Иностранный язык - Учебно

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ ОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ

ВЫСШЕГО ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ

«ТЮМЕНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

ФИЛИАЛ ТЮМГУ В Г. ТОБОЛЬСКЕ

Факультет истории, экономики и управления

Кафедра иностранных языков и МП

Рабочая программа учебной дисциплины

«Иностранный язык »

(английский язык)

Направление подготовки

050100.62 Педагогическое образование

Профиль

История, право

Квалификация (степень) выпускника

Бакалавр

Форма обучения заочная

Тобольск 2014

1

2

1.

Цели и задачи освоения дисциплины

Цели

освоения дисциплины (модуля): достижение практического владения английским языком становление иноязычной компетентности; приобретение знаний и навыков иностранного языка, уровень которого позволит использовать приобретенный языковой опыт в профессиональной и научной деятельности.

Задачи:

- активизация навыков восприятия аутентичной иноязычной речи на слух;

- дальнейшее развитие навыков владения диалогической и монологической иноязычной речью;

- совершенствование навыков чтения и понимания (с элементами перевода) иноязычной литературы по специальности;

- усовершенствование навыков письма в пределах изученного языкового материала.

2. Место дисциплины в структуре ООП ВПО

Дисциплина «Иностранный язык в профессиональной коммуникации» включена в вариативную часть профессионального цикла основной образовательной программы бакалавриата.

Дисциплина является самостоятельным модулем.

3. Требования к результатам освоения содержания дисциплины

Процесс изучения дисциплины направлен на формирование элементов следующих компетенций в соответствии с ФГОС ВПО и ООП ВПО по данному направлению подготовки

(специальности): а) общекультурных (ОК):

- владеет способностью осуществлять письменную и устную коммуникацию на государственном языке и осознавать необходимость знания второго языка (ОК-20);

- владеет готовностью к практическому анализу логики различного рода рассуждений, владеет навыками публичной речи, аргументации, ведения дискуссий, полемики (ОК-21).

В результате освоения дисциплины обучающийся должен:

Знать :

- лексический запас магистра должен составить не менее 3000 лексических единиц с учетом вузовского минимума и потенциального словаря, включая термины профилирующей специальности;

- определенные приемы, позволяющие совершать познавательную и коммуникативную деятельность;

- структурные типы простого предложения, грамматические формы и конструкции; порядок слов простого предложения;

- виды письменных и устных высказываний в различных коммуникативных ситуациях;

- разговорные формулы этикета профессионального общения, приемы структурирования научного дискурса.

Владеть:

- подготовленной, а также неподготовленной монологической и диалогической речью в пределах изученного языкового материала и в соответствии с избранной специальностью;

- терминологией по специальности, а также дискурсивными, лексико-фразеологическими, грамматическими и стилистическими трудностями в текстах, относящихся к сфере основной профессиональной деятельности;

3

- правильно оперировать языковыми средствами английского языка в ситуациях устного общения;

- всеми видами чтения (изучающее, ознакомительное, поисковое и просмотровое);

- письмом в пределах изученного материала (250-300 слов).

Уметь:

- понимать аутентичную нормативную монологическую и диалогическую речь носителей иностранного языка;

- работать с оригинальной литературой научного характера, сопоставлять и определять/ выбирать пути и способы научного исследования (изучение статей, монографий, рефератов, трактатов, диссертаций);

- применять полученные знания для преодоления трудностей при переводе с учетом вида перевода, его целей и условий осуществления.

Приобрести опыт деятельности

в решении социально-коммуникативных задач в профессиональной, научной, культурной и бытовой сфер деятельности.

4. Структура и содержание дисциплины

Общая трудоемкость дисциплины составляет 3 зачетных единиц (108 часов), из них 36 часа, выделенных на контактную работу с преподавателем.

.

4.1. Структура дисциплины

Таблица 1

№

Наименование раздела дисциплины

Семестр

7

ЛК

Виды учебной работы

(в академических часах) аудиторные занятия

ПЗ

3

ЛБ

СР

12 1

Стратегии устного и письменного перевода. Методы перевода.

2

Технология предпереводческого анализа.

3

Составление резюме.

4

Научная статья. Аннотирование и реферирование.

5

Моя научная работа.

6

Деловая переписка.

7

Деловое общение по телефону.

8 Международное научное сотрудничество.

7

7

7

8

8

8

8

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

12

14

14

14

14

14

14

4.2. Содержание дисциплины

Таблица 2

№ Наименование раздела дисциплины

Содержание раздела

(дидактические единицы)

4

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Стратегии устного и письменного перевода.

Методы перевода.



Научная статья.

Аннотирование и реферирование.



Деловое общение по телефону.

Международное научное сотрудничество.

Виды перевода (художественный, научно-технический, общественно-политической).

Методы перевода. Метод сегментации текста - письменный перевод; метод записи - последовательный перевод; метод трансформации исходного текста - синхронный перевод.

Жанры текстов и их учёт при переводе.

Перевод профессионально-ориентированных текстов.

Усложненные структуры (конструкции) в составе предложения.

1) Формальные признаки цепочки определений в составе именной группы (наличие нескольких левых определений между детерминативом существительного и ядром именной группы).

2) Формальные признаки сложного дополнения (

Complex Object).

Лексические, синтаксические, стилистические и грамматические средства, характерные для каждого типа текста: научного; научно-технического; специального.

Формальные признаки логико-смысловых связей между элементами текста (союзы, союзные слова, клишированные фразы, вводные обороты и конструкции, слова-сигналы ретроспективной (местоимения) и перспективной (наречия) связи.

Формальные признаки конструкции "именительный падеж с инфинитивом".

Основные части резюме: 1) личная информация; 2) цель; 3) образование; 4) профессиональный опыт; 5) специальные навыки; 6) рекомендации.

Аннотация. Виды аннотаций.

Аннотирование профессионально-ориентированных текстов.

Времена группы Perfect. Безличные предложения.

Работа с текстами профессиональной направленности.

Особенности научного стиля.

Новые лексические единицы и речевые образцы, необходимые для составления обоснования по теме диссертации.

Правила составления деловых писем, мотивированного письма.

Виды сложных предложений.

Этикет общения по телефону, речевые образцы и лексические единицы по данной теме.

Научная конференция. Умение речевого общения: прием зарубежных специалистов, обмен информацией профессионального характера.

Новые лексические единицы и речевые образцы по теме.

5. Образовательные технологии

Таблица 3

№ заня- тия

№ раздела

Тема занятия Виды образовательных технологий

Кол-во часов

5

1

2

3-4

5

6

7-8

9

10-11

12

13

1

1

2

2

2

3

4

4

5

5

Виды перевода (художественный, научно-технический, общественно-политический).

Методы перевода. Метод сегментации текста - письменный перевод; метод записи - последовательный перевод; метод трансформации исходного текста - синхронный перевод.

Жанры текстов и их учёт при переводе. Перевод профессионально ориентированных текстов.

Усложненные структуры

(конструкции) в составе предложения.


Аспекты предпереводческого анализа.

Лексические, синтаксические средства, характерные для каждого типа текста.

Стилистические и грамматические средства, характерные для каждого типа текста.


Традиционная.

Анализ текстов (определение вида перевода). Перевод текстов с использованием разнообразных методов.

Интерактивная.

Case-study

(анализ конкретных ситуаций).


Определение жанров представленных текстов.

Перевод с иностранного языка на русский и с родного языка на иностранный. Выполнение упражнений.


Выполнение упражнений.

Интерактивная. ПОПС

(позиция-обоснование-примерследствие).


Анализ представленных текстов.

Выявление лексических и синтаксических средств.

Традиционная. Анализ представленных текстов.

Выявление стилистических и грамматических средств.

Научная статья. Аннотирование и реферирование.

Аннотация. Виды аннотации.

Аннотирование профессиональноориентированных текстов.



Деловая игра.

Сообщение (монологическое высказывание профессионального характера в объеме не менее 15-18 фраз за 5 минут в нормальном среднем темпе речи).


Составление плана, тезисов.


Составление аннотаций.

Лексические единицы и речевые образцы, необходимые для составления обоснования по теме диссертации.


«Внутренняя дидактическая беседа».


Составление плана исследования.


Реферирование текстов научного характера.

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

1

1

2

6

14-16

16

17-18

6

6

7

Деловая переписка. Правила составления деловых писем.

Интерактивная

. Составление деловых писем. Творческие задания (деловая игра).



Составление мотивированного письма. Виды сложных предложений.


Составление мотивированного письма.


Деловое общение по телефону. Традиционная.

Составление тематического диалога.

Интерактивная

. Ролевая игра.

2

1

2

19-20

21

22

23-24

7

8

8

8

Деловой этикет общения по телефону. Правила делового общения.

Международное научное сотрудничество. Умение речевого общения: прием зарубежных специалистов.

Международное научное сотрудничество. Обмен информацией профессионального характера.

Новые лексические единицы и речевые образцы по теме.

Международное научное сотрудничество. Научная конференция.


Круглый стол.

Анализ конкретных ситуаций.

Интерактивная. Ролевая игра.

Составление анкеты для обучения в России.


Разработка программы профессионального обмена для преподавателей.


Слайдпрезентация своей научной работы.

6. Самостоятельная работа студентов

Таблица 4


Вид самостоятельной работы

1 Стратегии устного и письменного перевода.

Перевод профессионально-ориентированных текстов. Формальные признаки сложного дополнения (Complex Object). Написание эссе.

2 Аннотирование и реферирование.

Аннотирование профессиональноориентированных текстов. Составление плана

3 Резюме.

4 Деловая переписка.

Моя научная работа. тезисов.

Составление резюме. Реферирование текстов научного характера.

Составление деловых и мотивированных писем.

5 Деловое общение по телефону.

Написание реферата. Запрос информации.

Оформление и размещение заказа. Решение проблем.

2

1

2

1

Трудоемкость

(в академических часах)

18

18

18

18

18

7

6

Международное научное сотрудничество.

Аннотирование направленности. текстов профессиональной

12

7. Компетентностно-ориентированные оценочные средства

7.1. Оценочные средства диагностирующего контроля

Грамматический тест, чтение, обсуждение и аннотирование текста общекультурного характера.

Образец диагностирующего грамматического теста.

Choose the right form of the verb:

1.

Who speaks French in your family? – I … a. have b. do c. am

2.

When … you buy the new TV set? a. did b. were c. are

3.

We … never been to London. a. had b. were c. have

4.

Where … you going when I met you last night? a. did b. were c. are

5.

… your friend like to watch TV in the evening? a. do b. does c. is

6.

What are you doing? – I … reading a book. a. was b. am c. is

7.

We thought they … be late. a. would b. shall c. will

8.

Many new buildings … built in our town last year. a. had b. were c. were

9.

The letter … sent tomorrow. a. will be b. has c. will

10.

I … Dick today. a. haven’t seen b. hadn’t seen c. didn’t see

11.

Were you tired after skiing yesterday? – Yes, I … a. were b. did c. was

12.

When we came into the hall they … this problem. a. were discussing b. discussed c. have discussed

13.

We … from institute in five years. a. have graduated b. graduated c. shall graduate

14.

Don’t go out. It … hard. a. is raining b. was raining c. rains

15.

They … the institute three years ago. a. have entered b. entered c. had entered

16.

Does the professor … a lot of experience? a. has b. have c. had

17.

Did he … the week-end in the country? a. spent b. spend c. spends

18.

I shall ring you up as soon as I … home.

8

a. came b. shall come c. come

19.

The report … ready by 6 o’clock yesterday. a. was b has been c. had been

20.

She usually … to bed very early. a. goes b. has gone c. going

Образец текста общекультурного характера для чтения, обсуждения и аннотирования.

A Brief History of Oxford city

Oxford was founded in the 9th century when Alfred the Great created a network of fortified towns called burhs across his kingdom. One of them was at Oxford. Oxford is first mentioned in 911 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

According to legend, Oxford University was founded in 872 when Alfred the Great happened to meet some monks there and had a scholarly debate that lasted several days. In reality, it grew up in the 12th century when famous teachers began to lecture there and groups of students came to live and study in the town.

But Oxford was a fortress as well as a town. In the event of war with the Danes all the men from the area were to gather inside the burgh. However this strategy was not entirely successful. In

1009 the Danes burned Oxford. However Oxford was soon rebuilt. In 1013 the Danish king claimed the throne of England. He invaded England and went to Oxford. In 1018 a conference was held in

Oxford to decide who would be the king of England.

By the time of the Norman Conquest, there were said to be about 1,000 houses rn Oxford, which meant it probably had a population of around 5,000. By the standards of the time, it was a large and important town (even London only had about 18,000 inhabitants). Oxford was the 6th largest town in England. Oxford probably reached its zenith at that time. About 1072 the Normans built a castle at

Oxford.

In the 12th and 13th centuries Oxford was a manufacturing town. It was noted for cloth and leather. But in the 14th and 15th centuries manufacturing declined. Oxford came to depend on the students. It became a town of brewers, butchers, bakers, tailors, shoemakers, coopers, carpenters and blacksmiths. In the later Middle Ages Oxford declined in importance.

In the 16th century Oxford declined further in terms of national importance, though it remained a fairly large town by the standards of the time. Oxford was economically dependent on the university.

The students provided a large market for beer, food, clothes and other goods.

From 1819 Oxford had gas street lighting.

In the late 19th century a marmalade making industry began in Oxford. There was also a publishing industry and an iron foundry.

Oxford gained its first cinema in 1910.

The fate of Oxford was changed in 1913 when a man named Morris began making cars in the city. In 1919 a radiator making company was formed. By the 1930s Oxford was an important manufacturing centre. It was also a prosperous city., Furthermore it escaped serious damage during

World War II.

Oxford airport opened in 1938.

Today the main industries are still car manufacturing and making vehicle parts and publishing.

Today the population of Oxford is 121,000.

Questions:

1. When was Oxford founded?

2. Who created network of fortified towns called burghs?

3. When was Oxford mentioned for the first time?

4. When was Oxford University founded?

5. What happened to Oxford in 1009?

9

6. What population had Oxford by the time of the Norman Conquest of 1086?

7. When did Oxford reach its zenith?

8. When did Oxford become a manufacturing town?

9. When did Oxford decline in importance?

10. When did Oxford gain its gas street lighting?

11. Was Oxford economically dependent on the University or not?

12. When did Oxford gain its first cinema?

13. Who changed the fate of the town in 1913?

14. How many people live in Cambridge nowadays?

7.2. Оценочные средства текущего контроля: модульно-рейтинговая технология оценивания работы студентов

7.2.2. Оценивание аудиторной работы студентов (не предусмотрено)

Таблица 6


Формы оцениваемой работы

Работа на практических занятиях

Максима льное кол-во баллов

1

2

3

4

5

6 Моя научная работа.

7


Вида и методы перевода.

Жанры текстов и их учёт при переводе. Перевод профессионально ориентированных текстов.



Итого

Научная статья.


Аннотация. Виды аннотации.

Итого


6 семестр

Анализ текстов (определение вида перевода). Перевод текстов с использованием разнообразных методов.

Case-study (анализ конкретных ситуаций). Перевод с иностранного языка на русский и с родного языка на иностранный. Выполнение упражнений.

Выполнение упражнений. ПОПС

(позиция-обоснование-примерследствие). Анализ текстов.

Сообщение (монологическое высказывание профессионального характера в объеме не менее 15-18 фраз за 5 минут в нормальном среднем темпе речи).


Составление плана, тезисов.

Составление аннотаций.

23

26

25

74

19

18

«Внутренняя дидактическая беседа».

Составление плана исследования.


20

57


Составление деловых и мотивированных писем. Дискуссии. Творческие задания.


19

Модуль

(аттеста ция)

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

10

8

Деловое общение по телефону. Деловой этикет общения по телефону.

9

Правила делового общения.

Итого

10

Международное научное сотрудничество. Умение речевого общения: прием зарубежных специалистов.

Обмен информацией профессионального характера.

11 Международное научное сотрудничество.

12

Научная конференция.

Итого

Аннотирование текстов профессиональной направленности.

Составление тематического диалога.

Ролевая игра.

Анализ конкретных ситуаций.

19

19

57


Ролевая игра. Составление анкеты для обучения в России. Разработка программы профессионального обмена для преподавателей.

Слайд-презентация своей научной работы.

Круглый стол.

19

19

19

57

7.2.3. Оценивание самостоятельной работы студентов

Таблица 7

№

1

2

3

4

Наименование раздела

(темы) дисциплины




Итого

Резюме.

5 Деловое общение по телефону.

6


Итого

Формы оцениваемой работы


Перевод профессиональноориентированных текстов.

Формальные признаки сложного дополнения (Complex Object). Написание эссе.

Аннотирование профессиональноориентированных текстов. Составление плана тезисов.

26

7семестр

Составить резюме.

Написание реферата.

Максима льное кол-во баллов

7

9

10

12

12

19

7

8

9


Профессиональная сфера общения.

Международное


23


Составление деловых и мотивированных писем.

Составление резюме. Интервью об устройстве на работу.

Аннотирование текстов профессиональной

12

12

19

2

3

1

2

3

Модуль

(аттеста ция)

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

11

научное сотрудничество.

Итого направленности.

23

8 семестр

10 Структура научной работы.

11 Написание доклада.

Разбор структуры научной работы.

Изучение научных терминов, клише, фразовых единиц.

Презентация научного доклада.

12 Защита научного доклада.

Итого

43

7.2.4. Оценочные средства для текущего контроля успеваемости

12

12

19

1

2

3

7.2.4.1. Составление словаря

Список слов для составления словаря заказное письмо, обыкновенная телеграмма, бланк телеграммы, адрес, срочная телеграмма, международная телеграмма, электронное письмо, индекс, послание, почта, почтовый, сообщение, почтовый офис, почта, подпись, отправлять по почте, принять к сведению содержание письма, получать письмо, отправлять письмо, печатать письмо, получатель, адресат, авиапочта, проспект, бульвар, деловое письмо, корреспонденция, переписка, район, набережная, конверт, шоссе, личное\неформальное письмо, переулок, почтовый ящик, официальное письмо, бандероль, посылка, область, отправитель, марка, край, адрес получателя, адрес отправителя и др.

7.2.4.2. Составление письменных документов

Изучение структуры письменных документов, стандартных фраз, употребляемых в этих видах документов, составление аналогичных документов.

Образец:

Уважаемый г-н Футман!

Я позволил себе послать Вам этот факс вместо того, чтобы беспокоить Вас по телефону.

На прошлой неделе я отправил Вам короткое предложение. Хотелось бы знать, соответствует ли оно интересам Вашей компании.

Мы хотели бы сотрудничать с Вами и были бы благодарны, если бы Вы сообщили нам как можно скорее, вписывается ли в Ваши планы это сотрудничество.

С уважением

Dear Mr. Footman:

I am taking the liberty of writing you this fax instead of interrupting you by phone.

Last week I mailed you a brief proposal. Now I am wondering if it suits your company's needs.

We wish to do business with you and would appreciate it if you would let us know as soon as possible if we fit into your plans.

Sincerely yours,

7.2.4.3. Творческие задания

1) Составить письмо-запрос о возможности учебы в высшем учебном заведении.

2)

Составить письмо рекомендательного характера; письмо с просьбой о предоставлении работы и ответ на данную просьбу.

3)

Разработать структуру деловых переговоров (объект по выбору).

4) Провести анализ научных текстов.

Образец диагностирующего грамматического теста.

12

Составление аннотации, плана/тезисов текстов и выполнение упражнений по ним.

7.2.4.4.

Образец контрольного научно-профессионального текста для анализа, составления плана, аннотирования и выполнения упражнений по нему.

THE ECONOMETRICS SYSTEM by William J. Reynolds

Last year Lawrence R. Klein, professor of economics at the University of Pennsylvania, became the ninth American to win the Nobel Prize in Economics since the category's inception in

1968. Klein's prize, and its $215,000 purse, was awarded for no single endeavor, but for Klein's trailblazing efforts in the refinement and further development of the economic device call econometrics.

No, econometrics doesn't seek to determine the ramifications of converting to grams and liters.

Econometrics is perhaps best thought of as a tool by which economic theories-abstract ideas — are empirically tested and expressed in quantitative terms (i.e., hard numbers).

While the roots of econometrics can be traced to the 1830s (in such works as Antoine Augustin

Coumot's «Recherches surles principes mathematiques de la theorie des richesse», 1938), the seminal work came about in the 1930s. With the world economy in the grip of a monumental global depression, the need for developing a way to accurately predict the effects of economic policy became obvious. Jan Tinberg of the Netherlands established much of the groundwork then, examining the inter dependence of separate factors — variables such as productivity, consumption, employment, national income, retail prices and the usual economic catch phrases — within an economic system, and even beyond: who can dispute that the policies enacted in the other economies affect our own?

For his work Tinberg was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1969, but it is Lawrence Klein who is acknowledged as having made the first practical application of econometrics in the 1950s, by using modem computer-coded tools of statistical analysis to verify Tinberg's idea of interrelationship and to express those relationships quantitatively, in terms of mathematical formulae.

These formulae are arrived at by painstaking recording the historical movements of goods and services throughout an economy's various sectors — government, capital formation, household goods, etc. The historical relationships of these sectors are studied and applied to the construction of equations that attempt to forecast, for instance, how a given change in total after-tax income, coupled with a change in wholesale prices, is likely to affect consumption.

Basic cause-and-effect, right? But it takes a comprehensive set of equations to account for all of the significant variables and what will happen to them all — simultaneously — if something changes.

This set composes an econometric model and, since the model is only as good as the data it can accommodate, a valid model must contain literally scores of formulae. At Pennsylvania, Klein works with a model that strives to describe the total global economy — and which contains over 1,000 individual variables.

Lately the validity of existing econometric models — specifically, their forecasting abilities — has been questioned. The severity of recent economic occurrences such as the 1974 recession and the significant inflation of a year ago were not indicated in the forecasts. There is concern among some economists that the historical assumptions on which current econometrics is based may no longer be wholly applicable.

Nonetheless, economists and those who rely on economic information are in no hurry to disavow themselves of any association with econometrics. Just last year, Business Week was publishing regular quarterly forecasts based on information retrieved from Klein's system-model.

Econometric predictions might not be letter-perfect, but they're the best predictions available, at least by dint of being the only ones available.

And since economists, like meteorologists, will forever be called upon to make predictions, they will forever seek to fine-tune, improve and even reinvent their going-out-on-a-limb tools. If there's such a thing as perpetual motion, this must surely be it.

13

No wonder economics is called the dismal science.

Exercises:

1. This article can be divided into five sections. The paragraph divisions for sections I and II and the sub-titles for sections I and V are given below. Fill in the missing paragraph numbers and sub-titles.

I. Term «Econometrics» Introduced 1

II.___________________________ 2

III.__________________________ __

IV.__________________________ __

V. Current Status of Econometrics __

2. Fill in the empty spaces in the table below, giving date, name, and contribution to the history of econometrics.

Date

1930s

Name

Lawrence Klein

Contribution to the history of Econometrics

Recherches sur les principes mathematiques de la theorie de richesse

3. What caused Jan Tinberg to develop his theory? a.

the research ofAugustin Coumot b.

the depression of the 1930"s c. the interdependence of economic variables d. the effects of other economic systems on our own

1.

What word in the text means the same as «factors» (1.21)?________

5. Klein's econometric model contains over 1,000 variables because a.

there are 1,000 significant variables in economics b.

the validity of the model depends upon its completeness c.

the model attempts to forecast the economy of the entire world. d. the validity of econometrics has been questioned

6.

In paragraph 6, Reynolds gives a definition of econometrics.

In what earlier paragraph has he also given a definition of econometrics? ____

7.

The current opinion of econometrics held by the experts is that a.

it contains over 1,000 variables b.

it is valid for forecasting economic changes c.

it is based on assumptions which are no longer valid d.

although it is not perfect, it is the only economic forecasting tool available.

7.3 Оценочные средства промежуточной аттестации

7.3.2. Оценочные средства для промежуточной аттестации

7.3.2.1. Перечень вопросов для зачёта

1. Жанры текста. Перевод текста и его аннотация.

2. Моя научная деятельность.

14

3. В поисках работы. Составление резюме.

4. Деловое письмо. Виды деловых писем.

5. Реферирование текста научного характера.

6. Реферирование публицистического текста.

7. Деловое общение, его виды и формы. Составить диалог.

8. Аннотирование и реферирование текста профессиональной направленности.

7.3.2.2. Перечень вопросов к экзамену

1. Перевод публицистического текста и составление аннотации.

2. Моя научная деятельность. Написание эссе.

3. Резюме. Основные части резюме. Написать резюме.

4. Виды и формы деловой переписки.

5. Реферирование текста научного характера.

6. Деловое общение, его виды и формы. Составить диалог.

7. Аннотирование и реферирование текста профессиональной направленности.

8. Составление мотивированного письма.

9. Подготовка вопросов для интервью об устройстве на работу.

10. Составление делового письма.

11. Презентация тезисов своего научного исследования.

8. Учебно-методическое и информационное обеспечение дисциплины а) основная литература:

1.

Агабекян, И.П. Английский для менеджеров / И.П. Агабекян. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2011.

2.

Казакова, Т.А. Практические основы перевода / Т.А. Казакова.- СПб: Изд-во «Союз», 2010.

3.

Крупнов, В.Н. Гуманитарный перевод: учебное пособие для вузов по специальности

«Перевод и переводоведение» / В.Н. Крупнов. – М.: Академия, 2011.

4.

Шевелева, С.А. Деловой английский / С.А. Шевелева. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2010. б) дополнительная литература:

1.

Басс, Э.М. Научная и деловая корреспонденция / Ю.М. Басс. – М.: Наука, 1991.

2.

Бреус, Е.В. Теория и практика перевода с английского языка на русский / Е.В. Бреус. – М.:

Изд-во УРАО, 2001.

3.

Гринев, С. В. Введение в терминоведение / С.В. Гринев. – М.: Московский лицей, 1993.

4.

Кондратюкова, Л.К., Ткачева, Л.Б., Акулинина, Т.В. Аннотирование и реферирование английской научно-технической литературы / Л.К. Кондратюкова, Л.Б. Ткачева, Т.В.

Акулинина. – Омск, 2001.

5.

Мердок-Стерн, С. Деловые приемы и встречи на английском: визиты, сотрудничество, профессиональные контакты: учебное пособие / С. Мердок-Стерн. – М.: АСТ, 2007.

6.

Прохоров, Ю.Е. Действительность. Текст. Дискурс / Ю.Е. Прохоров. – М.: Флинта, 2011.

7.

Рубцова, М.Г. Чтение и перевод английской научной и технической литературы / М.Г.

Рубцова. – М.: Астрель, АСТ, 2004.

8.

Сафроненко, О.И. Английский язык для магистров и аспирантов естественных факультетов университетов / О.И. Сафроненко. – М.: Высшая школа, 2005.

9.

Сулейманова, О.А., Беклемешева, Н.Н. Грамматические аспекты: уч. пособие для студ. вызов

/ О.А. Сулейманова, Н.Н. Беклемешева. – М.: Академия, 2010.

10.

Шеллов, С.Д. Определение терминов и понятийная структура терминологии / С.Д. Шеллов.

– СПб, 1998.

15

11.

Hashemi, L., Murphy, R. English Grammar in Use. Supplementary Exercises / L. Hashemi, R.

Murphy. – Cambridge: Univ. Press, 2001.

12.

Murphy, R. Essential Grammar in Use / R. Murphy. – Cambridge: Univ. Press, 2000.

13.

Murphy, R. Essential Grammar in Use (for Intermediate students) / R. Murphy. – Cambridge:

Univ. Press, 2001.

14.

Swan, M., Walter, C. How English works. A Grammar Practice Book / M. Swan, C. Walter. –

Oxford: Univ. Press, 2000. в) периодические издания:

1.

Периодическое издание газеты «Moscow News».

2.

Приложение к газете «Первое Сентября» «English». г) интернет-ресурсы: http://www.learnenglish.de/ http://dictionary.reference.com/ http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/ http://usefulenglish.ru/ http://lengish.com/ http://www.native-english.ru/ http://www.study.ru/ http://www.mystudy.ru/ http://4flaga.ru/material.html http://englishouse.ru/index.html http://www.usingenglish.com/ http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/ http://www.britishcouncil.org/new/learning/ http://www.cambridge.org/learning/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page http://elt.oup.com/?cc=ru&selLanguage=en http://www.merriam-webster.com/ http://www.macmillandictionary.com/ http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/ http://www.guardian.co.uk/ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/

д) мультимедийные средства:

CD «ABBYY Lingvo 9.0»

CD 1, 2 «Т.Н. Игнатова. English for Communication»

CD «Professor Higgins. Английский без акцента»

CD «English platinum»

CD «Oxford Platinum»

9. Материально-техническое обеспечение дисциплины

Минимально необходимый перечень материально-технического обеспечения включает: лингафонный кабинет, компьютерные классы с выходом в сеть Интернет, аудитории, специально оборудованные мультимедийными демонстрационными комплексами, учебнометодический ресурсный центр, методический кабинет или специализированную библиотеку.

Реализация дисциплины предусматривает использование учебно-наглядных пособий: фонетические, грамматические таблицы, тематические плакаты (по лексике), географические карты. Средства обучения включают в себя учебно-справочную литературу (рекомендованные учебники и учебные пособия, словари), учебные и аутентичные печатные, аудио- и видеоматериалы, Интернет-ресурсы.

16

10. Паспорт рабочей программы дисциплины

Разработчик(и) : Морозова Е.Н., к.п.н., доцент, Касимова Т.Н., к.п.н., доцент

Программа одобрена на заседании кафедры иностранных языков и МП от «___»_______________г., протокол №________

Согласовано:

Зав. кафедрой ______________________Вычужанина А.Ю.

«___» ________________г.

Согласовано:

Специалист по УМР _________________

«___» ________________г.

Приложение 1

17

Методические указания по дисциплине «Иностранный язык в профессиональной коммуникации»

Структура программы отражает основные дидактические принципы обучения: от простого к сложному, последовательность, повторяемость, контроль. Она способствует

18

достижению конечной цели обучения – выработке у студентов навыков и умений практического владения компетенциями делового общения на английском языке в рамках деятельности, определяемой направлением подготовки.

Дисциплина «Деловой иностранный язык» опирается на теоретические и практические знания иностранного языка, полученные студентами на предыдущем этапе изучения языка в академии. В процессе изучения дисциплины обобщаются, систематизируются, корректируются и дополняются приобретенные ранее знания магистров по иностранному языку, даются основы для дальнейшего самостоятельного изучения языка. Все правила и понятия должны формулироваться в максимально простой и четкой форме, иллюстрироваться простыми и наглядными примерами.

В процессе формирования более сложных грамматических навыков следует опираться на интерактивные и коммуникативные формы обучения, что способствует ускоренному формированию практических навыков делового общения. Необходимо сочетать фронтальную, индивидуальную, парную и групповую формы работы с тем, чтобы каждый студент был вовлечен в различные виды языковой деятельности.

Во время обучения в магистратуре значительно повышается роль самостоятельной творческой работы студентов, большее место на занятиях отводится творческим формам речевого общения: диалогам, ролевым играм, деловым диспутам. Интерактивные игры обладают высокой степенью наглядности и позволяют активизировать изучаемый языковой материал в речевых ситуациях, моделирующих и имитирующих реальный процесс профессионального общения.

Содержание курса отражает определенные вопросы деловой сферы общения, в которой будущие специалисты будут выполнять свои профессиональные задачи путем реализации навыков и умений, приобретенных в процессе обучения.

В процессе обучения цели совершенствования языковой компетенции сочетаются с задачами совершенствования личностных качеств студентов. Материалы, составляющие учебные пособия, подобраны таким образом, что они способствуют развитию мыслительных способностей студентов, формированию у них навыков самообразования.

Для обеспечения высокого уровня овладения изучаемым материалом и закрепления его на практике используются интерактивные методы обучения. В основу построения данного курса положена ситуативно-тематическая организация учебного материала, что предполагает максимальное включение студентов в естественный процесс взаимодействия в виде беседы, диалога, обмена мнениями, информацией. Наиболее широко используются следующие интерактивные методы: ролевые/деловые игры, дискуссии, направленные на моделирование и воспроизведение профессионально ориентированных ситуаций, вовлечение в мыслительный поиск и коммуникацию всех обучающихся. Интерактивные методы способствуют повышению мотивации студентов, создают возможности для самовыражения, овладения изучаемым материалом на практике и ведут к повышению уровня компетентности в профессиональной сфере.

Конечной целью обучения студентов является практическое овладение деловым общением. После завершения курса обучения магистры должны:

 владеть интонационными моделями делового речевого этикета;

 владеть устной диалогической и монологической речью в профессиональной сфере;

 знать основные стратегии и особенности научно-технического перевода;

 знать сложные грамматические структуры, необходимые для более точного перевода и понимания текстов научного и профессионального характера;

 уметь вести беседу, в том числе оn-line, о своей будущей профессиональной деятельности, планах и научных проектах в профессиональной карьере;.

 владеть терминологическим вокабуляром, фразеологизмами (пословицами, поговорками, идиомами) в рамках сферы профессионально-делового общения;

 уметь составлять резюме;

19

 аннотировать изучаемые тексты, статьи и др. материалы в контексте сферы научного и профессионального общения;

 уметь писать и отправлять электронные письма с учетом речевого и делового этикета, в рамках сферы профессионального общения.

При аннотировании и реферировании текстов общекультурного, научного и профессионального характера, студентам придется столкнуться с лексикой английского языка, которая делится на три категории: общеупотребительные слова, составляющие основу языка; слова и словосочетания научного регистра речи, т.е. общенаучная лексика; собственно термины.

Следует обратить внимание на то, что научные термины в значительной части интернациональны.

В научных текстах превалируют заголовки номинативного типа, в которых нередко формулируется проблема, изложенная в статье, эссе, монографии, книге. Эта проблема последовательно раскрывается от известного к неизвестному. Внешним признаком научного стиля текста является порядок организации информации. Текст имеет введение, содержащее основной тезис, главную часть, в которой дается аргументация тезиса и практическое описание нового изобретения, проведенного эксперимента, значимых теоретических и практических выводов. Заключительная часть/послесловие выполняет итоговую интегрирующую функцию.

Специфической чертой научного текста являются подчеркнутая логичность, многократное повторение с дополнительным аргументированием, сложный синтаксис и многообразие профессионально ориентированной тематики.

В научно-техническом тексте широко используются штампы (часто повторяющиеся текстовые и речевые обороты) и клише (устойчивые словосочетания, постоянно используемые в типичных контекстах).

Для научно-технического текста на английском языке характерны глагольные фразеологические сочетания: to make mention of (упоминать), to make use of (использовать), to pay attention to (обращать внимание на), to take advantage of (воспользоваться), а также глаголы с послелогами: to interact with (взаимодействовать), to deal with (иметь дело с), to refer to

(ссылаться на) , to depend on (зависеть от).

Этапы работы с научно-техническим тексом: просмотр научно-технического текста или статьи, ознакомление с содержанием, поиск нужной информации, детальное изучение языка и содержания.

Анализ в процессе чтения научно-технической литературы связан, прежде всего, с лексическими и стилистическими уровнями текста. На лексическом уровне объектом анализа для читающего и изучающего деловой язык становится главным образом незнакомая лексика, лексические единицы, встречающиеся в контекстуальном значении, специфические авторские обороты речи. В арсенале изучающего иностранный язык имеются такие виды работы, как использование словарей, перефразирование (то есть подбор так называемых эквивалентных замен, синонимичных средств выражения), толкование значения и смысла текста.

Для качественного и глубокого понимания научно-технического текста студентам целесообразно пользоваться энциклопедическим словарем, представляющим в кратком виде современное состояние научного знания. Специальным видом энциклопедического словаря является отраслевой словарь, содержащий информацию, касающуюся только какой-либо определенной отрасли. Каждая отрасль науки, развиваясь, формирует свой специфический язык, обладающий семантической определенностью для однозначности всех понятий данной науки.

Рекомендации студентам для самостоятельной работы с текстами научного и профессионального характера:

 Сегментировать текст. Предварительная сегментация текста подразумевает выделение в тексте таких фрагментов, перевод которых не зависит от контекста. При этом необходим перевод не фрагментов научного текста, а фрагментов смысла.

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 Учитывать многозначность слов. Большинство слов в английском языке являются полисемантическими, поэтому перевод слова и его интерпретация осуществляются в соответствии с контекстом.

 Учитывать способы словообразования. Знание словообразования является эффективным средством расширения научного и профессионального словаря. Умение разобрать производное слово на корень, суффикс и префикс позволяет определить значение неизвестного слова.

 Учитывать эквивалентность. Сопоставляя лексику двух языков, часто можно обнаружить пробелы в семантике одного из них, т.е., безэквивалентные единицы языка.

Необходимо проанализировать слово (словосочетание), его окружение и раскрыть смысл путем интерпретации.

 Использовать межъязыковые и внутриязыковые трансформации как способ эффективного объяснения смысла структуры, предшествующего ее сравнению с эквивалентной ей структурой русского языка. Необходимо подбирать синонимы, интерпретировать сложные описательные обороты, выделять слова с ключевой информацией, перефразировать длинные сентенции и находить лексические опорные единицы для запоминания.

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Практические занятия по курсу «Иностранный язык в профессиональной коммуникации»

22

Важное значение в подготовке студента к профессиональной деятельности имеют практические занятия. Они составляют значительную часть всего объёма аудиторных занятий и имеют важнейшее значение для усвоения программного материала. Выполняемые на них задания можно подразделить на несколько групп. Одни из них служат иллюстрацией теоретического материала и носят воспроизводящий характер. Они выявляют качество понимания обучающимися теории. Другие представляют собой образцы задач и примеров, разобранных в аудитории.

Следующий вид заданий содержит элементы творчества. Одни из них требуют от обучающегося преобразований, реконструкций, обобщений. Для их выполнения необходимо привлекать ранее приобретенный опыт, устанавливать внутрипредметные и межпредметные связи. Решение других требует дополнительных знаний, которые обучающийся должен приобрести самостоятельно. Третьи предполагают наличие у обучающегося некоторых исследовательских умений.

Практические занятия не только углубляют и закрепляют соответствующие знания, но и развивают инициативу, творческую активность, вооружают будущего специалиста методами и средствами научного познания.

Тема1. Стратегии устного и письменного перевода. Методы перевода.

План:

1. Виды перевода.

2. Методы перевода.

3. Жанры текстов и их учёт при переводе. Усложненные структуры (конструкции) в составе предложения.

Литература:

1. Казакова, Т.А. Практические основы перевода / Т.А. Казакова. – СПб: Изд-во «Союз», 2007.

2. Крупнов, В.Н. Гуманитарный перевод: учебное пособие для вузов по специальности


3. Прохоров, Ю.Е. Действительность. Текст. Дискурс / Ю. Е. Прохоров. – М.: Флинта, 2011.

4. Murphy, R. Essential Grammar in Use (for Intermediate students) / R. Murphy. – Cambridge: Univ.

Press, 2001.

5.Swan, M., Walter, C. How English works. A Grammar Practice Book / M. Swan, C. Walter. –

Oxford: Univ. Press, 2000.

При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу, а также материалы сайта www.wikipedia.com

При подготовке к пунктам 1 и 2 рассмотрите виды перевода (художественный, научнотехнический, общественно-политической) и методы перевода (метод сегментации текста - письменный перевод; метод записи - последовательный перевод; метод трансформации исходного текста - синхронный перевод). В пункте 3 рассмотрите жанры текстов, а также усложненные структуры (конструкции) в составе предложения: 1) формальные признаки цепочки определений в составе именной группы (наличие нескольких левых определений между детерминативом существительного и ядром именной группы); 2) формальные признаки сложного дополнения (Complex Object).

Тема 2: Технология предпереводческого анализа.

План:

1. Лексические, синтаксические, стилистические и грамматические средства.

2. Формальные признаки логико-смысловых связей между элементами текста.


23

1. Казакова, Т.А. Практические основы перевода / Т.А. Казакова. – СПб: Изд-во «Союз», 2007.

2. Крупнов, В.Н. Гуманитарный перевод: учебное пособие для вузов по специальности


3. Прохоров, Ю.Е. Действительность. Текст. Дискурс / Ю. Е. Прохоров. – М.: Флинта, 2011.

4. Сулейманова, О.А., Беклемешева, Н.Н. Грамматические аспекты: уч. пособие д/студ. вызов /

О.А. Сулейманова, Н.Н. Беклемешева. – М.: Академия, 2010.

5. Бреус, Е.В.Теория и практика перевода с английского языка на русский / Е.В. Бреус. – М.:

Изд-во УРАО, 2001.

6. Hashemi, L., Murphy, R. English Grammar in Use. Supplementary Exercises / L. Hashemi, R.

Murphy.

–

Cambridge: Univ. Press, 2001.


При подготовке к пункту 1 необходимо рассмотреть лексические, синтаксические, стилистические и грамматические средства, характерные для следующих типов текста: научного, научно-технического, специального. В пункте 2 рассмотрите логико-смысловые связи между следующими элементами текста: союзы, союзные слова, клишированные фразы, вводные обороты и конструкции, слова-сигналы ретроспективной (местоимения) и перспективной (наречия) связи, а также определите формальные признаки конструкции

"именительный падеж с инфинитивом".

Тема 3. Составление резюме.

План: Основные части резюме: 1) личная информация; 2) цель; 3) образование; 4) профессиональный опыт; 5) специальные навыки; 6) рекомендации.


1. Мердок-Стерн, Серена Деловые приемы и встречи на английском: визиты, сотрудничество, профессиональные контакты: учебное пособие / Серена Мердок-Стерн. – М.: АСТ, 2007.

2. Шевелева, С.А. Деловой английский / С.А. Шевелева. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2007.

3. Басс, Э.М. Научная и деловая корреспонденция / Ю.М. Басс. – М.: Наука, 1991.

4. Сафроненко, О.И. Английский язык для магистров и аспирантов естественных факультетов университетов / О.И. Сафроненко. – М.: Высшая школа, 2005.

При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу. Рассмотреть структуру написания резюме и представить свое в виде сообщения

(монологическое высказывание профессионального характера в объеме не менее 15-20 фраз).

Тема 4. Научная статья. Аннотирование и реферирование.

План:

1. Аннотация. Виды аннотаций.

2. Научный стиль.


1. Кондратюкова, Л.К., Ткачева, Л.Б., Акулинина, Т.В. Аннотирование и реферирование английской научно-технической литературы / Л.К. Кондратюкова, Л.Б. Ткачева, Т.В.


2. Рубцова, М.Г. Чтение и перевод английской научной и технической литературы / М.Г.



При подготовке к пункту 1 необходимо рассмотреть основные характеристики

24

аннотации и ее виды. В пункте 2 дайте определение научного стиля, рассмотрите его особенности и историю, общие черты, а также виды и жанры научного стиля; особое внимание обратите на языковые средства, используемые в научном стиле.

Тема 5. Моя научная работа.

План: Лексические единицы и речевые образцы, необходимые для составления обоснования по теме диссертации.


1. Кондратюкова, Л.К., Ткачева, Л.Б., Акулинина, Т.В. Аннотирование и реферирование английской научно-технической литературы / Л.К. Кондратюкова, Л.Б. Ткачева, Т.В.


2. Рубцова, М.Г. Чтение и перевод английской научной и технической литературы / М.Г.



При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо составить вокабуляр, включающий также и речевые обороты, которые помогут дать обоснование выбранной темы исследования и более подробно представить содержательную сторону исследуемой тематики.

Тема 6. Деловая переписка.

План:

1.

Правила составления деловых писем, мотивированного письма.

2.

Виды сложных предложений.


1.


2.

Ступин, Л. П. Письма по-английски на все случаи жизни: Учебно-справочное пособие для изучающих английский язык / Л.П. Ступин. — СПб.: Просвещение, 1997.

3.

Сулейманова, О.А., Беклемешева, Н.Н. Грамматические аспекты: уч. пособие д/студ. вызов /

О.А. Сулейманова, Н.Н. Беклемешева. – М.: Академия, 2010.

4.

Murphy, R. Essential Grammar in Use (for Intermediate students) / R. Murphy. – Cambridge: Univ.

Press, 2001.

5.

Swan, M., Walter, C. How English works. A Grammar Practice Book / M. Swan, C. Walter. –

Oxford: Univ. Press, 2000.

При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу. При подготовке к пункту 1 необходимо изучить этикет написания письма, ознакомиться с правилами составления деловых писем на английском языке, а также некоторыми правилами английской пунктуации и орфографии; составить список наиболее употребляемых выражений, используемых в начале и конце письма на основе анализа писем. В пункте 2 изучите вида сложных предложений, используемых в письмах, а также обратите внимание на использование сложных конструкций.

Тема 7. Деловое общение по телефону.

План:

1.

Деловой этикет общения по телефону.

2.

Правила делового общения.


1. Агабекян, И.П. Английский для менеджеров / И.П. Агабекян. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2011.

25

2. Мердок-Стерн, Серена Деловые приемы и встречи на английском: визиты, сотрудничество, профессиональные контакты: учебное пособие / Серена Мердок-Стерн. – М.: АСТ, 2007.

3. Шевелева, С.А. Деловой английский / С.А. Шевелева. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2007.

4. http://www.usingenglish.com/

5. http://usefulenglish.ru/

6. http://www.native-english.ru/

При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу и Интернет-ресурсы. При подготовке к данной теме дается определение понятию

«деловой этикет», изучается основа успешного проведения делового телефонного разговора и его структура, а также студент знакомится с репликами, способными скорректировать общение.

Тема 8. Международное научное сотрудничество.

План:

1. Умение речевого общения: прием зарубежных специалистов.

2. Обмен информацией профессионального характера. Новые лексические единицы и речевые образцы по теме.

3. Научная конференция.


1.

Агабекян, И.П. Английский для менеджеров / И.П. Агабекян. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2011.

2.

Казакова, Т.А. Практические основы перевода / Т.А. Казакова.- СПб: Изд-во «Союз», 2007.

3.

Мердок-Стерн, Серена Деловые приемы и встречи на английском: визиты, сотрудничество, профессиональные контакты: учебное пособие / Серена Мердок-Стерн. – М.: АСТ, 2007.

4.

Шевелева, С.А. Деловой английский / С.А. Шевелева. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2007.

5.


6.

Сафроненко, О.И. Английский язык для магистров и аспирантов естественных факультетов университетов / О.И. Сафроненко. – М.: Высшая школа, 2005.

7.

http://www.usingenglish.com/

8.

http://usefulenglish.ru/

9.

http://www.native-english.ru/

10.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/

11.

http://www.britishcouncil.org/new/learning/

12.

http://www.cambridge.org/learning/

При подготовке к практическому занятию необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу и Интернет-ресурсы. При подготовке к пункту 1 следует подробно ознакомиться с речевыми единицами общения (речевая ситуация, речевое событие, речевое взаимодействие). В пункте 2 необходимо ознакомиться с речевыми образцами и лексическими единицами по заданной теме и представить анкету для обучения в России, а также разработать программу профессионального обмена для преподавателей. В пункте 3 студент представляет слайдпрезентацию своей научной работы, используя полученные знания.

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Самостоятельная работа по курсу «Иностранный язык в профессиональной коммуникации»

27

При выполнении самостоятельной работы обучающиеся пользуются рекомендуемой основной и дополнительной литературой.

Формы контроля самостоятельной работы: прием перевода научных статей по заданной тематике, реферирование и аннотирование научных статей, написание эссе, подготовка устных сообщений и докладов на английском языке по заданной тематике. Профессиональноориентированные тексты отбираются согласно направлению подготовки и квалификации обучающихся.

Раздел дисциплины: Стратегии устного и письменного перевода.

Тема: Виды и методы перевода.

Задание:

1.

Перевести текст.

2.

Привести примеры конструкции сложного дополнения (Complex Object).

3.

Написать эссе.

При подготовке задания 1 необходимо прочитать текст, обращая внимание на усложненные грамматические структуры, выбрать наиболее походящие стратегии и методы перевода. Подчеркнуть в тексте предложения с конструкцией сложного дополнения.

WHAT IS A HISTORICAL FACT? by E.H.Carr

What is a historical fact? This is a crucial question into which we must look a little more closely. According to the commonsense view, there are certain basic facts which are the same for all historians, and which form, so to speak, the backbone of history — the fact, for example, that the

Battle of Hastings was fought in 1066. But this view calls for two observations. In the first place, it is not with facts like these that the historian is primarily concerned. It is no doubt important to know that the great battle was fought in 1066 and not in 1065 10 or 1067, and that it was fought at Hastings and not at Eastbourne or Brighton.

The historian must not get these things wrong. But when points of this kind are raised, I am reminded of Housman's remark that «accuracy is a duty, not a virtue». To praise a historian for-his accuracy is like praising an architect for using well-seasoned timber or properly mixed concrete in his building. It is a necessary condition of his work, but not his essential function. It is precisely for matters of this kind that the historian is entitled to rely on what have been called the «auxiliary sciences» of history — archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, chronology, and so forth.

The historian is not required to have the special skills which enable the expert to determine the origin and period of a fragment of pottery or marble, to decipher an obscure inscription, or to make the elaborate astronomical calculations necessary to establish a precise date. These so-called basic facts, which are the same for all historians, commonly belong to the category of the raw materials of the historian rather than of history itself. The second observation is that the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any quality in the facts themselves, but on an a priori decision of the historian.

It used to be said that facts speak for themselves. This is, of course, untrue.

The facts speak only when the historian calls on them: it is he who decides to which facts to give the floor, and in what order or context. It was, I think, one of Pirandello's characters who said that a fact is like a sack — it won't stand up till you've put something in it. The only reason why we are interested to know that the battle was fought at Hastings in 1066 is that historians regard it as a major historical event. It is the historian who has decided for his own reasons that Caesar's crossing of that petty stream, the Rubicon, is a fact of history, whereas the crossing of the Rubicon by millions of other people before or since interests nobody at all. The fact that you arrived in this building half an hour ago on foot, or on a bicycle, or in a car, is just as much of a fact about the past as the fact that Caesar crossed the Rubicon. But it will probably be ignored by historians. Professor Talcott Parsons once

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called science «a selective system of cognitive orientations to reality». It might perhaps have been put more simply. But history is, among other things, that. The historian is necessarily selective. The belief in a hard core of historical facts existing objectively and independently of the interpretation of the historian is a preposterous fallacy, but one which is very hard to eradicate.

The historian starts with a provisional selection of facts, and a provisional interpretation in the light of which that selection has been made — by others as well as by himself. As he works, both the interpretation and the selection and ordering of facts undergo subtle and perhaps partly unconscious changes, through the reciprocal action of one or the other. The historian and the facts of history are necessary to one another. The historian without his facts is rootless and futile; the facts without their historian are dead and meaningless. My first answer therefore to the question «What is history?» is that it is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past.

Напишите эссе на тему «What is a historical fact?».

Раздел дисциплины: Аннотирование и реферирование.

Тема: Аннотация. Виды аннотаций.

Задание:

1.

Переведите аннотацию на английский язык (1 на выбор).

2.

Прочитайте текст. Напишите аннотацию к тексту, выделите ключевые слова.

ТРАНС Ф ОРМАЦИЯ АМЕРИКАНСКО Г О КОНСЕРВАТИ З МА

НА РУБЕЖЕ 1980–1990-х ГОДОВ: ДИСКУССИЯ ПО СОЦИАЛЬНО-КУЛЬТУРНЫМ ВОПРОСАМ

В статье исследуется процесс трансформации американского консерватизма в конце 1980-х – начале 1990-х гг. Рассматриваются позиции различных групп и течений консервативного движения

США по социально-культурным вопросам. Делается попытка ответить на вопрос, находится ли консервативное движение в состоянии кризиса или мы можем говорить о новом этапе в его развитии и начале формирования единой социально-политической стратегии.

Ключевые слова: американский консерватизм, республиканская партия, социальная политика, неоконсерваторы.

ОБЩЕСТВЕННЫЙ ТРАНСПОРТ З АПАДНОЙ СИБИРИ В 1930–1950-е ГОДЫ

В статье рассматривается процесс эволюции общественного транспорта Западной Сибири от его зарождения в регионе в годы первых пятилеток до конца 1950-х гг., ставших временем ускоренного развития традиционных для Сибири видов городского сообщения. Особое внимание уделено проблемам транспорта периода Великой Отечественной войны. Автор анализирует динамику развития материально-технической составляющей системы, количественные показатели транспортных услуг, оказываемых населению.

Ключевые слова: общественный транспорт, трамвай, троллейбус, автохозяйство, Западная Сибирь,

Великая Отечественная война.

РОССИЙСКИЙ ТУРИЗМ В1920–70-х ГОДАХ: СИСТЕМА ОРГАНИЗАЦИИ И УПРАВЛЕНИЯ

Возникновение советского туризма относится к началу 20-х гг. ХХ в. После октября 1917 г. в России распались все старые формы организаций в сфере туризма и одновременно начался поиск новых. Вновь создаваемые туристские объединения активно использовали опыт работы дореволюционных.

Изменение задач в политике туризма требовало перестроения структуры управления туристской сферой.

Ключевые слова: туристское движение, туристские организации, структура управления туризмом. слова.

При подготовке вопроса 2 прочитайте текст. Напишите аннотацию к тексту и ключевые

29

SUBSISTENCE ALLOWANCE

A hundred years ago it was a widely accepted belief that no one had responsibility for his neighbour. It was assumed and scientifically «proved» by economists that the laws of society made it necessary to have a vast army of poor and jobless people in order to keep the economy going. Today, hardly anybody would dare to voice this principle any longer. It is generally accepted that nobody should be excluded from the wealth of the nation, either by the laws of nature, or by those of society. The rationalisations which were current a hundred years ago, that the poor owed their condition to their ignorance, lack of responsibility — briefly to their «sins»— are outdated. In all Western industrialized countries a system of insurance has been introduced which guarantees everyone a minimum of subsistence in case of unemployment, sickness and old age. It is only one step further to postulate that, even if these conditions are not present, everyone has the right to receive the means to subsist. Practically speaking, that would mean that every citizen can claim a sum — enough for the minimum of subsistence — even though he is not unemployed, sick or aged. He can demand this sum if he has quit his job voluntarily, if he wants to prepare himself for another type of work, or for any personal reason which prevents him from earning money, without falling under one of the categories of the existing insurance benefits, in short, he can claim this subsistence minimum without having to have any «reason». It should be limited to a definite period of time, let us say two years, so as to avoid the fostering of a neurotic attitude which refuses any kind of social obligations.

This may sound like a fantastic proposal, but so would our insurance system have sounded to people a hundred years ago. The main objection to such a scheme would be that if each person were entitled to receive minimum support, people would not work. This assumption rests on the fallacy of the inherent laziness in human nature; actually, aside from neurotically lazy people, there would be very few who would not want to earn more than the minimum, and would prefer to do nothing rather than work!

However, the suspicions against a system of guaranteed subsistence minimums are not unfounded from the standpoint of those who want to use ownership of capital for the purpose of forcing others to accept the work conditions they offer. If nobody were forced to accept work in order not to starve, work would have to be sufficiently interesting and attractive to induce one to accept it. Freedom of contract is possible only if both parties are free to accept and reject it; in the present capitalist system this is not the case.

But such a system would be not only the beginning of real freedom of contract between employers and employees; it would also enhance tremendously the sphere of freedom of interpersonal relationship between person and person in daily life.

(by Erich Fromm from The Sane Society, 1955)

При подготовке задания необходимо ознакомиться с правилами составления резюме (см.

Приложение «Справочный материал»).

При подготовке текста научного (общекультурного) характера к реферированию, необходимо ознакомиться с основными правилами и требованиями реферирования (см.

Приложение «Справочный материал»). Прочитайте, переведите текст, приготовьте реферирование статьи.

Раздел дисциплины: Резюме. Моя научная работа.

Тема: Резюме. Реферирование.

Задание:

1.

Составьте резюме.

2.

Приготовьте реферирование текста.

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Challenges to Academic Freedom: Some Empirical Evidence

MICHELE ROSTAN

Academic freedom has been understood as a central feature of the academic profession and as one of its founding values. In the European tradition, academic freedom has been associated both with the freedom to choose topics, concepts, methods and sources both in teaching and research, and with the right of academic staff to make contributions according to standards and rules established by the academic community itself. This view of academic freedom has been complemented in the American tradition by a concern for academics’ civil and political freedom looking at their role in a wider arena than universities and the academic world.

Academic freedom has also been considered as a key condition to achieve several goals: the advancement of knowledge, the quality of research (considered as the main focus of academic work), the encouragement and support of initiative, innovative behaviour, criticism and variety. Academic freedom has also been strictly connected to professional autonomy, as regards academics’ individual freedom to pursue truth without fear of negative sanctions, restrictions, or constraints from religious or political authorities, as well as their freedom to organise their work, to determine research and teaching goals and priorities, to set standards and rules to assess and steer academic activity.

In the last few decades, this view of academic freedom has been challenged. Several ongoing processes within higher education have had an impact on academic freedom.

First, the relationship between the state and higher education has changed. Governments have moved from more direct forms of control towards a system of distant steering that accords more autonomy to higher education institutions but at the same time requires more accountability from single organisations and their professionals (i.e. academics) alike. Several devices of distant steering have been introduced, but they all aim at assessing the performance of both institutions and academics and at establishing a closer link between funding and performance.

Second, there has been a shift in the distribution of power within higher education institutions.

As higher education institutions have become more autonomous corporate bodies, the role of administrative staff has grown at the expense of the academic community. Ever more often academic staff have been confronted with a new kind of more professionalised management. This new type of management provides growing support to tackle an expanded and diversified student body or more complex research activities, but also strengthens control over academic life.

Finally, both higher education institutions and academics have been confronted with the increasing demands and pressures of both the economy and society to support economic development, innovation, and social progress, to provide highly qualified labour force, and to foster graduates’ employability.

Academics are urged to be more responsive to the demands of a wider constellation of actors including not only their peers but students and their families, management, governments and public agencies, and other external stakeholders ranging from private business firms to local communities.

Ever more often academics are asked to prove the relevance or utility of their teaching and research for societal and economic needs; hence, they possibly become less free or less autonomous in setting the ends and the means of their activities.

Pressures for relevance are not new in higher education, and claims for relevance have always been central to academic activity, especially in more applied disciplines. What is new is that: (a) the number and variety of actors to whom academic activities might be relevant have grown; (b) the number and variety of actors who can decide whether claims of relevance are supported by evidence have also increased; (c) pressures on academic staff to prove the relevance of their teaching and research are increasingly associated with the need to find ways to measure it; (d) the number and variety of channels or mechanisms through which growing expectations of relevance intrude into the academic profession have increased.

External expectations of relevance are channelled to individual academics through specific vehicles, such as financial support, evaluation of teaching and research, students’ satisfaction surveys, links between universities and industry (e.g. patent licensing, spin-offs, technology transfer), other

31

links between academe and the economy (e.g. consultancies and universities’ contributions to regional development). It is precisely through these channels or mechanisms that external expectations of social and economic relevance might have an impact on academic freedom in the form of pressures to change or redirect teaching and/or research activities, restrictions on teaching or research activities, external influence on teaching and research, etc.

Data collected through the CAP survey provide information on some of these topics. The survey features three sets of questions, namely those on the evaluation of teaching, on research funding, and on some links connecting academics to the economic sector, which allow us to identify, at the same time, mechanisms through which expectations of social and economic relevance intrude into the academic profession, external actors with whom individual academics are confronted, and possible consequences on academic freedom. In addressing these issues, we have limited data analysis to five European countries – Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway and the United Kingdom – with an occasional reference to Australia and the US as terms of comparison outside Europe. Both cross tabulations and multivariate analysis are used in order to take into account the four main axes of differentiation of the academic profession, namely the discipline, the institutional dividing line, the ranking system, and national differences. While full results of the analysis can be obtained from the author, in the following selected evidence and synthetic conclusions are presented.

European Review, Vol. 18, Supplement no. 1, S71–S88

Academia Europaea 2010.

При подготовке заданий необходимо изучить этикет написания письма, ознакомиться с правилами составления деловых писем на английском языке, а также некоторыми правилами английской пунктуации и орфографии. При подготовке необходимо использовать рекомендованную литературу (Басс, Э.М. Научная и деловая корреспонденция / Ю.М. Басс. –

М.: Наука, 1991. Ступин, Л. П. Письма по-английски на все случаи жизни: учебно-справочное пособие для изучающих английский язык / Л.П. Ступин. — СПб.: Просвещение, 1997).

Обратите внимание на употребление основных клише и фраз, используемых в деловых письмах

(см. Приложение «Справочный материал».)

Раздел дисциплины: Деловая переписка.

Тема: Деловая переписка.

Задание:

1.

Составьте деловое письмо.

2.

Составьте мотивированное письмо.

Раздел дисциплины: Деловое общение по телефону.

Тема: Запрос информации. Оформление и размещение заказа. Решение проблем.

Задание:

1.

Составьте диалог.

Составьте диалог по теме, используя основные речевые клише, фразы (см. Приложение

«Справочный материал»). Обратите особое внимание на такие ключевые моменты, как запрос информации, оформление заказа, решение проблем (см. Приложение «Справочный материал»).

Раздел дисциплины: Международное научное сотрудничество.

Тема: Моя научная работа. Научное сотрудничество.

Задание:

1.

Составьте сообщение о своей научной роботе.

2.

Напишите реферат.

32

3.

Составьте аннотацию к тексту.

Подготовьте сообщение о своей научной работе (тема, цель, задачи, актуальность, объект, предмет и т. п.), научном руководителе, опыте участия в конференциях, научных семинарах и др. Объем сообщения не менее 25-30 предложений. Сообщение может сопровождаться презентацией.

При подготовке заданий 2 и 3 прочитайте текст, определите цель статьи, выпишите ключевые предложения, напишите реферат и аннотацию к статье.

Globalization, Environmental Change, and Social History: An Introduction

Peter Boomgaarda, Marjolein 't Harta

Throughout the ages, the activities of humankind have weighed considerably upon the environment. In turn, changes in that environment have favoured the rise of certain social groups and limited the actions of others. Nevertheless, environmental history has remained a “blind spot” for many social and economic historians. This is to be regretted, as changes in ecosystems have always had quite different consequences for different social groups. Indeed, the various and unequal effects of environmental change often explain the strengths and weaknesses of certain social groups, irrespective of their being defined along lines of class, gender, or ethnicity.

This Special Issue of the International Review of Social History aims to bring together the expertise of social and environmental historians. In the last few decades of the twentieth century, expanding holes in the ozone layer, global warming, and the accelerated pace of the destruction of the tropical forests have resulted in a worldwide recognition of two closely related processes: globalization and environmental change. The contributions to this volume provide striking case studies of such connections in earlier periods, revealing a fruitful interconnection between social and environmental history. This introduction provides a historiographical context for the essays that follow, focusing on the relevant notions connected with globalization and environmental change, and stressing the existing interactions between environmental and social history. We are particularly interested in the consequences of processes induced by globalization, how transnational forces and agents changed the socio-ecological space, and how that affected relationships between different classes in history.

Globalization And Global History

Globalization is a concept that needs further elaboration. The rise of the internet, the shifts in the power of sovereign national states, the intricate intertwining of global markets, and the enormous numbers of people migrating across regions and continents trying to escape wars, environmental degradation, or disasters have prompted several scholars to explain these recent trends using new definitions of globalization. The description by the political scientists David Held and Anthony

McGrew nicely captures our understanding:

Simply put, globalization denotes the expanding scale, growing magnitude, speeding up and deepening impact of interregional flows and patterns of interaction. It refers to a shift or transformation in the scale in human organization that links distant communities and expands the reach of power relations across the world’s major regions and continents.

In history, as well as in the social sciences, debates abound on the timing or start of globalization. In contrast to some scholars, we are not inclined to use globalization as a term limited to a new epoch that started in the 1980s or 1990s, neither do we think that the rapid globalization in the nineteenth century precludes all early modern globalization, nor do we see a specific date (1492 or

1571 have been suggested, for example) in the early modern period from which globalization truly took off.6 Rather, we wish to look upon globalization as a set of highly variegated processes that can be labelled in different ways, ranging from “thick” to “thin” globalization and from “diffused” to

“expanded”. These categories are derived from Global Transformations, the influential study by David

Held et al. in which they observe variations in the extensity, the intensity, the velocity, and the impact of global connections.

“Thick” globalization then refers to processes that share an expanding scale, growing magnitude, and an acceleration as well as a deepening of their impact. A case in point is the growing

33

interconnection of the world markets in the late nineteenth century under the auspices of the British

Empire. Thin globalization typically relates to developments that can be defined by an expanding scale while the other three characteristics are weak. A good example is the long-distance trade along the

Eurasian silk route in the medieval period. The impact of diffuse globalization is likewise rather shallow, yet its velocity and intensity are high; the worldwide spread of Coca-Cola may serve as an illustration. Finally, expanded globalization refers to developments in which the impact is high, yet the intensity and velocity are limited, as represented by the colonization of Latin America and the

Caribbean in the early modern period. This distinction in different categories allows us thus to investigate environmental impacts that can be substantial even before the rise of imperialism or other obvious “thick” globalizations.

In line with these thoughts, it would be preferable to speak about “globalizations” instead of one “globalization”, not as a single process but as a multitude of uneven developments. Implicit in numerous conceptualizations of globalization is the assumption that it inevitably entails homogenization, that all societies will increasingly look the same. Although convergence is indeed often strong, globalization also leads to divergence, which is best illustrated perhaps by the division in world power. A set of elite groups in the core regions maintain excellent relations with the new nodes of power, while other groups and regions become increasingly marginalized. For example, when the world financial markets experienced rapid interconnection in the late twentieth century the number of financial experts actually acquainted with the development was quite small; they were termed the “new economic hit men”, and included major investors such as George Soros.

The social scientist Manuel Castells stressed that globalization effectuates a sharpening of class distinctions and even the emergence of new classes. He observed that in the age of the internet, certain business managers moved rapidly towards the upper echelons of society, while at the bottom a new

“fourth class” found itself deprived of digital ways to make money. Castells summarizes these trends as follows: elites are cosmopolitan and global, “ordinary people” remain oriented towards the local.

Comparable processes are observed in different fields: for example, James Scott noted that in a

Malaysian village the new profits of the green revolution went disproportionately to the wealthier farmers. Thus, marginalized people remain localized, strengthening divergence.

Divergence can also be the result of resistance to global trends. A growing consciousness of typically local and national interests results in movements wishing to stress differing and alternative paths, such as nationalist parties and fundamentalist Islam, to mention but a few. Movements that do not oppose globalization yet aspire to blend global tendencies within local traditions and solutions are called glocal, which can also reinforce divergent trends.

Historians have also recognized the thick globalization of the last few decades of the twentieth century, above all its impact on the role of sovereign states. Not that the nation-state is withering away, but its functions have undergone major transformations, and historians have become more attentive to the workings of transnational trends and agents in earlier periods. As the global connections changed and intensified, as regional and intercontinental structures expanded, historians increasingly looked back on the development of their own nation-states as constructs that were strongly linked to a specific phase in world history. This stimulated the rise of a distinct group of world historians, as exemplified by the establishment of the Journal of World History in 1990. Within world history a further specialization occurred, with one group studying the world as a whole (world historians) and another focusing on global connections and comparisons across regions and continents (global historians).

Although the Journal of World History harboured both species, the Journal of Global History was founded in 2006 with explicit reference to the second group. In calling attention to global connections, this Special Issue is strongly embedded within this latter trend of historiography, stressing further that globalization is a multifaceted process with both convergent and divergent trends that do not necessarily have to be “thick” to have a significant impact on localized societies.

International Review of Social History (2010), 55: 1-26

Volume 55 - Supplement S18

34

Важнейшими источниками научной информации служат научные документы, которые могут быть первичными и вторичными. К первичным документам относятся монографии, сборники, материалы научных конгрессов, симпозиумов, конференций и т. д., учебники и руководства, журналы, статьи, газеты и др. К вторичным документальным источникам научной информации относятся аннотация и реферат.

Аннотация – краткая характеристика содержания произведения печати или рукописи.

Аннотации по содержанию и целевому назначению могут быть справочные,

раскрывающие тематику документов и сообщающие избирательные сведения о нем, но не дающие его критической оценки, и рекомендательные , содержащие оценку документа с точки зрения его пригодности для определенной категории читателей. По охвату содержания аннотируемого документа и читательского назначения различают аннотации общие , характеризующие документ в целом и рассчитанные на широкий круг читателей, и специализированные

, раскрывающие документ лишь в определенных аспектах, интересующих узкого специалиста.

В аннотации указываются лишь существенные признаки содержания документа, т. е. те, которые позволяют выявить его научное и практическое значение и новизну, отличить его от других, близких ему по тематике и целевому назначению.

При составлении аннотации не следует пересказывать содержание документа. Следует свести к минимуму использование сложных оборотов, употребление личных и указательных местоимений. Объем аннотации не должен превышать 600 печатных знаков.

Состав аннотации:

- библиографическое описание;

- данные об авторе (ученая степень, звание, принадлежность к научной школе и др.); подробные данные об авторе не являются обязательным элементом аннотации;

- конкретная форма аннотируемого документа: монография, учебник, учебное пособие и т. д.;

- предмет изложения и его основные характеристики: тема, основные понятия, процессы, место и время, в течение которого эти процессы происходят и т. д.;

- отличительные черты документа по сравнению с родственными по тематику и целевому назначению: то новое, что несет в себе документ, а также особенности подачи материала

(например, система изложения вопроса, постановка проблемы, решение частного вопроса, новая методика, обобщение данных по различным источникам, новая оценка фактов, новая концепция или гипотеза, конкретные рекомендации практического характера и др.);

- конкретный читательский адрес: кому адресуется книга (статья), дополнительный круг читателей, кроме основного.

Возможное построение аннотации:

(На русском языке) - Рассматривается проблема ... , адекватная интересам (учащихся, студентов, специалистов в области ... и т. д.) при изучении (практической работе и т. п.).

Описывается .... , что доказывает эффективность (преимущество, недостатки и т. д.)

(На английском языке) - The choice of facts (data, methods, etc.) important for students

(specialists in the field of ...) is discussed. A demonstration (survey, experiment, analysis etc.) provided (effectiveness, importance, usefulness, etc.) of ( what?)

Write down an annotation of the article given using the model and some expressions below:



This article deals with ...



It is pointed out ..



It is stressed that ...



It should be remembered that ...

Реферат – краткое изложение в письменном виде или в форме публичного доклада содержания научного труда (трудов) по теме. Среди многочисленных видов рефератов следует выделить специализированные рефераты, в которых изложение ориентировано на специалистов определенной области или какой-нибудь определенной деятельности и учитывает их запросы.

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Реферат выполняет следующие функции:

- отвечает на вопрос, какая основная информация заключена в реферированном документе;

- дает описание первичного документа;

- оповещает о выходе в свет и о наличии соответствующих первичных документов;

- является источником для получения справочных данных.

В реферате не используются доказательства, рассуждения и исторические экскурсы.

Материал подается в форме консультации или описания фактов. Информация излагается точно, кратко, без искажений и субъективных оценок. Краткость во многом достигается за счет использования преимущественно терминологической лексики, а также применения нетекстовых средств лаконизации языка (таблиц, формул, иллюстраций). Объем реферата находится в пределах 1/8, или 10-15% объема реферируемой статьи.

Реферат, как правило, включает следующие части:

- библиографическое описание первичного документа;

- собственно реферативная часть (текст реферата);

- справочный аппарат, т. е. дополнительные сведения и примечания (число иллюстраций и таблиц, имеющихся в документе, количество источников в списке использованной литературы; примечания референта, его собственное мнение относительно обозреваемых вопросов);

Текст реферата рекомендуется строить по следующему плану:

- цель и методика исследования (изучения) или разработки;

- конкретные данные о предмете исследования (изучения) или разработки, его изучаемых свойствах;

- временные и пространственные характеристики исследования;

- результаты и выводы.

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Справочный материал по курсу «Иностранный язык в профессиональной коммуникации»

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How to read a scientific article

Introduction

As you embark on your own original research project, you'll find it necessary to read in-depth scientific literature in your chosen research field. However, this may be the first time you've tried reading a scientific paper and you may find yourself confused about how to proceed. This guide, which is broken into four sections, is intended to help you get started:

Why bother reading scientific papers?

- This section explains what you gain by reading the original scientific literature.

Two Types of Research Papers Containing Two Types of Information - Here, you will learn what differentiates a review article from a primary research article, and the specific uses for each.

The Parts and Uses of Primary Research Articles - This section breaks the scientific paper down into its six component parts and explains what kind of information can be found in each part.

How to Proceed When Reading a Scientific Paper - Learn tips about what you should be doing, physically, as you read the scientific paper to maximize your understanding and get the most out of your time and effort.

Why bother reading scientific papers?

Scientific papers are the heart of the science community; they're one of the major ways scientists communicate their results and ideas to one another. If you're considering doing original scientific research, reading the scientific literature is a must!

Scientific papers contain the most up-to-date information about a field. So if you have a topic you're interested in studying, reading the scientific literature in that field will help you understand what has already been discovered and what questions remain unanswered. The great thing about science is that every time one question is answered, the answer unlocks twice as many new questions. This means that once you've read the literature and know what people have already discovered, you'll

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probably be able to see what still needs to be done in the field and use that to design your own relevant research project.

Scientific papers also contain information about how experiments were conducted, including how long they took, the equipment and materials necessary, and details about how to physically perform the experiments. This kind of information is critical for figuring out how to do your own experiments, and even whether the project will be physically possible given your equipment constraints.

Two Types of Scientific Papers Containing Two Types of Information

There are two types of scientific papers: review articles and primary research articles. Review articles give an overview of the scientific field or topic by summarizing the data and conclusions from many studies. These types of articles are a good starting place for a summary of what has been happening in the field. And they often contain more background information than primary research articles do, which means if at any point you're confused while reading the primary literature, it will help to go back and look at reviews. It is also wise to read several reviews by different authors for a well-rounded perspective of the field.

Primary research articles contain the original data and conclusions of the researchers who were involved in the experiments. These articles also contain details about how the experiments were done.

Or, in the cases of some journals, they might contain web addresses for "supplemental data" found online, which detail the methods used by the authors. In general, primary research articles should be consulted any time you need to get more information about how an experiment was carried out, or if you need to review the original data, which you may want to do in order to base your experiments off their data, or to evaluate for yourself the validity of the authors' conclusions. Primary research articles are also useful for seeing how experts in that scientific field visually represent their data. For example, what types of graphs are common to the field? Are there any specific units that are used? You'll need to know this information to put together a good report or display board to convey your research.

If you're looking at a paper and you're not sure if it is a review or a primary research article, here are a few easy ways to distinguish. First of all, many reviews will be labeled as "review" or

"tutorial" on the first page of the article. Also, reviews don't have a "methods" section (although you can find entire reviews dedicated to discussing the advances in a specific method or technique). And in a review article, graphs, tables, or figures containing actual data will contain citations in the figure legend to the primary research papers that originally reported the findings.

The Parts and Uses of Primary Research Articles

Primary research articles are typically broken down into six sections: abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, and references. A few journals have slightly different formats due to their space constraints or target audience. The most common alteration is to combine the results and discussion parts into a single section. Each part of the paper serves a unique purpose and can help your research project in a different way.

Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the paper. It usually highlights the main question(s) the authors investigated, provides the key results of their experiments, and gives an overview of the authors' conclusions. Reading the abstract will help you decide if the article was what you were looking for, or not, without spending a long time reading the whole paper. Abstracts are usually accessible for free either online at journals' websites or in scientific literature databases.

Introduction

The introduction gives background information about the topic of the paper, and sets out the specific questions to be addressed by the authors. The quantity and thoroughness of the background information will depend on both the authors' proclivities, and the guidelines for that specific journal.

Throughout the introduction, there will be citations for previously published articles or reviews that discuss the same topic. Use these citations as recommendations for other articles you can refer to for additional background reading.

Reading the introduction is a test of whether or not you are ready to read the rest of the paper; if the introduction doesn't make sense to you, then the rest of the paper won't either. If you find yourself

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baffled by the introduction, try going to other sources for information about the topic before you tackle the rest of the paper. Good sources can include a textbook; online tutorials, reviews, or explanations; a review article or earlier primary research article (perhaps one of the ones cited in the introduction); or a mentor. If even after trying all these sources you're still confused, it may be time to consider a new topic.

Materials and Methods

The materials and methods section gives the technical details of how the experiments were carried out, including the types of controls used and where unusual resources were obtained. Reading the methods section is helpful in understanding exactly what the authors did. After all, if you don't understand their experiments, it will be impossible to judge the veracity of their results and conclusions! This section also serves as a "how-to" manual if you're interested in carrying out similar experiments, or even in repeating the same experiments as the authors did.

The materials and methods section is most commonly placed directly after the introduction. But if you can't find it there, check the end of the paper, just before the references, or look for a URL within the research article for a "supplementary information" section online.

Results

The results section is the real meat of a primary research article; it contains all the data from the experiments. The figures contain the majority of the data. The accompanying text contains verbal descriptions of the pieces of data the authors feel were most critical. The writing may also put the new data in the context of previous findings. However, often due to space constraints, authors usually do not write text for all their findings and instead, rely on the figures to impart the bulk of the information. So to get the most out of the results section, make sure to spend ample time thoroughly looking at all the graphs, pictures, and tables, and reading their accompanying legends!

Three types of information can be extracted from the results section: data from the experiments, ideas about how to improve the methods, and an understanding of how to represent similar data.

Clearly, this is the section of the paper you refer to if you need to know exactly what the researchers found out, particularly if you need data to compare with your own findings, or to use to build your own hypothesis. The results section is also useful for understanding whether the methods of an experiment worked well. For example, a graph of the data might show that although the authors took time points every hour, there was no change at all until five hours into the experiment, and then the change was rapid. By interpreting their graph yourself and making this observation, you would be able to repeat the experiment, with differentially spaced time points, to resolve what actually happened during the fifth hour. And last, but not least, studying the figures will help you understand how to represent your own data in a way that is clear, accurate, and in keeping with the standards in that particular field of science.

Discussion

The discussion section is the authors' opportunity to give you their opinions. It is where they draw conclusions about the results. They may choose to put their results in the context of previous findings and offer theories or new hypotheses that explain the sum body of knowledge in the field. Or the authors may comment on new questions and avenues of exploration that their results give rise to.

The purpose of discussion sections in papers is to allow the exchange of ideas between scientists. As such, it is critical to remember that the discussions are the authors' interpretations and not necessarily facts. However, this section is often a good place to get ideas about what kind of research questions are still unanswered in the field and thus, what types of questions you might want your own research project to tackle.

References

Throughout the article, the authors will refer to information from other papers. These citations are all listed in the references section, sometimes referred to as the bibliography. Both review articles and primary research articles, as well as books or other relevant sources, can be found in the references section. Regardless of the type of source, there will always be enough information (authors, title, journal name, publication date, etc.) for you to find the source at a library or online. This makes the reference section incredibly useful for broadening your own literature search. If you're reading a

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paragraph in the current paper and want more information on the content, you should always try to find and read the articles cited in that paragraph.

How to Proceed When Reading a Scientific Paper

Whether you're reading a review article or a primary research paper, you're likely to come across vocabulary and concepts with which you're unfamiliar. It's a good idea to have other resources on hand to look up those words and ideas. For example, a scientific dictionary is useful for checking unfamiliar vocabulary, and textbooks are excellent starting places to look up scientific concepts.

Internet searches for tutorials or explanations about a specific method or concept can also be useful.

You're likely to find that reading and understanding a scientific paper is an iterative process: read, look things up, re-read, etc. But if you find that you're spending hours looking up information and not making any progress, then it may be time to consider that this paper is not for you. If that's the case, try going to a more general paper (like a review or textbook entry) about the topic and then returning to the paper after you're more informed. And if that still doesn't help, it may be time to consider changing your topic.

Highlighting important data and making notes directly on a photocopy or printout of the paper can be a good ways to keep track of the information as you move through the paper. Taking notes will help you encapsulate what is important about the paper, and keep you focused on the task. You may even want to make a diagram or sketch in the margins to remind yourself how an experiment was done. These notes also provide a visual key to the pieces of data most relevant to you so that when you need to go back to the paper to remember a detail, it'll be easy for you to find it.

In all cases, start by reading the abstract; read it to make sure the paper is what you were looking for and is worth your time and effort. If the abstract indicates the paper is of interest to you, move on to the introduction. If you're already familiar with the paper's topic, you can just skim the introduction and materials and methods sections to make sure you're truly up-to-date. But if you aren't familiar with the topic, or if skimming reveals terms or concepts you don't understand, you'll need to read the introduction and then the methods section carefully, stopping to consult other resources or cited literature to augment your understanding.

Once you're sure you have a handle on the background information and an idea of how the experiments were performed, you're ready to tackle the results section. The first step is to examine each figure and table. Make sure to read the accompanying figure legend so you know what all the variables are, and refer back to the methods if you're unsure of how the data was collected. Try to analyze and draw your own conclusions from the figures. Then, once you've looked at all the figures, go back and read the results text. Since you've already been through the data on your own, you'll be better able to follow the authors' writing, and to decide if you agree with the conclusions they're making about the data.

Lastly, if you're interested in the authors' interpretations of the results, read the discussion. If you're already very familiar with the topic, you may find that reading the discussion is unnecessary.

But for people just entering the field, discussions are a good place to get a glimpse of what the current competing theories and hypotheses are.

READING/WRITING ABSTRACTS

An abstract is a brief summary of the content and purpose of an article. In some journals, the abstract is used in place of a concluding summary. The abstract allows readers to survey the contents of an article quickly. It is self-contained, fully intelligible without reference to the body of the paper.

Information or conclusions that do not appear in the paper are not supposed to appear in the abstract.

(suggested length: 100-175 words)

I. An Abstract of a Research Article usually includes:

1. statement of problem

2. method

3. results

4. conclusions

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It should specify: subject population (number, type, age, sex, etc.)

It should describe: research design, test instruments (i.e. questionnaires, tests, interviews), research apparatus of data gathering procedures

It should summarize: data or findings

It should report: inferences or comparisons or conclusions drawn from results

II. An Abstract of a Review or a Theoretical Article should include:

1. Topics covered

2. Central thesis

3. The Sources used (i.e. personal observation of author, review of published literature, or present, current research bearing on topic and conclusions drawn)

It should be short but informative.

Exercise:

A. Read the abstracts in the following set of 9. Categorize each abstract as one based on:

(a) a research article

(b) a review of research in a given field

(c) a theoretical article.

B. Using I and II above as an inventory checklist, see how many of the items listed for each type of article can be found in each of the abstracts.

Abstract No. 1

Kufeldt, Kathleen & Nimmo, Margaret (Faculty Social Welfare U Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4),

Youth on the Street: «Abuse and Neglect in the Eighties», CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT, 1987,

11, 4, 531-542.

A report on an interview study of runaways & homeless youth (n = 489) conducted over a 1year period in Calgary, Alberta. Analysis reveals two distinct groups: the true «runners» tend to leave their homes with the intention of not returning & thus their runs are extended: «in & outers» use the run as a temporary coping mechanism & their runs tend to be impulsive & of short duration. Findings also indicate that runaways, in particular the runners, are at great risk of being drawn into illegal activities; major factors affecting this risk are distance from home & length of time on the run. A significant proportion of Rs had run from substitute care arrangements. Results imply that adolescents in Canadian society suffer from systemic abuse & neglect. This research led to the opening of a safe house for early runners in Jan. 1987. The operation of the house includes careful compilation of data to further advance understanding of the runaway population & its needs. 4 Tables, 6 Figures, 1 Appendix,

19 References. Modified HA (Copyright 1989, Socioligical Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved).

Abstract No. 2

Chovanes, Andrew B. «On Vietnamese and other Peasants», JOURNAL OF SOUTHEAT

ASIAN STUDIES (Singapore) 1986 17(2): 203-235. There are serious theoretical and methodological issues concerning revolutionary activity. These are examined in extensive critiques of James Scott's

The Moral Economy of the Peasantry and Samuel Popkin's The Rational Peasant, both studies of the

Vietnamese peasant's role in the revolution, in the light of other work on peasants. Proposed is a

«transcultural grammar that would view history as non-progressional, not the inevitable outcome of class conflict, the most revolutionary group as that with nothing to lose, the presence of organizational factors which provide a new form of consciousness». 175 notes.

READING/WRITING A SUMMARY

A. READING SUMMARIES WITHIN A TEXT

When skimming a long text, a good reader can spot those parts of the text where the writer has summarized the points of his argument — either before he is about to present these points, or just after he has presented them. This is basically the same reading skill involved in spotting the sentence which seems to summarize the main ideas in each paragraph.

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In some long texts, the entire introductory section may be a summary of the important points in the text (i.e., it may be a plan or map of the argument that the writer is about to present). In such cases, the introductory section serves the same function as the Preface or Foreward to a book.

Similarly, a writer may pause to summarize what he has already told us before going on to some new aspect of his argument. Such brief summaries are easier to spot if the writer has included subtitles for each part of his argument. The summary of each part would most likely be found at the end of that part (before the next subtitle), end is often signaled by words such as: thus, hence, in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude and conclusion.

The final section of a long academic article is often a summary of the main ideas in the article.

When this is the case, by reading the introductory and final sections — even before he has skimmed the body of the text — the reader can get a good idea of what the paper is all about.

In general, an introductory summary should be used as a guide to reading: it's as useful to the reader as a map is to the navigator of some unknown territory. A concluding summary helps the reader to control for important points he may have missed or misunderstood in the course of reading the body of the text. The skilled reader will immediately go back to the body of the text to find or clarify anything in the summary that is unfamiliar or unclear.

B. WRITING A SUMMARY (AFTER HAVING READ A TEXT)

There is a paradox involved in trying to summarize a text. On the one hand, the summary must be general and focus on the most important ideas, at times substituting a single generalization for an extended segment of text, or not even mentioning other segments of the text because in your judgement, they add nothing new. For example, you may refer to part of the text as «the author's analysis of English economy» even though the text does not provide that label. On the other hand, your summary must be specific and refer to important facts, to points crucial to the development of the argument, or even to examples that provide essential support. It should also be written in precise and specific language that reflects your analysis of the text.

Before you can write a good summary you must understand and analyze the text. You will probably have to read the text, or at least parts of the text, more than once in order to answer such questions as the following:

1. What is the controlling idea or the main idea of the article?

2. What is the purpose of the article (regardless of whether the purpose is stated explicitly or only implied)?

3. How does the author develop his main idea — that is, what information is used to support the argument and how is the information organized?

4. What is the author's attitude toward the subject?

Theoretically, a summary can be as short as a single sentence or as long as about one fourth of the original. How long a summary should be and what kinds of information it should include and leave out depends on the purpose of the summary. If you are summarizing an article in order to organize and study the information it presents for an examination, for example, you will probably prefer a longer summary that includes essential facts and some examples that illustrate important points. On the other hand, if your purpose is to make a bibliographic note of the main idea of an article you have consulted in writing a paper, a sentence or two may be enough to remind you what the article was about.

GUIDELINES FOR SUMMARY WRITING

1. Read the original text carefully.

2. Identify the controlling idea and the relationships among the major supporting ideas.

3. Decide which examples are necessary for a clear understanding of the text.

4. Try to use your own words rather than merely quoting from the text, except when you are referring to technical or professional terms that have a special technical meaning. In that case, you might wish to use the original term and then indicate, in a few words of your own, what it means.

5. Write a first sentence which includes the source of your summary and the controlling idea.

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6. Indicate whether the author is certain or uncertain of the facts he presents and whether the point of view is his personal one, or one he identifies as belonging to a school of thought.

7. Omit trivial and redundant material. (The writer may express the same idea more than once, and in more than one way, but in your summary the idea should be presented only once).

8. Wherever possible, substitute a general term for any list or items which that term would include (regardless of whether or not the writer has used that general term). This is one way to delete more detailed facts and ideas without ignoring them.

9. Avoid making comments about or adding information to the text. Or, if you wish to add information, a judgement, evaluation, etc. label it specifically as your own opinion, for example: «The author conсludes that ... but I don't think the evidence presented really supports this conclusion».

WRITING THE CVs (RESUME)

СОСТАВЛЕНИЕ РЕЗЮМЕ

Резюме играет огромную роль. Хорошо составленное резюме должно давать полное представление о Вашем трудовом опыте, образовании и о других деловых качествах, чтобы потенциальный работодатель (employer) мог судить о Вашей квалификации. От четкости и информативности резюме во многом зависят Ваши шансы быть принятым на работу или учебу.

Часто вместо слова «resume» используют аббревиатуру CV (Curriculum Vitae), что в переводе с латыни обозначает «ход жизни».

Резюме обычно состоит из следующих основных частей:

1. Личная информация / Personal information

2. Цель / Objective

3. Образование / Education

4. Профессиональный опыт /Work Experience, или Employment

5. Специальные навыки / Special skills

6. Рекомендации / References

1) Personal Information

Напишите полностью свое имя и фамилию, укажите адрес, телефон (вместе с кодом страны и города); электронную почту. Если в России сначала указывают фамилию, затем имя и отчество, то в англоговорящих странах сначала указывают имя, затем – первую букву отчества, и только потом – фамилию.

2) Objective

Следует указать не только желаемую должность, но и в одном-двух предложениях объяснить, почему вы считаете свою кандидатуру наиболее подходящей.

3) Education

Пишите о том, какой вуз вы окончили. Название учебного заведения сокращать не принято. Укажите факультет и специальность, месяц и год окончания учебного заведения, средний балл аттестата.

4) Work Experience, или Employment

Обычно указывают не более трех последних мест работы. Укажите полностью название компании, свою должность, отдел, в котором вы трудились. Перечислите свои основные должностные обязанности.

5) Special skills

В разделе специальных навыков нужно указать: а) знание иностранных языков и уровень этих знаний. б) уровень компьютерной грамотности. в) наличие водительских прав (driver's license) г) опыт воинской службы, если он есть и если он может иметь отношение к вашей предполагаемой работе.

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6) References

Обычно рекомендаций должно быть как минимум две, и не от коллег, а от непосредственных начальников. Укажите конкретные лица, которые могут рекомендовать вас, напишите полностью имя, должность, место работы и контактную информацию ваших поручителей.

36. Here are some samples of CV. Look through them in order to compose your own CV:

Sample 1

На должность администратора/секретаря

JASON DAWSON

235 White Road

San-Francisco, California 029992

+ 01 (245)987-6543

OBJECTIVE:

To obtain an administrative assistant position which would utilize my administrative skills and offer opportunity for growth.

EDUCATION:

Technical College of San-Francisco September 1988 – May 1991

EMPLOYMENT:

6/94 to present

The Institute of Medical Care; San-Francisco

Unit Secretary, Child and Adolescent Unit – Responsible for maintaining patient charts, entering patient data on database, transcribing medication orders, tracking and paging medical personnel. Relaying patient records to other treatment facilities and fielding incoming phone calls.

10/91 to 5/94

University of National Law; San-Francisco

Administrator, Registrar's Office

– Answered telephones, filed documents, produced letters for certification and deferment, proctored exams. Registered students for courses, proofread grade sheets, registration materials, exams and course schedules, computed grade point average. Interacted with students, faculty and staff.

SPECIAL SKILLS:

Languages: English – mother tongue, German – beginning

Computer literate: word-processing (Word Perfect & Word for Windows), Spreadsheet (Lotus

1-2-3)

Excellent interpersonal and communications skills.

REFERENCES:

Available upon request

Sample 2

На должность маркетингового аналитика

ELENA K. PETROVA

0/01-1000 Neizvestnaya St., Moscow

Tel. (home): + 7 (095) 000-0000

E-mail: unknown@orc.ru

OBJECTIVE:

A full-time position as a Market Analyst, where a motivated high-energy team player capable of individual initiative will contribute to the efficiency and profitability of the company.

EDUCATION:

September, 1991 – June, 1996: Institute of International Economic Affaires, Finance Academy

(Moscow)

WORK EXPERIENCE:

June, 1998 – present

Procter & Gamble, Junior Marketing Manager, Cosmetics department:

– register clients' orders on the data base;

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– analyze the efficiency of sales;

Area of work: My duties are to provide the Head of Marketing Department with the relevant information about the market of cosmetic goods in Moscow, about costs' dynamics and to maintain the clients' data base. September, 1995–June, 1998

Milling Ltd, Specialist in advertising and marketing:

– Development of advertising strategy of the company;

– Copywriting advertising information;

– Clients data base administration.

Area of work: During my work for Milling Ltd I developed advertising profile for the company, created its corporate web site and conducted constant analysis of relevant markets in Russia.

SPECIAL SKILLS:

Languages: Russian – Mother tongue, English – fluent at the Advanced level, French – fluent at the Intermediate level.

Computer literate: Windows 95/98/NT, Word, Excel, Access, PowerPoint, CorelDraw, HTML.

Clerical: Typing 20 wpm.

Other: A professional Internet user. Have a driving license and prepared to be as mobile as necessary to provide the best performance.

REFERENCES: Available upon request

JOB-APPLICATION LETTERS

Уважаемые господа!

Я обращаюсь к вам, чтобы узнать, заинтересованы ли вы в принятии на работу в вашу фирму человека с хорошим знанием английского языка для ведения дел с российскими или американскими партнерами.

Я окончил Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет с дипломом магистра по специальности «Русский язык и литература».

Я постоянно проживаю в Санкт-Петербурге. У меня есть опыт работы на компьютере, и я также специализировался в переводе с английского.

Кроме того, у меня есть водительские права, и я довольно хорошо вожу машину. Что касается работы, то я могу выполнять ее в любое время.

Я заинтересован в работе у вас, так как считаю, что смогу использовать те навыки, которые уже получил, а также приобрести новые, которые повысят мою профессиональную квалификацию.

Я надеюсь, что вы серьезно рассмотрите мое письмо и предоставите мне возможность встретиться с вами для дальнейшего обсуждения этого вопроса.

Спасибо за внимание.

Искренне ваш

С. Кузнецов

Dear Sir or Madam,

I am writing you to find out if you would be interested in hiring a person with a strong background in

English to work with your firm in its dealings with Russian or American partners.

I have graduated from the State University of St. Petersburg with a Master's degree in Russian language and literature.

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I am a resident of St. Petersburg. I have had experience working with computers and my training has focused on work of translating between English and Russian.

In addition I have driver's license and can drive rather well. In considering a job I have flexibility in terms of working hours.

I am interested in working in your firm to use the skills that I acquired es well as to learn new skills that would develop my professional qualifications further.

I hope you can give my letter serious consideration and that it would be possible to meet with you to discuss this matter further.

Thank you for your attention.

Sincerely yours;

APPLICATIONS FOR STUDIES

Уважаемые господа!

Меня очень интересует программа подготовки аспирантов для получения степени доктора наук, и я хочу подать документы для поступления в аспирантуру.

Не могли бы вы прислать мне брошюру с подробной информацией о различных академических учебных курсах, а также со сведениями об условиях обучениями жизни аспирантов на факультете английского языка?

С уважением

Dear Sirs,

I am greatly interested in your graduate program leading to a Ph. D. degree and should like to apply for admission to graduate status.

Could you kindly let me have an information brochure giving particulars on various academic curricula that are available as well as information on the facilities in the Department of the English

Language?

Yours faithfully,

BUSINESS LETTERS

Господа!

Мы получили заказ на 150 000 долларов от компании «Роджер Блейкэнд Компани». Они назвали нам вашу фирму для получения рекомендации.

Мы хотели бы узнать, заслуживает ли эта компания доверия, и может ли она нести ответственность за заказ на такую сумму.

Мы будем признательны за любую информацию, которую вы могли бы нам дать, и будем считать ее строго конфиденциальной.

Прилагаем конверт с обратным адресом и маркой для вашего ответа, и заранее благодарим вас за любезность.

Искренне

Gentlemen:

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We have received an order for $ 150,000 from Messrs. Roger Blake and Co. They have given us the name of your firm as a reference.

We venture to ask you to advise us whether they are good for this amount and whether they are trustworthy.

Any information which you may give us will be gratefully appreciated and treated strictly confidentially.

We enclose a stamped addressed envelope for your reply and thank you in advance for your courtesy.

Sincerely,

1.

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ, ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМЫЕ В

НАЧАЛЕ ПИСЬМА

Спасибо/ огромное спасибо за доброе/ теплое письмо от 15 мая.

Thank you/ thank you very much/ thank you ever so much for your kind/ warm letter of

May 15.

Большое спасибо за ваше доброе и теплое письмо от 16 июля.

Спасибо тебе за твое письмо по поводу визита

Джона в...

Вчера я получил твое письмо...

Я был очень рад получить твое письмо.

Many thanks for your kind and warm letter of

July 16.

Thank you for your letter concerning John's visit to...

I received your letter yesterday...

I was delighted to receive your letter.

Я очень ценю твои добрые слова.

Я искренне благодарен тебе за...

Я очень сожалею, что у меня не было возможности лично поблагодарить тебя за...

Было приятно получить от тебя письмо после столь продолжительного времени и узнать, что...

I appreciate your kind words.

I am sincerely/ truly grateful to you for...

I regret very much that I did not have an opportunity to thank you personally for...

It was nice to have a letter from you after so long and to hear that...

Было приятно получить от тебя письмо после столь долгого перерыва.

Какая приятная неожиданность!

Для меня было большим удовольствием...

Я только что получил твое письмо и...

Сегодня утром, к моему огромному удивлению, я получил от тебя письмо.

Я так рад, что ты...

Я пишу тебе...

What a pleasant surprise!

It was with great pleasure for me...

I have just received your letter and...

It was nice to have a letter from you after all this time.

This morning, to my great astonishment, I received a letter from you.

I am so pleased that you...

I am writing you...

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Я не слышал о тебе...

Приятно было узнать, что ты...

Какие захватывающие/ замечательные/ волнующие/ радостные новости!

Так много всего произошло с тех пор, как я писал тебе.

Прошло много времени с тех пор, как я от тебя что-либо слышал, и я очень хочу узнать, как ты поживаешь.

Как только я услышал...

Привет, как ты поживаешь сейчас?

Теперь позволь мне рассказать о себе.

Теперь, когда я возвратился домой, я хочу сразу же написать и поблагодарить тебя за...

Теперь, когда я возвратился домой, я считаю своим долгом написать и выразить тебе мою самую теплую благодарность за всю ту доброту и гостеприимство, которое ты оказал мне в своем доме.

Я надеюсь, вы простите меня за беспокойство, но я знаю, что вы единственный, кто мог бы помочь мне.

Извините, пожалуйста, что беспокою вас, но я был бы очень благодарен, если бы вы помогли мне в очень деликатном деле.

Я был бы вам признателен, если бы вы...

Я хочу просить вас об очень большом одолжении.

Не могли бы вы сделать мне одолжение?

Не знаю, как начать, так как я хочу просить вас о большом одолжении.

Прошу прощения, что не мог встретить вас, как планировалось.

Я с сожалением узнал, что...

I have not heard from you...

How nice to hear that you...

What exciting/ wonderful/ thrilling /happy news!

So much has happened since I wrote you.

It is a long time since I heard from you and I am anxious to know how you are getting on.

As soon as I heard...

Hello, how are you these days?

Now let me tell you about myself.

Now that I am back home I want to write straightaway and thank you for...

Now that I am back at home, I feel that 1 must write and thank you most warmly for all the kindness and hospitality shown to me at your place.

I hope you will forgive me for troubling you, but it has occurred to me that you are the only person who may be able to help me.

Please forgive me for troubling you but I would be very grateful if you would help me in a very delicate matter.

I should be grateful if you would...

I want to ask you a very great favor.

I wonder if you would do me a favor.

I don't know how to begin because I have a great favor to ask you.

I am terribly sorry that I could not meet you as planned.

I was sorry to learn that...

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Я заинтересован в должности... объявление о которой я нашел в...

Я — идеальный кандидат для работы, которую вы рекламировали, и я очень хочу ее получить.

Я был бы очень благодарен, если бы вы выслали мне сведения о любых аспирантских стипендиях, которые вы предлагаете для иностранцев.

В ответ на ваш запрос от 21 сентября о... мы можем сообщить вам, что...

Мы с сожалением сообщаем вам о том, что...

С сожалением сообщаем вам...

Мы благодарим вас за ваше письмо и сожалеем, что по причине... мы не сможем помочь вам.

Дела в Нью-Йорке задержали мое возвращение на работу до сегодняшнего дня.

Это письмо является жалобой на...

Спасибо за ваше письмо от 20 ноября и за тот интерес, который вы проявили к нашей фирме.

Нас очень интересует...

Мы рады узнать из вашего недавнего запроса, что вы интересуетесь...

Большое спасибо за ваш запрос о...

Месяц тому назад мы послали вам...

Это письмо содержит важную информацию, которую, я уверен, вы будете рады получить.

Примите, пожалуйста, наши искренние извинения за ошибку в вашем июньском счете.

С удовольствием сообщаем вам следующие цены... предлагаем вам следующие товары... посылаем вам наш последний каталог...

Прилагаем...

I am interested in the post of... which I saw advertised in...

I am the ideal candidate for the job you have been advertising and I am very anxious to get it.

I would be most grateful if you could send me details of any postgraduate scholarships which you may be offering to students from overseas.

In answer to your inquiry of September 21 about... we are able to inform you that...

We regret to inform you that...

It is with regret that we inform you...

We thank you for your letter and regret that, owing to... we will not be able to help you.

Business in New York delayed my return to the office until today.

I am writing to make a complaint about...

Thank you for your letter of November 20 and the interest expressed in our firm.

We have considerable interest in...

We are glad to know from your recent inquiry that you are interested in learning about...

Thanks a lot for your request for information about...

About a month ago we sent you...

This letter contains some important information, which I am sure you will be glad to have.

Please accept our sincere apology for the error in your June bill.

We have pleasure in submitting the following quotation... offering you the following goods... sending you our latest catalogue...

Attached please find...

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Прилагаем к данному письму образец...

Сообщите нам, пожалуйста...

Сообщаем вам, что...

Настоящим подтверждаем, что...

Ссылаясь на вашу рекламу...

Подтверждаем получение...

В продолжение нашего письма...

Относительно вашего заказа...

Позвольте мне от имени г-на N ответить на ваш запрос от...

Прошу меня извинить за то, что не ответил на ваше письмо раньше.

You will find enclosed with this letters sample of...

Please kindly inform us...

Please know that...

This is to confirm that...

Referring to your advertisement...

We acknowledge the receipt of...

To follow up on our letter of...

With the reference to your order...

On behalf of Mr. N allow me to respond to your inquiry of...

My apologies for not responding your letter any sooner.

2. НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ВЫРАЖЕНИЯ, ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМЫЕ В КОНЦЕ

ПИСЬМА

Напиши, пожалуйста, поскорее.

Please write soon.

С нетерпением жду от тебя ответа.

Надеюсь, что ты вскоре снова напишешь мне, и что письма у вас не задерживаются.

Постарайся написать мне еще одно письмо.

I look forward/ I am looking forward very much to hearing from you.

I hope that you will write me another letter soon and that there isn't a postal "go- slow" in your country.

Do try to let me have another letter of yours.

Обязательно напиши мне поскорее и расскажи мне все о себе и о своей семье.

Я очень хочу услышать что-нибудь от тебя, поэтому напиши, пожалуйста, как можно скорее.

Ты не представляешь, как я хочу услышать от тебя что-нибудь.

Надеюсь вскоре получить от тебя письмо.

Я буду рад услышать что-нибудь о тебе.

Я был бы признателен за скорый ответ.

Я понимаю, что осталось мало времени, и был бы благодарен за быстрый ответ.

Do write to me soon and tell me all about yourself and your family.

I am very eager to hear from you, so please write as soon as you can.

You have no idea how much I am looking forward to hearing from you.

I hope to have a letter from you before long.

I would be delighted to hear about you.

I would appreciate an early reply.

I realize that this is very short notice, and would be grateful for an early reply.

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Напиши мне, пожалуйста, и расскажи все новости о...

Я очень хочу тебя увидеть, и поэтому не буду до встречи говорить ни о каких новостях.

Я жду, что вы напишете мне в ближайшее удобное для вас время.

Хорошо бы вскоре услышать что-нибудь от вас.

Интересно, как ты поживаешь, и как продвигаются твои дела.

Если у вас будет время, пожалуйста, напишите мне поскорее. Мне всегда приятно получать от вас письма.

Я был бы благодарен, если бы получил от вас известие как можно скорее.

Я вкладываю конверт с адресом и маркой с тем, чтобы вы мне ответили.

Пожалуйста, пиши мне так часто, как только можешь.

В следующий раз я постараюсь отправить письмо вовремя.

Всего самого наилучшего.

Желаю удачи!

С наилучшими пожеланиями!

Мы желаем тебе самого большого счастья.

Наилучшие пожелания от всех нас по случаю...

С сердечным приветом.

Я надеюсь, что ты хорошо отдохнешь.

Береги себя.

Желаю тебе хорошо провести время. Пиши чаще.

Извини, что беспокою тебя таким образом.

Please write and tell me a!! the news of...

I am looking forward to seeing you and will keep all my news until then.

I look forward to hear from you at your earliest convenience.

It would be nice hearing from you soon.

I have been wondering recently how you are getting on and whether things have been improving for you.

Please write to me before long if you have time. I always enjoy letters.

I would be grateful to hear from you as soon as possible.

I enclose a stamped, addressed envelope for your reply.

Please write me as often as you can.

And next time, I will make sure that I send a letter in time.

All the best.

Best of luck to you!

With all good wishes!

We certainly wish you all the happiness in the world.

With best wishes from all' of us on...

With kind/ kindest/ best regards.

I hope you will have a very nice holiday.

Take care of yourself.

Have a good time and write often.

Please forgive me for troubling you in this way.

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Я надеюсь, что вы примете мои искренние извинения.

Эдвард присоединяется ко мне с извинениями за беспокойство, и мы оба шлем вам наши самые лучшие пожелания.

Пожалуйста, еще раз прости меня за то, что не возвратил тебе эту вещь немедленно.

Пожалуйста, извини меня, но мое решение абсолютно окончательно.

Если ты не ответишь в течение двух недель, я буду вынужден изменить свое решение и...

Дай мне знать, что ты решишь.

Если вы будете заняты в это время, дайте мне знать, какое другое время будет вам удобнее.

Пожалуйста, дайте мне знать поскорее, заинтересованы ли вы в этом.

Что вы думаете?

Хотелось бы знать, когда вас ожидать.

Не забудь...

Дайте мне знать, удобно ли это вам.

Возможно ли это?

Если вы знаете какую-либо книгу, которая была бы мне полезна, то я был бы очень вам благодарен.

Приношу извинения за причиненное вам беспокойство и надеюсь, вы поймете, что обстоятельства были сильнее меня.

Я был бы благодарен, если бы вы выслали мне больше информации и анкету для поступления.

Может быть, вы будете так любезны и дадите мне знать, удобно ли это.

Сожалею, что беспокою вас, но я не знаю, что делать.

I do hope you will accept my heartfelt apologies.

Edward joins me in apologizing for troubling you and we both send you our best wishes.

Once more, please forgive me for not returning this thing to you immediately.

Please forgive me, but my decision is quite irrevocable.

If you do not reply within two weeks, I will have to change my mind and...

Let me know what you decide.

If you are not free then, let me know if there is any other time which would be more convenient.

Please do let me know soon if you are interested in it.

What do you think?

Let us know when to expect you.

Don't forget to...

Let me know if this is convenient for you.

Would that be possible?

If you know of any book which might be of assistance to me, I would be most grateful.

While I greatly regret the inconvenience, I feel sure you will understand it was due to circumstances quite beyond my control.

I would be grateful if you would send me further details and an application form.

Perhaps you would be kind to let me know if this is convenient.

I am sorry to bother you with this, but I don't know what to do.

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Если у вас будет время помочь мне, буду вам очень обязан.

Заранее благодарю вас за неоценимую помощь.

Разрешите мне заранее поблагодарить вас за вашу помощь.

Разрешите мне еще раз поблагодарить вас.

Пожалуйста, дай мне знать, чем я могу помочь.

Дай мое имя и адрес интервьюерам, если нужно.

Ты ведь знаешь, что всегда можешь рассчитывать на меня.

Мы ждем ваших указаний.

Если мы ничего не получим от вас со следующей почтой, мы будем вынуждены передать это дело в руки наших юристов.

К сожалению, это уже не первая наша жалоба, и, если вопрос не будет решен положительно, мы не будем больше посылать вам заказы.

Если мы не дали ответ по каким-либо пунктам вашего запроса, пожалуйста, напишите нам снова.

Само собой разумеется, что любая информация, которую вы предоставите, будет рассматриваться строго конфиденциально.

С сожалением ставим вас в известность, что, если товар не поступит к нам к концу месяца, мы вынуждены будем аннулировать заказ.

Я все же надеюсь, что эта задержка не причинила вам неудобств и вы примете мои извинения.

Мы примем все необходимые меры для того, чтобы подобная ситуация больше не повторилась.

В данных обстоятельствах мы можем только

If you have time to give me any assistance, I will be greatly in your debt.

I thank you in advance for your much valued help.

Let me thank you in advance for your help.

Let me thank you once again.

Please let me know what I can do to help.

Do not hesitate to give my name and address to interviewers.

You know you can always count on me.

We await your instructions.

Unless we hear from you by return mail we shall be compelled to place the matter in the hands of our lawyers.

Unfortunately this is not the first time we have had to complain and if the matter is not dealt with satisfactorily, we will not place any further orders with you.

If we have not covered all the points in your inquiry, please do not hesitate to write to us again.

Naturally, any information which you supply will be treated in the strictest confidence.

We regret to inform you that if the goods have not reached us by the end of this month, we will be compelled to cancel the order.

I do hope the delay has not caused you any inconvenience and once more hope you will accept my apologies.

We will take all possible steps to ensure that such a situation does not arise again.

In these circumstances we can only ask you to

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просить вас принять наши искренние извинения за причиненное вам беспокойство.

Мы были бы чрезвычайно благодарны, если бы вы ответили нам как можно скорее.

Мы были бы признательны за быстрый ответ.

Может быть, вы будете так любезны и подтвердите получение.

Мы были бы признательны, если бы вы могли ответить быстро.

Надеемся на удовольствие работать с вами.

Ваш быстрый ответ поможет нам оказать вам помощь.

Рассмотрите, пожалуйста, наши предложения.

Надеемся вскоре получить от вас ответ.

Пожалуйста, обращайтесь к нам незамедлительно, если у вас возникнут еще вопросы.

Надеюсь, вы согласитесь с конструктивностью сказанного выше. accept our sincere apologies for the trouble caused.

We would be most grateful to have your reply as soon as possible.

We would appreciate a prompt answer.

Perhaps you would be good enough to acknowledge the receipt.

Your early reply will be appreciated.

We look forward to the pleasure of serving you.

An early reply would help us to help you.

Please give our proposals your kind consideration.

We hope to hear from you shortly.

If you have any further questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.

I hope you find the above constructive.

3. НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ЗАКЛЮЧИТЕЛЬНЫЕ ФОРМУЛЫ

ВЕЖЛИВОСТИ

Sincerely yours,

Sincerely,

Yours sincerely,

Very sincerely,

Very sincerely yours,

Most sincerely yours,

Искренне Ваш

Truly yours,

Yours truly,

Yours very truly,

Very truly yours,

Yours,

Преданный Вам

Весьма преданный Вам

Ваш/ Твой/ Преданный Вам

Faithfully yours,

Yours faithfully,

С совершенным почтением/ уважением

Cordially yours,

Yours cordially,

Cordially,

Very cordially,

Most cordially yours,

Respectfully yours,

Искренне Ваш

С уважением/ почтением

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Best regards/ Regards,

С наилучшими пожеланиями

Devotedly yours,

Преданный Вам/тебе

Devotedly

Affectionately yours,

Yours affectionately yours,

Affectionately,

Yours ever,

Ever yours,

Always yours,

As ever,

С любовью

Всегда Ваш/твой

Love, With love,

With all my love,

Lovingly yours,

Lovingly,

All my love,

Your own,

Your friend,

Tenderly,

Cordially, as always,

With sincere thanks,

Good-bye for now,

Fraternally,

Любящий тебя

Твой

Твой друг

Любящий тебя

Сердечно, как всегда

С искренней благодарностью

До скорого

Дружески (членам клуба)

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SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

You want to participate in the work of international conference or congress or to organize its work, but you don't know how to do it. What's the procedure? How to obtain information about it? Look through the set of documents necessary for it. Make up your own conclusions.

1997 European Respiratory Society Annual Congress, Stockholm,

Sweden September, 7-11 Preliminary Program

Welcome address

On behalf of the European Respiratory Society it is an honour for us to welcome you and to be your host in Stockholm during the annual ERS congress for 1998.

The ERS annual congress will for the first time be held in Scandinavia and it is a pleasure for us not only to invite you to a conference of the highest scientific standard but also to present Stockholm, and, if you wish, other exciting places in Sweden.

The scientific planning of the congress had resulted in a most exciting program with more than 40 major and assembly symposia not counting the numerous free communication sessions. The official program will cover all aspects of modern lung medicine from basic science including advanced treatment such as lung transplantation.

You are further invited to attend an opening ceremony where the City of Stockholm is our generous host treating all delegates to food and drinks. We are also happy to have arranged a concert to which the delegates are invited to enjoy a party with perfect music.

Welcome

Jacob Вое

Chairman

Kjell Larsson

Vice-chairman

You have got a confirmation about your abstract acceptance. Now you should fill in the

Reservation form for your hotel accommodation. Do it in the form provided below.

Reservation Form

(Hotel Accommodation, Sightseeing Tours, Social Events, and Post Congress Tour)

Please write your name in block letters

Family name ......................... First name ........................

Company/Affiliation: ....................................................

Mailing address: ............................................................

Country ............................ tel: ................... fax ...............

Name of accompanying person .....................................

Accommodation: arrival ................... departure .............

Hotel price category Number of rooms

Single room Double room incl. breakfast incl. breakfast

A

В

Hotel deposit

200-250

150-200

Price category А В

250-300

200-250

60

per room 100 75

Administration fee 150

Taxi Voucher

Social events

30

100

Sightseeing tour

Payment

200

Payment should be made in USD , payable to Stockholm

Convention Bureau

Banker's Draft .............. Eurocard/Mastercard ..............

Diners Club ................... American Express ...................

Visa ......................................................

Bank account ...................................................

Charge my card No ...................................... with expiry date .........................

Total USD: ..............................

Date ................................. Signature ...........................

You have to prepare a speech about your scientific research. Do it using the following phrases and word combinations.

I would like to begin with .............................

The key thing I'd like to start with is .............................

The subject of my speech is .................

I'm going to deal with ...........................

I'd like to fix(draw) your attention on (to) the following questions

Assume that .................

These assumptions call attention to ................................

On the other hand ......................

It is safe to say that ......................

In order to go more thoroughly into this problem ...................

It is essential for .......................

In addition to ....................

As mentioned above ............................

It is necessary to determine here ...............................

It should be stressed here .......................

Here is an illustrative explanation of. ......................................

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Previous investigations show ...........................................

From the viewpoint of..... ...............................

Perhaps it will be polemic to ...................................

In this sense I would like to emphasize ...................................

I would like to raise some questions related to ........................

Thus,we come to the following conclusion .............................

Thank you for attention .........................................................

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Раздаточный материал по курсу «Деловой иностранный язык»

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Тексты общекультурного характера (образцы)

Read the text and do exercises on it.

The Guru and His Two Disciples

Near the banks of river Ganges, close to the holy city of Varanasi, there lived a Guru with his two disciples, Ravi and Shyam.

“You have been my disciples for a long time”, said the Guru. “It is time for you to leave this place and put into practice what you have learnt”.

“Where do you want us to go, O, Reverend Master?” asked Ravi.

“I have chosen two different villages for you”, explained the Guru. “You’ll spend two years in these villages and will continue your efforts at acquiring noble and spiritual qualities”.

“We will wholeheartedly obey all your orders, O, Master”, exclaimed Shyam.

“After two years”, continued the Guru, “I will come to see you and to assess how far you have progressed in your desire to become noble individuals”.

“We will not disappoint you, O, Master!” said Ravi excitedly.

The disciples went to the villages chosen for them.

“What a dirty village. I think I’ll spend my time meditating in a nearby hill away from this mess”, said Ravi.

Ravi found himself a quiet place and began his meditation. The people in the village began to gradually notice him.

He is such an honest and good man!

Oh, yes! He does not disturb anybody. He spends his time singing the praises of his Lord.

O, you Holy One! We have so many problems in our village: illiteracy, unhygienic living conditions, social problems…

Don’t worry! I’m not bothered by these things. I meditate fifteen hours a day and have learnt to transcend the things of this world.

The village chosen for Shyam was no better.

This place looks terrible. There are no schools, no hospitals and everything is so dirty.

Something has to be done for this place. village.

Shyam started a school for children and at the same time began to help people to clean up the

This place has to be cleaned up and all of you must help me!

Who are you to order us around?

What is the point of cleaning this mess? Within a week, it will look like the same anyway!

What’s the point of eating your lunch now? You’ll be hungry again in the evening!

If you want to clean this place, do it by yourself. We are not going to help you.

Come, my students! Let’s clean up this mess!

Who sent this crazy fellow here? He claims to be a religious man, but all he does is nag at us.

And he forces us to send our children to his school.

Yesterday, I didn’t send my daughter to school and he came and scolded me, calling me an irresponsible father.

The two years passed quickly and the Guru decided to pay a visit to his disciples. He first went to Ravi’s village.

People here seem to like you a lot. Tell me what you have done?

I have been practicing meditation for many hours. I can now go without food and water for three days. I can also hold my breath for five minutes.

Come with me! Let’s go and see what Shyam is up to.

Yes, Master.

At Shyam’s village…

Where does Shyam stay?

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He runs a school around the corner. Just keep going straight you will soon reach his school.

Shyam, tell us what you have been doing during the last two years?

When I first came to this village, I found it in a very bad condition. So, I tried to play a small role in bringing about changes around.

You mean you didn’t spend your time on prayer and meditation?

Well, I’d spend about half an hour in the mornings and evenings on prayer and meditation...

… but the rest of my time was spent in teaching children and setting things right here.

I’m sorry to hear that. Instead of worrying about this village, you should have concentrated on your own spiritual development.

My dear Ravi, spiritual development is not attained in isolation …

The Guru explained to his disciples that when one lives in isolation, it is easy for him to be truthful, honest, sincere, etc., because his integrity is not tested. For true spiritual development, one must pray and meditate, but one should also spend one’s life in the service of others. He further emphasized that a truly spiritual person brings beauty and perfection to his or her surroundings.

You mean to say that you consider Shyam’s achievements greater than mine?

Well, Shyam not only spent time on prayer and meditation, but he also brought about so many visible changes in his village.

I’m sorry to say this Ravi, but your village is as dirty and backward today as it was two years ago.

Does this mean that you are happy with my performance O, Reverend Master?

Yes, Shyam, and I’m sure that Ravi will now go back to his village and follow your example.

Language activity

I. Paraphrase the following expressions from the text:

1) the holy city

2) to put into practice

3) to acquire noble and spiritual qualities

4) wholeheartedly

5) to order smb. around

6) to claim to be a religious man

7) to bring about changes around

II. Give the synonymous expressions for the following ones using the text:

1) to live alone

2) to change for the better

3) to supervise at a school

4) an indifferent father

5) to make smb. do smth.

6) to come to visit

7) the reason of doing smth.

III. Answer the following questions on the text.

1) What is the name of the holy city?

2) Why did the Guru want his two disciples to leave the place?

3) How many years did the Guru determine for his disciples as necessary time for acquiring noble and spiritual qualities?

4)

In which way was the Guru going to assess his disciples’ progress?

How did Ravi spend this time in the village chosen for him?

5) Did Shyam decide to bring about change around in this village?

6)

What was the Guru’s reaction to his disciples’ actions?

IV. Thinking Activity.

Comment on the following quotations from the text:

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1)

“When one lives in isolation it is easy for him to be truthful, honest, sincere, etc., because his integrity is not tested”.

2) “For true spiritual development one should also spend one’s life in the service of others”.

3)

“A truly spiritual person brings beauty and perfection to his or her surroundings”.

Develop your writing skills.

Choose any of the following topics and write a composition on it.

Write down a project of changing a bad condition of the place you live in for the better.

Make a psychological portrait of a noble and spiritual person.

Make a list of qualities you’d like to develop in yourself and the reasons for your choice.


Of Studies by Francis Bacon

Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief use for delight is in privacy and retiring; for ornament, is in discourse; and for ability is in judgment and disposition of business.

For expert man can execute and perhaps judge of particulars, one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshaling of affairs, come best from those that are learned. To spend too much times in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of scholar. They perfect nature and perfect by experience: for natural abilities are like natural plants, that need pruning, by study; and studies themselves to give forth direction too much at large, except they be bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe or take for granted; nor to fin talk and discourse; but to weight and consider. Some books are to be tasted others to be swallowed, and some to be chewed and digested; that are; some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence attention.

Deputy may read some books, and extracts made of them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, and the meaner sort of books; else distilled books are like common distilled waters, flashy things. Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an extract man.

And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer a little, he had need have a present wet; and if he read a little he had need much cunning, to seem to know that he does not.

Histories make man wise; poets witty; math subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contented. Zeal develops into habit there is no difficult or impediment in the wit but may be wrought out by fit studies; like as diseases of the body may have appropriate exercises.

Bowling is a good for stone and kidneys; shooting for the lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for a head and the like. So if man's wit be wondering, let him study the math; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so little, he must begin again. If he wit be not apt to distinguish or find difference, let him study, the Schoolmen for they are hair splitters. If he not to beat over matters, and to call up one thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyer's cases.

So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt.


I. Comment on the title of the story “Of Studies”. What is the main idea of the text?

II. Answer the following questions: a. Why do studies have perfect nature? b. What is “to read” according to Bacon’s opinion? c. How do books influence people’s mind? d. What is the role of books in education? e. How do the different subjects influence the person? f. So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt. Is it so or not?

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III. Expand on the following meaning: a) So every defect of the mind may have a special receipt. b) Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. c) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some to be chewed and digested. d) Bowling is a good for stone and kidneys. e) Studies chief use for delight is in privacy and retiring.

IV. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and explain them in English. Make a sentence of your own using these words: sloth; affectation; ornament; despise; wisdom; confute; swallow; diligence; depute; conference; impediment; flashy things; distilled waters; extract man; perfect by nature.

V. Find synonyms and antonyms to the following words: ability; affectation; crafty man; curiously; canny; deep; disposition; take for granted; a wise man; wholly.

VI. How do you understand the phrases from the text? Comment on them: a. humor of scholar d. to beat over matters b. zeal develops into habit e. to call up c. hair splitters

VII. Complete the sentences: a. Studies serve for delight, for _________, for ___________________. b. To spent too much time in studies is _________________________ . c. To make judgments wholly by their rules is ___________________ . d. Histories make man_____________________________________ . e. Some books also may be read by ___________________________.

VIII. Explain the expressions in your own words. Do you agree or disagree. Why? a. To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament is affectation; to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of scholar. b. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them. c. Histories make man wise; poets witty; math subtle; natural philosophy deep; moral grave; logic and rhetoric able to contented. d. And therefore, if a man write little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer a little, he had need have a present wet; and if he read a little he had need much cunning, to seem to know that he does not.

IX. Discuss the text in pairs. One of the speakers is to support the author’s views; the other shall try to argue the disputable points of the text.

X. Summarize the text and express your attitude to the educational values of that epoch.

Solve the main problems that were raised in the text.


Science and Religion

The primary cause of material progress, albeit from which only a portion of humanity has benefited, is, without doubt, the impressive scientific and technological advance made in the past few centuries. That such progress seems incapable of freeing humanity from misery is in itself an indication of the moral bankruptcy of modern society. The main cause of this deplorable spiritual condition is the weakening of the force of religion.

There are those who would blame the rise of modern science for the multiplication of human suffering on a scale that, admittedly, has never been witnessed before. But how can the discovery of the workings of nature, in itself, be the cause of suffering? It would be more reasonable to blame religion—whose very purpose is to raise man from the condition of a mere animal—for allowing knowledge to be used for the benefit of the few and to the detriment of the majority. From a historical point of view, we know that religion was losing much of its vitality centuries before science began to

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achieve ascendancy and therefore its failings cannot be attributed to the rise of science. In fact, in its early stages, modern science was forced to battle, not religion in its pure form, but a spiritless form— an appalling mixture of superstition, bigotry, political intrigue and self-righteousness. Humanity is most fortunate that, from this battle, science emerged triumphantly.

It must be admitted, of course, that rapid scientific progress created both positive and negative forces that contributed to the shaping of society. Every new scientific discovery increased human capacity to do good and to do evil. It would have been reasonable to expect that religion would be the agency to guide the choice. But bound to tradition, divided, fearful of change and weakened by endless contention, religion failed to show humanity a viable path towards a prosperous future.

Unfortunately, the response of many an "enlightened" person to the dimness of the light of religion was to embrace one or another brand of materialism, sometimes explicitly but often while continuing to practice the rituals of the religion of his or her forefathers. Ironically, movements based on explicit materialistic assumptions finally took on the very characteristics that they criticized in religion—prejudice, fanaticism, and subtle or overt persecution of those who disagreed with some of their beliefs. And, in the onward march of materialism, "scientific" became the word behind which everyone would try to hide. Social theories of every kind proclaimed themselves to be "scientific;" all manner of practice claimed to be employing a "scientific" methodology. An increasing number of people, including those who knew very little about science, became convinced that science and technology would bring salvation to humanity. A vague and confused notion of science emerged as the basis for a new kind of religion, and a good number of scientists began to act as the priests of modern society. But alas, this new priesthood proved as incapable of leading humanity into a new era of prosperity as the one whose power it still struggles to seize.

Within this historical context, conflict between science and religion has gradually become accepted as inherent to the nature of the two systems. This we deny, arguing that science and religion, each exploring one aspect of a reality that is both material and spiritual, must necessarily agree. We accept, of course, that there is no possibility of reconciling superstition calling itself religion and materialism claiming to be science. We invite you, then, to step back from both, from simplistic definitions of science and the corruption of religion.

Discuss in your group the following points:

1.

Is it reasonable to say that to have faith in the existence of an impeccable order in the universe is rational, but that faith in the existence of a Creator of such order is the product of the underdeveloped and irrational mind? Similarly can faith in the absolute rule of the laws of nature, everywhere and under all conditions, be scientific, and faith in the existence of a Universal Law Giver be irrational and absurd?

2.

Is not the materialistic belief that the human being—his body, his mind, and his spirit—is entirely a product of the physical interactions of the atoms and molecules of the body an assumption?

Is this assumption more "scientific" than the belief that, in addition to the animal nature, the human being possesses a higher, a spiritual nature that transcends the physical universe? Consider a few examples of the assumptions of materialistic philosophies and compare them with corresponding ones in religion.

3.

Materialists refer to the material universe, which they recognize to be highly organized, as

"nature." They claim that the human being is nothing more than a part of nature that has reached an extremely advanced level of complexity. One of the characteristics of this level of complexity, they claim, is intelligence. But every one will agree that nature itself is bereft of intelligence. How can a part of something reach a higher level of complexity than the whole and come to possess a quality which the whole lacks?

4.

There is no doubt that the human body has evolved from simpler forms of life over millions of years to reach its present form. Having attained through this process of evolution a very specific configuration of atoms and molecules, forces and interactions, the body can now be the instrument through which human powers and perfections can operate. Now suppose that this very combination of atoms and interactions had somehow been brought together thousands of years before evolution even began. Would not the same powers and perfections of the human being appear in that configuration at

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that moment. Is it "unscientific" then to assume that the "spirit of man" forever has been, and that man existed in potential from the very beginning when the particles and forces of nature were created?

5.

Does "faith" necessarily imply ignorance? Is not your faith that the sun will rise tomorrow born out of knowledge? Without such faith, would you make plans for your tomorrow, would you be able to make decisions and act on them? Is faith in the inherent nobility of the human being, in the strength of justice, in the power of unity, or in a vision of transcendence above the animal condition the outcome of ignorance or profound knowledge? Would we ever take the necessary action to transform society if we did not possess such faith? Write a paragraph or two entitled: "Faith is conscious knowledge in action."

With these ideas in mind, let us now examine briefly the question of scientific and religious language. Among the characteristics of the language of science we have mentioned rationality, clarity and objectivity. It is evident that superstition dressed in the garment of religion, and in opposition to science, uses a language which is irrational and riddled with ambiguities. The question you must ask yourself is whether this is also true of the language of religion.

If you believe, as proposed by us on many occasions, that religion in its pure form agrees with science, you would have no choice but to accept that its language must, at least in part, be rational, clear and objective. Yet, in its entirety, the language of religion cannot be bound by these requisites.

Religion explores the nature of spiritual reality and conveys it using an imaginary that goes beyond the confines of scientific language, however without contradicting reason. The rationality of religion is higher than that of science, for spirituality transcends material reality although it does not deny it.

Moreover, religion must speak to the mind and heart of man. It must tap the roots of motivation in the human being and arouse the noblest of sentiments. The language of religion, then, is endowed with powers that touch the very essence of the human being.


A Good Educational System

The importance of teaching both science and religion has been already mentioned. We must now add that a good educational system will not only teach its students whatever may be profitable so that in future they may carry on a work useful for themselves and society, it will also train them to use their rational faculty freely and make good spiritual and moral choices in their daily lives.

Psychological research has proved that children learn many things through imitation.

Therefore a teacher whose behavior or character are reprehensible may have a bad influence on his pupils, although he or she may teach them very useful intellectual notions. Therefore the quality of an educational system does not depend only on good legislation, but also on the quality of the teachers. They should be both intellectually and spiritually qualified people. Materialistically oriented societies, in the name of freedom, are inclined to disregard the spiritual aspects of the cultural development of their teachers. However, since the right of the children to be protected from the bad influence of reprehensible teachers is also to be taken into consideration, this issue deserves to be examined and solved.


I. What’s the purpose of a good educational system? Does it reflect or coincide with some ideas of the purpose of education?

II. Is it possible for an educational system to address moral issues without paying attention to the more profound question of spirituality?

III. Put your heads together to reflect on the following issues:

1). Are we created noble or evil?

2). What are the “inner treasures of man”?

3). What can be called “things of the spirit”?

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4). What “graces and praiseworthy qualities” do you know?

5). What is “sound knowledge”?

6). What “branches of learning” are worth studying?

7). When can a human being be called a “spiritual being”?

8). What kind of education can help to reveal the inner treasures of man?

9). How can mankind benefit from the inner treasures of each human being?

IV. What are the rules of good conduct?

V. Studying the Golden Rule what else can you add to behave according to moral principles?

Hinduism: “This is the sum of all true righteousness: deal with others as thou would thyself be dealt by.” Mahabharata.

Judaism: “What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow men. That is the entire Law, all the rest is commentary.” The Talmud, Shabbat, 31a.

Buddhism: “Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.” Udana-Varqa, 5:18.

Zoroastrianism: “That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self.” Dadistan-i Dinik, 94:5.

Christianity: “As ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise.” Luke 6:31.

Islam: “No one of you is a beliver until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself.” Sunnah.

Confucianism: “Surely it is the maxim of loving kindness: Do not unto others that you would not have them do unto you.” Analects, XV, 23.

Baha’i Faith: “He should not wish for others that which he doth not wish for himself...”

Gleanings.

VI. What does the phrase “...make good spiritual and moral choices...” mean?

VII. Mention some qualities of the human soul from your point of view.

VIII. Make a list of positive and negative human qualities from the following words: arrogance, aggression, love, kindness, politeness, respect, care, revenge, envy, openness, trust, unity, greed, honesty, faithfulness, humiliation, thoroughness. How do you understand them?

IX. Comment on the following proverbs:

Live and learn.

One’s man fault is another man’s lesson.

Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.

It’s never too late to learn.

Knowledge is power.

Never do things by halves.

Experience is the teacher of fools.

He who makes no mistakes, makes nothing.

There is no rule without an exception.

Repetition is the mother of learning.

A little learning is dangerous.

Well begun is half done?

Where there is a will there is a way.

Zeal without knowledge is a runaway rose.

To know everything is to know nothing.

A tree is known by its fruit. Learning is the eye of the mind.

X. Do you agree or disagree that the quality of an educational system doesn’t depend only on good legislation, but also on the quality of the teachers?

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Тексты профессиональной направленности (образцы)

WHAT IS A HISTORICAL FACT? by E.H.Carr

What is a historical fact? This is a crucial question into which we must look a little more closely.

According to the commonsense view, there are certain basic facts which are the same for all historians, and which form, so to speak, the backbone of history — the fact, for example, that the Battle of Hastings was fought in 1066. But this view calls for two observations. In the first place, it is not with facts like these that the historian is primarily concerned. It is no doubt important to know that the great battle was fought in 1066 and not in 1065 10 or 1067, and that it was fought at Hastings and not at Eastbourne or

Brighton.

The historian must not get these things wrong. But when points of this kind are raised, I am reminded of Housman's remark that «accuracy is a duty, not a virtue». To praise a historian for-his accuracy is like praising an architect for using well-seasoned timber or properly mixed concrete in his building. It is a necessary condition of his work, but not his essential function. It is precisely for matters of this kind that the historian is entitled to rely on what have been called the «auxiliary sciences» of history

— archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, chronology, and so forth.

The historian is not required to have the special skills which enable the expert to determine the origin and period of a fragment of pottery or marble, to decipher an obscure inscription, or to make the elaborate astronomical calculations necessary to establish a precise date. These so-called basic facts, which are the same for all historians, commonly belong to the category of the raw materials of the historian rather than of history itself. The second observation is that the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any quality in the facts themselves, but on an a priori decision of the historian. It used to be said that facts speak for themselves. This is, of course, untrue.

The facts speak only when the historian calls on them: it is he who decides to which facts to give the floor, and in what order or context. It was, I think, one of Pirandello's characters who said that a fact is like a sack — it won't stand up till you've put something in it. The only reason why we are interested to know that the battle was fought at Hastings in 1066 is that historians regard it as a major historical event.

It is the historian who has decided for his own reasons that Caesar's crossing of that petty stream, the

Rubicon, is a fact of history, whereas the crossing of the Rubicon by millions of other people before or since interests nobody at all. The fact that you arrived in this building half an hour ago on foot, or on a bicycle, or in a car, is just as much of a fact about the past as the fact that Caesar crossed the Rubicon. But it will probably be ignored by historians. Professor Talcott Parsons once called science «a selective system of cognitive orientations to reality». It might perhaps have been put more simply. But history is, among other things, that. The historian is necessarily selective. The belief in a hard core of historical facts existing objectively and independently of the interpretation of the historian is a preposterous fallacy, but one which is very hard to eradicate.

When I studied ancient history in this university many years ago, I had as a special subject «Greece in the period of the Persian Wars». I collected fifteen or twenty volumes on my shelves and took it for granted that there, recorded in these volumes, I and all the facts relating to my subject. Let us assume — it was very nearly true — that those volumes contained all the facts about it that were then known, or could be known. It never occurred to me to inquire by what accident or process of attrition that minute selection of facts, out of all the myriad facts that must once have been known to somebody, had survived to become the facts of history. I suspect that even today one of the fascinations of ancient and medieval history is that it gives us the illusion of having all the facts at our disposal within a manageable compass: the nagging distinction between the facts of history and other facts about the past vanishes, because the few known facts are all facts of history. As Bury, who had worked in both periods, said, «the records of ancient and medieval history are starred with lacunae». History has been called an enormous jig-saw with a lot of

missing parts. But the main trouble does not consist in the lacunae. Out picture of Greece in the fifth century В. С. is defective not primarily because so many of the bits have been accidentally lost, but because it is, by and large, the picture formed by a tiny group of people in the city of Athens.

We know a lot about what fifth-century Greece looked like to an Athenian citizen; but hardly anything about what it looked like to a Spartan, a Corinthian, or a Theban — not to mention a Persian, or a slave or other non-citizen resident in Athens. Our picture has been preselected and predetermined for us, not so much by accident as by people who were consciously or unconsciously imbued with a particular view and thought the facts which supported that view worth preserving. In the same way, when I read in a modem history of the Middle Ages that the people of the Middle Ages were deeply concerned with religion, I wonder how we know this, and whether it is true.

What we know as the facts of medieval history have almost all been selected for us by generations of chroniclers who were professionally occupied in the theory and practice of religion, and who therefore thought it supremely important, and recorded everything relating to it, and not much else. The picture of the Russian peasant as devoutly religious was destroyed by the revolution of 1917. The picture of medieval man as devoutly religious, whether true or not, is indestructible, because nearly all the known facts about him were preselected for us by people who believed it, and wanted others to believe it, and a mass of other facts, in which we might possibly have found evidence to the contrary, has been lost beyond recall. The dead hand of vanished generations of historians, scribes, and chroniclers has determined beyond the possibility of appeal the pattern of the past.

In the first place, the facts of history never come to us "pure", since they do not and cannot exist in a 105 pure form: they are always refracted through the mind of the recorder. It follows that when we take up a work of history, our first concern should be not with the facts which it contains but with the historian who wrote it.

If, as Collingwood says, the historian must re-enact in thought what has gone on in the mind of his dramatis personae, so the reader in his turn must re-enact what goes on in the mind of the historian. Study the historian before you begin to study the facts. This is, after all, not very abstruse. It is what is already done by the intelligent undergraduate who, when recommended to read a work by that greatscholar Jones of St. Jude's goes round to a friend at St. Jude's to ask what sort of chap Jones is , and what bees he has in his bonnet. When you read a work of history, always listen out for the buzzing. If you can detect none, either you are tone deaf or your historian is a dull dog. The facts are really not at all like fish on the fishmonger's slab. They are like fish swimming about in a vast and sometimes inaccessible ocean; and what the historian catches will depend, partly on chance, but mainly on what part of the ocean he chooses to fish in and what tackle he chooses to use — these two factors being, of course, determined by the kind offish he wants to catch. By and large, the historian will get the kind of facts he wants. History means interpretation. Indeed, if, standing Sir George dark on his head, I were to call history «a hard core of interpretation surrounded by a pulp of disputable facts», my statement would, no doubt, be one-sided and misleading, but no more so, I venture to think, than the original dictum.

The second point is the more familiar one of the historian's need of imaginative understanding for the minds of the people with whom he is dealing, for the thought behind their acts: I say "imaginative understanding", not "sympathy" lest sympathy should be supposed to imply agreement. The nineteenth century was weak in medieval history, because it was too much repelled by the superstitious beliefs of the

Middle Ages, and by the barbarities which they inspired, to have any imaginative understanding of medieval people. Or take Burckhardt's censorious remark about the Thirty Years War: «It is scandalous for a creed, no matter whether it is Catholic or Protestant, to place its salvation above the integrity of the nation». It was extremely difficult for a nineteenth-century liberal historian, brought up to believe that it is right and praiseworthy to kill in defence of one's country, but wicked and wrong-headed to kill in defence of one's religion, to enter into the state of mind of those who fought the Thirty Years War.

The third point is that we can view the past, and achieve our understanding of the past, only through the eyes of the present. The historian is of his own age, and is bound to it by the conditions of

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human existence. The very words which he uses — words like democracy, empire, war, revolution — have current connotations from which he cannot divorce them. Ancient historians have taken to using words like polis and plebs in the original, just in order to show that they have not fallen into this trap. This does not help them. They, too, live in the present, and cannot cheat themselves into the past by using unfamiliar or obsolete words, any more than they would become better Greek or Roman historians if they delivered their lectures in a chlamys or a toga. The name by which successive French historians have described the Parisian crowds which played so prominent a role in the French revolution — les sansculottes, Ie peuple, la canaille, les bras-nus — are all, for those who know the rules of the game, manifestos of a political affiliation and of a particular interpretation. Yet the historian is obliged to choose: the use of language forbids him to be neutral.

The predicament of the historian is a reflexion of the nature of man. Man, except perhaps in earliest infancy and in extreme old age, is not totally involved in his environment and unconditionally subject to it. On the other hand, he is never totally independent of it and its unconditional master. The relation of man to his environment is the relation of the historian to his theme. The historian is neither the humble slave nor the tyrannical master of his facts. The relation between the historian and his facts is one of equality, of give-and-take. As any working historian knows, if he stops to reflect what he is doing as he thinks and writes, the historian is engaged in a continuous process of moulding his facts to his interpretation and his interpretation to his facts. It is impossible to assign primacy to one over the other.

The historian starts with a provisional selection of facts, and a provisional interpretation in the light of which that selection has been made — by others as well as by himself. As he works, both the interpretation and the selection and ordering of facts undergo subtle and perhaps partly unconscious changes, through the reciprocal action of one or the other. And this reciprocal action also involves reciprocity between present and past, since the historian is part of the present and the facts belong to the past. The historian and the facts of history are necessary to one another. The historian without his facts is rootless and futile; the facts without their historian are dead and meaningless. My first answer therefore to the question «What is history?» is that it is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past.

From: E.H. Cart, What Is History? (1964).

Leiden Journal of International Law (2009), 22: 413-436

Volume 22 - Issue 03

Marxism, International Law, and Political Strategy

ROBERT KNOX

Over the course of the last decade, international law has come to play an increasingly visible role in international politics. International law has been at the heart of numerous international conflicts and issues – the NATO bombing of Kosovo, the US invasion of Afghanistan and the ‘war on terror’ more generally, the two wars in Iraq, the Israeli assault on Lebanon, the Georgia crisis, and the recent events in

Gaza, to name but a few. More important than the mere ‘involvement’ of international law in these issues has been the public and media recognition of this involvement (even if this importance is confined only to international law's ‘violation’).

Given this prominence, it is perhaps unsurprising that international law has also come to inform the political mobilizations of various left and progressive groups. This was especially evident in the mass protests against the ‘illegal war’ in Iraq and the opposition to Israeli ‘war crimes’ committed in its recent assault on Gaza. Invoking international human rights law and international humanitarian law has also been integral to much of the opposition to the ‘war on terror’. These developments have been reflected in international legal scholarship. Many international lawyers have attempted to theorize the role of

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international law in these events – with some arguing that they were violations of international law1 or that we are in a lawless ‘state of exception’ and others arguing that these events are in fact products of international law. There has also been increased attention to the broader considerations of international law's relationship with imperial power. Of course, this has given rise to the related question – especially in critical circles – of what role international law can play in progressive politics.

It is against this background that the re-emergence of a distinctively Marxian current in international legal theory must be viewed. In recent years a number of works interrogating international law from a Marxist perspective have been published, many of them dealing directly with international law's relationship with our current conjuncture and its progressive potential.6 Among these works one stands out for its systematicity and the trenchant nature of its critique – China Miéville's Between Equal

Rights. In a rather brutal turn of phrase Miéville concludes that ‘[t]he chaotic and bloody world around us is the rule of law’ – with international law being absolutely central to imperialism and as such ineffective in opposing it. Of all the arguments in his book, it is this claim that has proved most controversial, sparking a lively debate. Of course Miéville's conclusion is not simply arbitrary, but is instead the rigorous product of sustained jurisprudential and historical reflection.

Given the above, the task of theorizing international law's relationship to imperialism and how it might be used in progressive politics has become vital. The relentless nature of Miéville's argument, as well as its careful grounding in theory and history, makes addressing it an important aspect of this task.

Miéville's work also throws light on the nature and character of international law, as well as its relationship to violence – both questions which have perpetually haunted the enterprise of international law.

Following a brief summary this article will engage with some of Miéville's key claims about international law, arguing that the content of international law is much more contestable than Miéville allows. It will then be argued that Miéville's pessimism has a ‘rational kernel’, insofar as the form of law shapes its content in such a way that international law's transformative potential is severely curtailed. The article will then trace the implications that these claims about the form and content of international law have for legal strategy. Finally, the article will ask whether – in extraordinary conjunctures – international law might serve a revolutionary role.

Japanese Journal of Political Science (2005), 6: 63-85


Social Capital and Democratic Citizenship: The Case of South Korea

CHONG-MIN PARK, DOH CHULL SHIN

Forty years ago, in their pioneering work, Civic Culture, Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba emphasized the importance of social participation and interpersonal trust for democracy, even though they did not explicitly use the term ‘social capital’ in their work. According to them, the propensity of civic cooperation is rooted in social attitudes, such as having faith in people, which is cultivated through taking part in voluntary associations. They argued that such associations infuse their members with habits of cooperation and norms of reciprocity conducive to civic engagement. They viewed involvement in social organizations as one of the ultimate sources of democratic citizenship, a crucial feature of civic culture.

Drawing upon de Tocqueville's early work on US democracy, Robert Putnam explicitly relates civil society to democratic governance through the concept of social capital in his analysis of the performance of regional governments in Italy. He argues that a dense network of voluntary associations generates social capital by supporting norms of reciprocity and trust and providing networks of social relations for civic action, which ultimately contribute to the effective performance of democratic institutions. Civic associations are considered to contribute to democracy both internally and externally.

Internally, these associations help their members not only to acquire participatory skills and resources but also to learn democratic norms and values. Externally, they facilitate the articulation and representation of

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citizen interests to a democratic state. Civil society is viewed to determine the quality of democratic governance through social networks and norms of trust.

Despite some sharp disagreements on the sources of social capital in the scholarly community, a growing number of social scientists follow Robert Putnam's lead and further elaborate the thesis that social capital is important for democracy. For instance, in their analysis of US public opinion data, John

Brehm and Wendy Rahn identify the aggregate phenomenon of social capital at an individual level by demonstrating its presence in the form of a tight reciprocal relationship between civic engagement and interpersonal trust. In his study of state governments in the United States, Stephen Knack shows that generalized trust is associated with better governmental performance, while social connectedness is unrelated to governmental performance and calls into question the use of social capital that mixes social networks and trust. In his analysis of Russian public opinion data, James Gibson shows that individuals embedded in extensive social networks are more likely to support key democratic institutions and processes, but points out that interpersonal trust is not a prerequisite to support for democratic institutions and processes. In their analysis of New Russia Barometer survey data Richard Rose and Craig Weller find that neither trust nor organizational membership influences commitment to democratic values and suggest that any positive effects of social capital may be contingent. In their comparative study of Germany, the

United States and Sweden, Dietlind Stolle and Thomas Rochon show that associational membership is related to higher political activity and awareness, as well as higher levels of generalized trust and that there are national differences in the relationships. By using World Value survey data Kenneth Newton demonstrates that ‘associational membership is not unimportant for the generation of social trust, but less important than some other social and political factors’.

International Review of Social History (2010), 55: 1-26

Volume 55 - Supplement S18

Globalization, Environmental Change, and Social History: An Introduction

Peter Boomgaarda, Marjolein 't Harta

Throughout the ages, the activities of humankind have weighed considerably upon the environment. In turn, changes in that environment have favoured the rise of certain social groups and limited the actions of others. Nevertheless, environmental history has remained a “blind spot” for many social and economic historians. This is to be regretted, as changes in ecosystems have always had quite different consequences for different social groups. Indeed, the various and unequal effects of environmental change often explain the strengths and weaknesses of certain social groups, irrespective of their being defined along lines of class, gender, or ethnicity.

This Special Issue of the International Review of Social History aims to bring together the expertise of social and environmental historians. In the last few decades of the twentieth century, expanding holes in the ozone layer, global warming, and the accelerated pace of the destruction of the tropical forests have resulted in a worldwide recognition of two closely related processes: globalization and environmental change. The contributions to this volume provide striking case studies of such connections in earlier periods, revealing a fruitful interconnection between social and environmental history. This introduction provides a historiographical context for the essays that follow, focusing on the relevant notions connected with globalization and environmental change, and stressing the existing interactions between environmental and social history. We are particularly interested in the consequences of processes induced by globalization, how transnational forces and agents changed the socio-ecological space, and how that affected relationships between different classes in history.

Globalization And Global History

Globalization is a concept that needs further elaboration. The rise of the internet, the shifts in the power of sovereign national states, the intricate intertwining of global markets, and the enormous numbers

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of people migrating across regions and continents trying to escape wars, environmental degradation, or disasters have prompted several scholars to explain these recent trends using new definitions of globalization. The description by the political scientists David Held and Anthony McGrew nicely captures our understanding:

Simply put, globalization denotes the expanding scale, growing magnitude, speeding up and deepening impact of interregional flows and patterns of interaction. It refers to a shift or transformation in the scale in human organization that links distant communities and expands the reach of power relations across the world’s major regions and continents.

In history, as well as in the social sciences, debates abound on the timing or start of globalization.

In contrast to some scholars, we are not inclined to use globalization as a term limited to a new epoch that started in the 1980s or 1990s, neither do we think that the rapid globalization in the nineteenth century precludes all early modern globalization, nor do we see a specific date (1492 or 1571 have been suggested, for example) in the early modern period from which globalization truly took off.6 Rather, we wish to look upon globalization as a set of highly variegated processes that can be labelled in different ways, ranging from “thick” to “thin” globalization and from “diffused” to “expanded”. These categories are derived from Global Transformations, the influential study by David Held et al. in which they observe variations in the extensity, the intensity, the velocity, and the impact of global connections.

“Thick” globalization then refers to processes that share an expanding scale, growing magnitude, and an acceleration as well as a deepening of their impact. A case in point is the growing interconnection of the world markets in the late nineteenth century under the auspices of the British Empire. Thin globalization typically relates to developments that can be defined by an expanding scale while the other three characteristics are weak. A good example is the long-distance trade along the Eurasian silk route in the medieval period. The impact of diffuse globalization is likewise rather shallow, yet its velocity and intensity are high; the worldwide spread of Coca-Cola may serve as an illustration. Finally, expanded globalization refers to developments in which the impact is high, yet the intensity and velocity are limited, as represented by the colonization of Latin America and the Caribbean in the early modern period. This distinction in different categories allows us thus to investigate environmental impacts that can be substantial even before the rise of imperialism or other obvious “thick” globalizations.

In line with these thoughts, it would be preferable to speak about “globalizations” instead of one

“globalization”, not as a single process but as a multitude of uneven developments. Implicit in numerous conceptualizations of globalization is the assumption that it inevitably entails homogenization, that all societies will increasingly look the same. Although convergence is indeed often strong, globalization also leads to divergence, which is best illustrated perhaps by the division in world power. A set of elite groups in the core regions maintain excellent relations with the new nodes of power, while other groups and regions become increasingly marginalized. For example, when the world financial markets experienced rapid interconnection in the late twentieth century the number of financial experts actually acquainted with the development was quite small; they were termed the “new economic hit men”, and included major investors such as George Soros.

The social scientist Manuel Castells stressed that globalization effectuates a sharpening of class distinctions and even the emergence of new classes. He observed that in the age of the internet, certain business managers moved rapidly towards the upper echelons of society, while at the bottom a new

“fourth class” found itself deprived of digital ways to make money. Castells summarizes these trends as follows: elites are cosmopolitan and global, “ordinary people” remain oriented towards the local.

Comparable processes are observed in different fields: for example, James Scott noted that in a Malaysian village the new profits of the green revolution went disproportionately to the wealthier farmers. Thus, marginalized people remain localized, strengthening divergence.

Divergence can also be the result of resistance to global trends. A growing consciousness of typically local and national interests results in movements wishing to stress differing and alternative paths, such as nationalist parties and fundamentalist Islam, to mention but a few. Movements that do not oppose

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globalization yet aspire to blend global tendencies within local traditions and solutions are called glocal, which can also reinforce divergent trends.

Historians have also recognized the thick globalization of the last few decades of the twentieth century, above all its impact on the role of sovereign states. Not that the nation-state is withering away, but its functions have undergone major transformations, and historians have become more attentive to the workings of transnational trends and agents in earlier periods. As the global connections changed and intensified, as regional and intercontinental structures expanded, historians increasingly looked back on the development of their own nation-states as constructs that were strongly linked to a specific phase in world history. This stimulated the rise of a distinct group of world historians, as exemplified by the establishment of the Journal of World History in 1990. Within world history a further specialization occurred, with one group studying the world as a whole (world historians) and another focusing on global connections and comparisons across regions and continents (global historians). Although the Journal of

World History harboured both species, the Journal of Global History was founded in 2006 with explicit reference to the second group. In calling attention to global connections, this Special Issue is strongly embedded within this latter trend of historiography, stressing further that globalization is a multifaceted process with both convergent and divergent trends that do not necessarily have to be “thick” to have a significant impact on localized societies.

Japanese Journal of Political Science (2005), 6: 87-109


Terrorism, Social Movements, and International Security: How Al Qaeda Affects Southeast Asia

DAVID LEHENY

When a massive car bomb destroyed a Bali nightclub in October 2002, suspicion immediately fell on Al Qaeda, thousands of miles from its original base in Afghanistan and almost equally removed from the American targets that would ostensibly attract the group's attention. In many American minds, at least, this confirmed Southeast Asia as a ‘second front’ in the conflict with Al Qaeda. And yet the Bali bombing as well as the recent arrests and killings of Southeast Asian Islamist movements together raise as many questions as they answer. While there is no more any doubt that Al Qaeda members have been active in the region, the meaning for the ‘War on Terrorism’ and for our understanding of non-state political violence remains murky. Were these agents working under the direct control of Al Qaeda leaders? If the attack on the disco signifies a broad Al Qaeda shift to attacks on ‘soft targets’, why have nightclub attacks not become a more common phenomenon elsewhere? Is it possible that the target had a distinctive meaning in Indonesia that might differentiate it from other Al Qaeda attacks? If so, this suggests that our usual metaphors for Al Qaeda's structure – a military organization or an amorphous network – are insufficient, perhaps because they sidestep the political issues involved in the links between Al Qaeda's core and like-minded groups around the world.

And the problem is political, not primarily religious, military, or even conventionally ideological.

Al Qaeda's leaders are strategic actors, who believe themselves to be embedded in long-term, iterative struggles over outcomes, and they have chosen their tactics accordingly. By the same token, terrorism itself is largely about the use of potent symbols to hearten supporters and to intimidate enemies, and the tactics do not make sense outside of the symbolic contexts in which they are chosen. For scholars of security studies to deal forthrightly with this new type of conflict – which Stephen Walt describes as the

‘most rapid and dramatic change in the history of US foreign policy’ – they will need to think creatively about how to integrate the meaning that small, violent groups attach to actions with devastating immediate impact and long-term consequences for international security. What are most distinctive about Al Qaeda's efforts are not just their effectiveness but rather their ability to link, sometimes fitfully and imprecisely,

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the global interests of the core organization with the more limited concerns of local activists. Doing so relies on the reframing of local groups’ demands and concerns, and on the diffusion of repertoires of violence that dictate appropriate measures and targets.

This paper uses cases of Islamist violence in Southeast Asia to argue that the most promising way to further the discussion of terrorism in international security may be to draw the study of transnational social movements into security studies. Largely marginalized within studies of international norms, social movements in international relations might be conceptualized differently, to allow scholars to think more broadly about security threats. In this view, the threat posed by Al Qaeda comes not from a tightly controlled military organization with global reach, and not from a loose network with cells operating at roughly equivalent ‘nodes’ around the world – two popular interpretations discussed below. It arises instead from Al Qaeda's apparent but limited success in acting as a social movement organization, operating as a core group that aims at mobilizing support and cooperation from conceivably like-minded movements in other parts of the globe. Even social movement scholars critique the murkiness of research on movement frames, and my goal here is not to argue that the perspective offers a panacea for the study of terrorist organizations. Comparisons matter, however, and we are more likely to generate rigorous empirical research if we can meaningfully draw on the large body of literature on other political movements, rather than assert the irreducible novelty of Al Qaeda or connect it awkwardly to prevailing theories of conflict between states.

The use of social movement theory to explain Al Qaeda activities has three merits, all of which should be important to security studies and international terrorism. First, evidence on Al Qaeda's activities suggests that it has played an important role in supporting Islamist terrorism around the globe, but that these effects are qualified by the prevailing concerns of local militants. In Southeast Asia, for example, Al

Qaeda members have clearly contributed to the rise in anti-Western violence, but the style of violence often implies the preoccupation of local actors rather than the movement core. Second, terrorism operates at a crucial nexus of meaning and action. To be sure, terrorist groups try to act strategically and rationally, but their attacks are usually unintelligible without an understanding of the symbolic contexts in which they take place. Social movement theory has addressed the tension between rationalist and interpretivist approaches for decades, and has developed several solutions that might be helpful for studies of security.

Finally, the sheer variety of studies of social movement theory provides a rich portfolio from which to analyze terrorist organizations like Al Qaeda. Because of the paucity of existing international security literature on terrorism, the theoretical guidance available in the long history of social movement research ought to provide a helpful point from which to think anew about non-state actors as security threats. At a certain level, all politics is local, and this is likely true of transnational terrorism as well.

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