support a negative charge, so the red blood cells can stick together.
In senescent erythrocytes varies skeletal protein spektrin, resulting in red blood cells lose their discoid shape and become spherocytes.

At tsitolemme old red blood cells appear specific receptors capable of capturing autolytic antibodies - IgG1 and IgG2. The result is a complex consisting of the aforementioned receptors and antibodies. These complexes are the signs by which macrophages recognize these red blood cells and phagocytose them.
Typically, death occurs erythrocytes in the spleen. Therefore, the spleen is called the graveyard of red blood cells.
General characteristics of leukocytes . The number of leukocytes in 1 liter of blood of a healthy person is a 4-9h109. Elevated white blood cell count is called leukocytosis, low - leukopenia. Leukocytes are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes. Granulocytes are characterized by the presence in the cytoplasm of specific granules. Agranulocytes specific granules do not contain. Blood stained with azure-eosin by Romanovsky-Giemsa; If the color of blood granulocytes granules stained by acid dyes, such is called eosinophilic granulocyte
(acidophilus), and if basic - basophilic, and if the acidic and basic - neutrophilic.
All white blood cells have a spherical or globular shape, they all move in a fluid with prolegs, they circulate in the blood a short period of time (several hours), then pass through the wall of the capillaries in the connective tissue (stroma organs), which perform their functions. All white blood cells perform a protective function.
Granulocytes. Neutrophillic granulocytes have a diameter of 8.7 m drop of blood, the smear - 12-13 microns. In the cytoplasm of granulocytes contain 2 types of beads: 1) the azurophilic (nonspecific, primary), or lysosomes, constituting 10-
20%, and 2) specific (secondary), which are colored and acidic and basic dyes.
Azurophilic granules (lysosomes) have a diameter of 0.4-0.8 mm, they contain proteolytic enzymes, which have an acid reaction: acid phosphatase, peroxidase, acid protease, lysozyme, arilsulfataza.
Specific granules are 80-90% of the granules, their diameter is 0.2-0.4 mm, and stained with acidic and basic dyes, and because they contain acid and basic substances and enzymes: ALP, alkaline proteins fagotsitin, lactoferrin, lysozyme.
Lactoferrin 1) binds a molecule of Fe and bacteria and glues 2) inhibits the differentiation of young granulocytes.
The peripheral cytoplasm of neutrophils did not contain granules, there are filaments consisting of contractile proteins. Because of these filaments emit pseudopods granulocytes (pseudopodia), participating in phagocytosis or in the movement of cells.
The cytoplasm of neutrophil granulocytes stained weakly oxyphilic, poor organelles, contains inclusions of glycogen and lipid.
The nuclei of neutrophils have a different shape. Depending on this distinction segmented granulocytes, stab, and the young. egmented granulocytes neutrophilic constitute 47-72% of granulocytes. They are called so because their nuclei are composed of 7.2 segments, connected by thin bridges. The structure of nuclei is heterochromatin, the nucleolus is not visible.
One of the segments may deviate satellite (satellite), a sex chromatin. The satellite has the shape of a drum stick. Satellites are available only in neutrophil granulocytes of women or the female type hermaphrodites.

Stab neutrophil granulocytes have a nucleus in the form of a curved rod-like
Russian or Latin letter S. Of granulocytes in the peripheral blood contains 3-5%.
Young neutrophilic granulocytes ranged from 0 to 1%, the youngest, beanshaped nuclei contain.
Neutrophils perform several functions. On the surface of granulocytes tsitolemmy have Fc receptors, and Cs, so that they can englobe complex antigens with antibodies and complement proteins. Complement proteins - this group of proteins involved in the destruction of antigens. Neutrophils phagocytose bacteria, produce biooksidanty (biological oxidants), isolated bacteriocyte proteins
(lysozyme) that kill bacteria. For the ability of neutrophils to perform phagocytic function of E. Metchnikoff named them macrophages. Phagosomes in neutrophils treated first enzyme specific granules, and then merge with azurophilic granules
(lysosomes) and subjected to final machining.
In neutrophilic granulocytes contained keylony that inhibit DNA replication of immature white blood cells and thereby inhibit their proliferation.
The life span of neutrophils is 8 days, from which they are 8:00 circulate in the blood, then migrate through the wall of the capillaries in the connective tissue and there for the rest of his life performing certain functions.
Eosinophilic granulocytes . They are only 1-6% of peripheral blood in a drop of blood has a diameter of 8.9 microns, and a blood smear on the glass to get the diameter of 13-14 microns. The composition of eosinophilic granulocytes are specific granules that can be colored only by acid dyes. Form of granules oval, their length is 1.5 microns. In the crystalloid granules are structures consisting of plates, layered on each other in the form of cylinders. These structures are immersed in an amorphous matrix. In the granules contain major alkaline protein, eosinophil cationic protein, acid phosphatase and peroxidase. In eosinophils, there are more small granules. They contain and arylsulfatase, a factor that blocks the exit of histamine from granules of basophilic granulocytes and tissue basophils.
The cytoplasm is eosinophilic granulocytes stained weakly basophilic, poorly developed organelles contain the total value.
The nuclei of eosinophilic granulocytes have a different shape: segmented, rod-shaped and bean. Segmented eosinophils often consist of two, at least - of the three segments.
Eosinophil function: involved in limiting the local inflammatory response, are capable of weakly expressed phagocytosis, phagocytosis by isolated biological oxidants. Eosinophils are actively involved in allergic and anaphylactic reactions when the body of foreign proteins. Participation of eosinophils in allergic reactions is to fight hystamine. Eosinophils are struggling with histamine in 4 ways: 1) destroy histamine by hystaminase 2) identify a factor that blocks the exit of histamine from basophilic granulocytes, and 3) histamine phagocytize 4) capture the histamine receptors and by holding it on its surface. At tsitolemme have Fcreceptors capable of capturing IgE, IgG, IgM. There are Cs receptors and receptors
C4.

Active participation of eosinophils in anaphylactic reactions carried out by arylsulfatase, which is released from the small grains, destroys anaphylaxis, which is released basophilic leukocytes.
Life expectancy of eosinophilic granulocytes was several days in the peripheral blood, they circulate 4-8 hours.
Increasing the number of eosinophils in peripheral blood is called eosinophilia, decrease - eosinopenia. Eosinophilia occurs when the body appears to foreign proteins, foci of inflammation, antigen-antibody complexes. Eosinopenia observed under the influence of adrenaline, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), cortico-roidov.
Basophilic granulocytes . In the peripheral blood are 0.5-1% in a drop of blood has a diameter of 8.7 microns, in a smear of blood - 11-12 microns. In their cytoplasm contains basophilic granules having metachromasia. Metachromasia - this is a property of structures to be painted in a color that is not characteristic for the dye. For example, the azure stains structures in purple, and granules of basophils stained them purple. The composition of the granules are heparin, histamine, serotonin, chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid. The cytoplasm contains peroxidase, acid phosphatase fataza, ghystidinedecarboxylase, anaphylaxis.
Histidine decarboxylase, an enzyme marker for basophils.
Nuclei are stained slightly basophil have sublobular or oval in shape, their outlines indistinct.
Organelles in the cytoplasm of basophils total value of mild, it is colored slightly basophilic.
Basophilic granulocyte functions appear in the phagocytosis of weakly expressed. On the surface of basophils have receptors of the class E, which can hold immunoglobulins. The main function of basophils is associated with heparin and histamine contained in their granules. Thanks to them, basophils participate in the regulation of local homeostasis. With the release of histamine increases the permeability of the intercellular substance and the main wall of the capillary, increased blood clotting, increased inflammatory response. When you select a heparin reduces blood clotting, the permeability of the capillary wall and the inflammatory response. Basophils to respond to the presence of antigens, while increasing their degranulation, ie, the release of histamine from the granules, there is increased swelling of the tissue by increasing the permeability of blood vessels.
Basophils play a pivotal role in the development of allergic and anaphylactic reactions. On the surface there is IgE-receptors for IgE.
Agranulocytes.
Lymphocytes 19-37%. Depending on the size of lymphocytes are divided into small (diameter less than 7 mm), medium (diameter of 8-10 mm) and large (diameter 10 mm). The nuclei of lymphocytes often round, rarely concave. The cytoplasm is weakly basophilic, contains a small amount of organelles common values, there are azurophilic granules, ie, the lysosomes.
With electron-microscopic study found four types of lymphocytes: 1) low light,
75%, their diameter is 7 mm, around the nucleus is a thin layer of cytoplasm, indistinct, containing poorly developed organelles, the total value (mitochondria,
Golgi complex, granular EPS, lysosomes), 2) the small dark cells, is 12.5%, the

diameter of 6.7 microns, the nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio is shifted toward the nucleus around which a thin layer of still more strongly basophilic cytoplasm, which contains a significant amount of RNA ribosomes, mitochondria, other organelles are absent, and 3) the average is 10-12%, their diameter is about 10 microns, slightly basophilic cytoplasm, it contains ribosomes, EPS, Golgi complex, azurophilic granules, the nucleus is circular in shape, sometimes with a concavity, contains nucleoli, a loose chromatin, and 4) plasma cells make up 2%, the diameter of 8.7 microns, the cytoplasm stained weakly basophilic, the nucleus is about achromatophilous area - the so-called patio, which contains the Golgi apparatus and cell center in the cytoplasm of well-developed granular EPS, as a chain girdle kernel. Function of plasma cells - produce antibodies. Functionally, the cells are divided into B-and T-and O-lymphocytes. B lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow, differentiation are in the bursa of Fabricius analogue.
Function of B lymphocytes - the antibody, ie, immunoglobulins.
Immunoglobulins of B lymphocytes are their receptors, which may be concentrated in certain locations may be diffusely scattered over the surface of tsitolemmy can move on the cell surface. B cells have receptors for antigen and sheep erythrocytes.
T lymphocytes are divided into T helper, T suppressor and T-killer cells. T-helper and T suppressor regulates humoral immunity. In particular, under the influence of
T-helper cells increases proliferation and differentiation of B lymphocytes and antibody synthesis in B lymphocytes. Under the influence of lymphokines allocated T-suppressors, B-lymphocyte proliferation and antibody synthesis is suppressed. T-killer cells are involved in cellular immunity, ie, they destroy the genetically foreign cells. By the killers are cells that kill foreign cells, but only in the presence of antibodies to them. On the surface of T lymphocytes have receptors for erythrocytes mouse.
On-cells are undifferentiated and to reserve lymphocytes.
Morphological differences of B-and T-lymphocytes is not always possible. At the same time in B-lymphocytes is better developed granular EPS in the nucleus has loose chromatin and nucleoli. Best of all T-and B-lymphocytes can be distinguished by means of immune reactions and immunomorphological.
The life span of T lymphocytes from several months to several years, Blymphocytes - from several weeks to several months.
Blood stem cells (SCC) is morphologically indistinguishable from small dark lymphocytes. If the CCM fall into the connective tissue, they differentiate into mast cells, fibroblasts, etc.
Monocytes. Constitute 3-11%, the diameter of a drop of blood is equal to 14 microns, in a blood smear on the glass - 18 mm, slightly basophilic cytoplasm contains organelles, the total value, including the well-developed lysosomes or azurophilic granules. The kernel is often bean-shaped, at least - a horseshoe-shaped or oval. Function - phagocytic. Monocytes circulate in the blood of 36-104 hours, and then migrate through the capillary walls into the surrounding tissue and there differentiate into macrophages - macrophages glial nervous tissue, stellate cells of liver, lung alveolar macrophages, osteoclasts of bone tissue, skin epidermis vnutriepidermalnye macrophages and macrophage phagocytosis, etc. When

produce biological oxidants. Macrophages stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of B and T lymphocytes, are involved in immunological reactions.
Platelets. Add up to 1 liter of blood 250 300h1012, are particles of the cytoplasm of giant cells detached from the bone marrow - megakaryocytes. Platelet diameter of 2-3 microns. Platelets are made up of gialomera, which is their foundation, and chromomeres, or granulomera.
Cytolemma plasma cells covered by a thick (15-20 nm) glycocalyx forms of intussusception in the form of tubules extending from tsitolemmy. This is an open system of ducts through which the platelet-released their contents, and from the plasma of various substances act. In cytolemma are glycoproteins - receptors.
Glycoprotein capture of plasma von Willebrand factor. This is one of the key factors for blood clotting. A second glycoprotein, is a receptor of fibrinogen and is involved in platelet aggregation.
Gialomer - platelet cytoskeleton is represented actin filaments located under cytolemme and microtubular beams adjacent to and located tsitolemme circularly.
The actin filaments are involved in reducing the amount of thrombus.
The dense tubular system consists of platelet tubes, similar to smooth EPS. On the surface, this system is synthesized by COX and prostaglandins in these ducts are connected and divalent cations are deposited ions Ca2 +. Calcium helps adhesion and aggregation of platelets. Under the influence of cyclooxygenase Arach-dons acid decomposes into prostaglandins and thromboxane A 2, which stimulates platelet aggregation.
Granulomer includes organelles (ribosomes, lysosomes, microperoxysome, mitochondria), organelle components (EPS, Golgi complex), glycogen, ferritin, and special pellets.
Specific granules are presented in the following three types:
Type 1-alpha-granules have a diameter of 350-500 nm, which contain proteins
(thromboplastin), glycoproteins (thrombospondin, fibronectin), growth factors and lytic enzymes (cathepsin).
Type 2 - beta-granules have a diameter of 250-300 nm, which is a dense bodies contain serotonin, coming from the blood plasma, histamine, adrenaline, calcium, ADP, ATP.
Type 3 - granules with a diameter of 200-250 nm, presented lysosomes containing lysosomal enzymes, and microperoxysome containing peroxidase.
Distinguish between five types of platelets: 1) young 2) mature, and 3) Old 4), degenerative, and 5) giant.
Platelet function - involved in the formation of blood clots in damaged blood vessels. In the formation of a blood clot occurs: 1) the selection of external tissue factor of blood coagulation and platelet adhesion, 2) platelet aggregation and allocation of domestic clotting factor, and 3) under the influence of thromboplastin prothrombin converted into thrombin, fibrinogen under the influence of which falls in the thread and fibrin clot is formed, which is clogging the vessel stops the bleeding.
When injected into the body of aspirin inhibited thrombus formation.

Hemogram.
This is the number of blood cells per unit of volume (1 liter). In addition, determine the amount of hemoglobin and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, expressed in millimeters for 1 hour.
Wbc. This is the percentage of white blood cells. In particular, segmented leukocytes neutrophil contains 47-72%, stab - 3-5% of young - 0.5%; basophilic granulocytes - 0.5-1%, eosinophilic granulocytes - 1-6%, 3-11% monocytes; lymphocytes - 19-37%. In pathological conditions of the organism increases the number of young granulocytes and stab neutrophil - this is called a "shift to the left of the formula."
Age-related changes in the content of blood cells. In the body of a newborn in 1 liter of blood contains red blood cells 7h1012 6, to the 14th day - the same as in adults, a 6-month decreases the number of erythrocytes (physiological anemia), the period of puberty, reaches adulthood.
Significant age-related changes undergoing maintenance neutrophilic granulocytes and lymphocytes. In the body of a newborn of their number to the number of adults. After that, the number of neutrophils begins to decrease, lymphocytes - to increase, and the 4th days of the content of both is the same (first physiologic decussation). Then the number of neutrophils continued to decline, lymphocytes - to grow, and to 1-2 years in the number of neutrophils is reduced to a minimum (20-30%) and lymphocytes increased to 60-70%. After that, the content starts to decrease lymphocyte, neutrophils, - increase, and 4 years in the number of those and other equalized (second physiologic decussation). Then the number of neutrophils continued to increase, lymphocytes - to diminish, and the period of puberty, the content of these formed elements is the same as an adult.
Lymph consists of lymphoplasme and blood cells. Lymphoplasme include water, organic matter and mineral salts. Blood cells by 98% composed of lymphocytes, 2% - other blood cells. The value of lymph is to update the basic fabric of intercellular substance and its purification from bacteria, bacterial toxins and other harmful substances. Thus, lymph differ from blood containing less protein and more lymphoplasme lymphocytes.