1.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
INTRODUCTION
The progression of transmission and interchange of ideas, facts, feelings or actions is known as “Process of
Communication”. It includes the giving; getting and sharing of information with others may be oral or written.
THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
The word communication has its root in the Latin word “communicare”, which means “to share”. In brief
communication can be defined as the exchange of information, ideas, and knowledge between sender and
receiver through an accepted code of symbols.
THE COMMUNICATION CYCLE
The following diagram shows the process taking place during effective communication:
Sender
Message
Sent
Encoded
message
Receiver
Channel
Received
Message
message
decoded
Response
Feedback
The sender encodes the message and sends it through a channel. This channel is nothing but the language
used. The receiver receives the message, decodes it, and acts on it. If the message received is the same as the
message sent, there will be a response; if not, there has been a breakdown of communication. This may
happen because of “noise”.
The transmission of the receiver’s response to the sender is called feedback. Feedback is the indicator of
effective communication. Communication always takes place in a well defined set-up. This is called the
communication environment. A classroom is the communication environment when a teacher delivers
lectures to students.
In brief, the essentials of effective communication are:
1.
A common communication environment
2.
Cooperation between the sender and receiver
3.
Selection of correct channel
4.
Correct encoding and decoding of the message
5.
Receipt of the desired response and feedback
Noise
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When you communicate, you desire that the message received should be the same as the message sent. But it
is not always the same. Sometimes this is due to the presence of noise. Noise is defined as any unplanned
interference in the communication environment, which caused hindrance in the transmission of the message.
Noise can be classified as channel and semantic. Channel noise is any interference in the mechanics of the
medium used to send a message. Semantic noise is generated internally, resulting from errors in the message
itself.
GENERAL AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is part and parcel of one’s everyday life whether it is general or technical. Characteristics of
general and technical communication are as under:
General Communication
1.
Contains a general Message
2.
Informal in style and approach
3.
No set pattern of communication
4.
Mostly oral
5.
Not always for a specific audience
6.
Doesn’t involve the use of technical vocabulary or graphics
Technical Communication
1.
Contains a technical Message
2.
Mostly formal
3.
Follows a set pattern
4.
Both oral and written
5.
Always for specific audience
6.
Frequently involves jargon, graphics etc.
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LANGUAGE AS A TOOL OF COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is made possible with the help of language. It requires reasonably good command
over language. Language employs a combination of words to communicate ideas in a meaningful way. By
changing the word order in a sentence, you can change its meaning, and even make it meaningless.
Characteristics of Language
According to the ideas put forward by eminent linguists:
Language is Artificial
Language is created by people. It does not exist in isolation or outside the minds of people. It is created by
human as they need it. Every symbol is attached to a particular thought or thing, called a referent which is
created by humans. That’s why language is Artificial.
Language is Restricted
When we translate our thoughts into language, some meaning is lost in the process. No symbol or word can
transmit the exact reality. That is one reason you sometimes find yourself saying that you cannot find words to
express your feelings. This is because language is restricted. In other words, it has limitations.
Language is Abstract
Language is abstract as it represents generalized ideas of things or thoughts. The idea which the word
represents is different every time. A ‘table’ can be of different shapes and sizes, and still be called a table. This
happens because meanings get associated with symbols and users keep expanding the range of meanings.
Language is Arbitrary
There is no direct relationship between a word and the idea or object it represents because language keeps on
changing to include new concepts and words can attach a number of specific and arbitrary meanings.
Language is Creative
Language is very creative and it can create wonder. Every year number of words can be added; taken from
different languages through the following processes:
1.
Borrowing - taking over words from other languages like ‘alcohol’ form ‘Arabic’
2.
Constructing Portmanteau Words – words made by combining the sound and meaning of two different
words (netiquette = net + etiquette)
3.
Back Formation – where a word of one type, usually a noun is reduced to a word of another type,
usually a verb like ‘opt’ from ‘option’
Language is Repetitive
Any language has characteristic of repetition and redundancy. This may make or mar the communication.
Moreover excessive and unnecessary repetition may lead to verbosity or wordiness without contributing to
the meaning.
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Language is Recursive
Recursiveness is the characteristic of language which enables you to generate any number of sentences using
the same basic grammatical templates. It also allows you to express any idea, thought or feeling using the
same finite vocabulary.
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Human communication takes place at various levels
1.
Extrapersonal Communication
It is a communication between human beings and non human entities. This requires perfect coordination
between sender and receiver. When your pet dog comes to you wagging its tail; as soon as you return home is
an example of extrapersonal communication.
2.
Intrapersonal Communication
This takes place within the individual. For example when you “feel hot”, the information is sent to brain and
you may decide to “turn on the cooler”, responding the instructions sent from brain to hand. Here relevant
organ is sender, electrochemical impulse is message and brain is receiver. Next the brain assumes the role of
sender and sends the feedback that you should switch on the cooler. So this process can be termed as
intrapersonal communication.
3.
Interpersonal Communication
It is a sharing of information among people. It includes a few participants who are close to one another. Here
many sensory channels are used and immediate feedback can be obtained. Also, the roles of sender and
receiver keep alternating. Interpersonal communication can be formal and informal.
4.
Organizational Communication
Communication in an organization takes place at different levels. Since a large number of employees are
involved in several activities, the need to communicate becomes greater in an organization. This
communication can further be divided into:
Internal – operational
External – operational
Personal
5.
Mass Communication
There are several mass media such as journals, television, newspapers, internet which mediate such
communication to the large audience. Here audience is heterogeneous and anonymous with impersonal
approach. This type of communication is more persuasive in nature than any other form of communication
and requires utmost care on the part of sender.
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THE FLOW OF COMMUNICATION
The information flows in an organization both formally and informally in various directions.
1.
Downward Communication
Downward communication flows from a manager down the chain of command. When he informs, instructs, or
advises his subordinates, the communication flows in a downward pattern. It is used to convey routine
information, new policies or procedures, etc through memos, notices, interactions and so on.
2.
Upward Communication
When subordinates send reports to their superiors, the communication flows upward. This type of
communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs, colleagues and organization.
Managers rely on upward communication form making certain decisions or solving problems.
3.
Lateral or Horizontal Communication
This form of communication takes place among peer groups or hierarchically equivalent employees. Such
communication is often necessary to facilitate coordination, save time, and bridge the communication gap
among various departments.
4.
Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication
This flows in all directions and cuts across functions and levels in an organization. This process is quick and
efficient. When a sales manager communicates directly with VP (production), they set an example of diagonal
communication. The increased use of emails encourages cross-wise communication. There is no doubt that it
is quick and efficient.
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Communication Networks emerge out of combination of vertical and horizontal channels/
Formal Network Models
There are five communication networks that come into play in formal communication networks.
1.
The Chain Network represents vertical hierarchy in which communication can flow only upward or
downward.
2.
The Y Network is at multilevel hierarchy and a combination of horizontal and vertical flow of
communication.
3.
The wheel network refers to several subordinates reporting to a superior. This is a combination of
horizontal and diagonal flow of communication.
4.
The circle network allows employees to interact with adjacent members.
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5.
The all-channel network, which is least structure, enables each employee to communicate freely with
others.
Informal (grapevine) Network Models
Informal network is very active in almost every organization. It can broadly be classified in four patters.
1.
In the pattern of single strand, message is passed from one person to another through single strand.
2.
In the gossip network one person passes information to all others.
3.
In the probability type of network, each person tells others at random.
4.
The cluster refers to that flow of information in which some people tell a selected few of the others. It
is most popular pattern of grapevine communication.
THE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
Technical communication plays very important role in an organization. All the managerial and administrative
activities involve different levels and networks of communication.
The success of any organization is largely recognized by the quality and quantity of information flowing
through its personnel.
Technical communication can be divided into two parts: oral and written with due importance. The forms of
both are tabulated below:
Oral Forms
Face to face conversations
Meetings
Conferences
Instructions
GD
Video Conferences
Telephone Conversations
Seminars
Dictation
Presentations
Interviews
Written Forms
Memos
Emails
Notices
Newsletters
Research Papers
Bulletins
Letters
Faxes
Circulars
Reports
Proposals
In house journals
In brief communication enables employees to work together. It is a vehicle through which management
performs all its functions. Therefore its importance can never be ignored.
Possible Questions
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What is the process of communication? Explain communication cycle.
What is noise? Explain the difference between general and technical communication.
Describe language as a tool of communication.
What are levels of communication?
Explain the flow of communication.
Explain in brief the communication networks.
What is the importance of technical communication?
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2.
VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
Communication is effective only if it creates the desired impact on the receiver through verbal and non-verbal
mode. But many elements cause hindrances in its effectiveness.
What is Noise?
Any interference in the message sent and message received leads to the production of “noise”. Noise here
does not mean cacophony, but a break in the communication process. The term communication barrier is an
expansion of the concept noise. A noise is a break in the communication process.
CLASSIFICATION OF BARRIERS
Communication barriers can create many gaps in our written and spoken communications. They are:
1.
INTRAPERSONAL BARRIERS
Individuals are unique because of their idiosyncrasies. This is because of differences in experience, education,
value and personality. Each of us interprets the same information in different ways as our thinking varies.
Following are the causes lead to these interpersonal barriers:

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Wrong Assumptions
Many barriers stem from wrong assumptions. Wrong assumptions are made because the sender or the
receiver does not have adequate knowledge about each other’s background or entertains certain false
notions. A skilled communicator keeps these issues in mind to prevent them from becoming barriers.
Varied Perceptions
Varied perceptions lead to much confusion among the sender and receiver because individuals in an
organization also perceive situations in different ways. So the best way to overcome this barrier is to
step back and take a wider perspective of the issue.
Differing Background
No two personas have a similar background. Even siblings differ in their genetic inheritance. People
vary in terms of their education, culture, language, environment, age, sex, financial status etc. To
enhance your communication skills, it is necessary to know the background of your audience. You can
accordingly use that information to construct your message.
Wrong Inferences
Wrong inferences take place when there is a failure in understanding what actually exists and what
actually assumed. Inferences are more dramatic than facts, so they give more scope for gossip and
rumor to society. So inferences supported by facts are essential for all.
Impervious Categories
In general, we react positively to information only if it is in consonance with our own views and
attitudes. Conversely, when we receive information that does not conform to our personal views,
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habits and attitudes, or appears unfavorable to us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve. So
people who are very rigid in their opinions may face problems in communicating effectively.
Categorical Thinking
People who feel that they “know it all” are called pansophists. This type of thinking exists in people
who feel that they know everything about a particular subject, and therefore refuse to accept any
further information on that topic. This type of thinking can pose a major barrier, leading to a failure in
communication.
In brief the good communicators should
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Be non-judgmental
Be empathetic
Do not assume anything
Stick to the subject
Listen and above all paraphrase
2.
INTERPERSONAL BARRIERS
Intrapersonal barriers stem from an individual’s attitudes or habits, whereas interpersonal barriers occur due
to the inappropriate transaction of words between two or more people. Interpersonal barriers creep in as a
result of the limitations in the communications sills of encoder or decoder, or both.
The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:



Limited Vocabulary
An inadequate vocabulary can be a major hindrance in communication. Therefore, one should make
constant efforts to increase one’s vocabulary by regularly reading a variety of books and listening to
native speakers of the language.
Incongruity of verbal and nonverbal messages
Misinterpreted non-verbal communication acts as another barrier to effective information gathering.
Non verbal communication usually enhances and enlivens verbal communication. Non verbal cues
provide a deeper insight into the sender’s message. Physical appearance often serves as one of the
most important non-verbal cues. It can be improved by
 Dress according to the occasion
 Wear neat and clean cloths
 Choose an appropriate hairstyle
 Wear clean and polished shoes.
Emotional outbursts
Emotions are an integral part of our being, whether in business or personal encounters. By sharpening
self-awareness, intuition, and empathy, emotions can help in developing an environment highly
conducive to good communication. It is important to maintain one’s composure in all kinds of
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3.
communications. Viewing issues from different perspectives helps develop objectivity and rational
thinking, which in turn can eliminate many of the causes of hostility or defensiveness.
Communication selectivity
If you are the receiver in a communication process, and you pay attention only to a part of the
message, you are imposing a barrier known as communication selectivity. You do this because you are
interested only in that part of the message which may be of use to you. In such a situation, the sender
is not at fault. It is the receiver who breaks the flow of communication.
Cultural variations
This is one of the predominant factors in communication failure. To compete successfully in today’s
globalized business environment, we must overcome the communication inadequacy arising from
different languages and cultures.
Poor listening skills
A common obstacle to communication is poor listening habits. The various distractions that hinder
listening can be emotional disturbances, indifference, aggressiveness, and wandering attention.
Listening requires careful attention and accurate decoding of the signals received from the speaker so
as to improve listening skills.
Noise in the channel
Noise interferes greatly in the transmission of signals. Noise is any unwanted signal which acts as a
hindrance in the flow of communication. It is not necessarily limited to cacophony, but also occurs in
visual, audio-visual, written, physical or psychological forms. All these forms of noise communicate
extraneous matter which may allay the receiver’s interest in the message.
ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS
Communication barriers are not only limited to an individual or two people but exist in entire organizations.
Every organization has its own communication techniques and nurtures its own communication climate. In
organizations with many levels of communication, messages have a greater chance of being distorted. This
occurs due to poor listening, lack of concentration or a person’s tendency to leave out part of the message.
The main organizational barriers are enumerated below:
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Too many transfer stations
The more links there are in a communication chain, the greater are the chances of communication
failure.
Fear of superiors
In rigidly structured organizations, fear or awe of the superiors prevents subordinates from speaking
frankly. An employee may not be pleased with the way his boss works but is unable to put his point
across because of losing his boss’s goodwill. An open environment is conducive to increasing the
confidence and goodwill of a communicator.
Negative Tendencies
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Many organizations create work groups. Nevertheless, on some occasions, it is possible to have a
communication barrier due to confliction of ideas between members and non-members of a group.
This sometimes generates the negative mindset which can be avoided with open discussion.
Use of Inappropriate Media
Some of the common media used in organization are telephones, facsimile machines, emails, computer
presentation, teleconferencing, video conferencing. While choosing the medium to send messages
consider the following factors:
 Time
 Cost
 Type of message
 Intended audience
So usually a mix of media is best for effective communication.
Information Overload
One of the major problems faced by organizations today is the availability of huge amounts of data
which are difficult to channelize. Information overload brings fatigue, and disinterest. So quality
information should be given more important than quantity. Moreover screening of information would
reduce the burden of information.
Keeping mind the following measures one can improve upon verbal and non verbal communication:

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Create an open communication environment
Always keep the receiver in mind
Avoid having too many transfer stations
Do not communicate when you are emotionally disturbed
Be aware of diversity in culture, language etc.
Use appropriate non verbal cues
Select the most suitable medium
Analyze the feedback
______________________________________________________________________________
Possible Questions
1.
What are intrapersonal barriers?
2.
Describe interpersonal barriers.
3.
Explain organizational barriers.
______________________________________________________________________________
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3.
LISTENING SKILLS
Introduction
Communication includes four different skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. We must have good
command over all the skills so as to improve our communication. Listening is one of the neglected skills. We
listen to a lot but never carefully. It is rightly said by Hemingway that “I like to listen, I have learned a great
deal from listening carefully”.
Types of Listening
Following is the list of listening with brief description of each:
1.
Active Listening : It shows interest and encourages continued speaking
2.
Appreciative Listening : Listening to any piece that likes you to listen falls under this
3.
Attentive Listening : includes the listening with great concentration so as to learn and get something
4.
Biased Listening : It is listening to something through the filter of personal bias
5.
Casual Listening : is without showing much interest
6.
Comprehension & Content Listening : is to understand and learn something
7.
Critical & Evaluating Listening : is to evaluate, criticize or to pass the judgment on what someone says
8.
Deep Listening : aims to understand the deep or hidden meanings of spoken language
9.
Dialogue Listening : targets the understanding of meaning when two or more are communicating with
one another
10.
Discriminative Listening : is when one listens to for only some specific reason and not for anything else
11.
False Listening : shows that listener is pretending to listen and in real his attention is somewhere else
12.
Total Listening : includes the listening to with interest, attention and try to understand the deeper
meaning also
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ACTIVE LISTENING V/S PASSIVE LISTENING
In English language we often use two words – hearing and listening. Hearing is a physiological activity while
listening is a mental one. Hearing doesn’t require any conscious effort while listening requires great efforts
from the mind.
In brief, listening is very important part of communication and a means and active process of gathering
information.
Listening – as a process
Listening is a process of hearing, filtering, interpreting, responding, and remembering. Listening is a habit that
needs to be cultivated. Active listening is one in which the listener shows keen interest to listen to something.
During passive listening, the listener pretends as a good listener but in fact he listens to nothing. His attention
is always diverted and creates hurdle in listening process.
So listening is an active process for many reasons like:

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To gain information
To receive instruction
To hear complaint
To enjoy entertainment
To show respect
Active listening can also be identified by perceptive listening.
Passive Listening is little more than hearing. It is a listening to music, storytelling, television etc. People speak
at 100 to 175 words per minute but can listen intelligently at 600 to 800 WPM. Since only a part of our mind is
paying attention, it is easy to go into mind drift – thinking about other things while listening to someone. The
cure for this is “Active Listening” which involves listening with a purpose. It requires the receiver to hear the
various messages, understand the meaning and then verify the meaning by offering feedback.
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EMPATHETIC/ACTIVE/REFLECTIVE LISTENING
How to listen with empathy?
Empathetic listening is also called active or reflective listening. It has many advantages which are listed below:
Advantages
Empathetic listening is a way of listening and responding that improves mutual understanding. Listening enables the
listener to receive and interpret the speaker’s message so as to provide the response because response is an integral
part of listening process. It
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always builds trust and respect
enables to release the emotions
reduces the tensions
encourages the surfacing of information
helps in better understanding & concentration
strengthens the interpersonal communication
develops attentiveness towards speaker
increased the speaker’s self esteem
gains the speaker’s cooperation
builds teamwork
helps us to obtain the objective information
Guidelines for good empathetic listening
Following suggestions and guidelines would help you for better listening:
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Be attentive & interested & alert
Create positive atmosphere with non verbal behavior
Do not ask a lot of questions
Be critical of what speaker is saying and you understand
Motivate the speaker through your gestures and postures
Do not interrupt
Don’t give advice
Don’t teach
Give positive reactions
Provide undivided attention to speaker
Don’t give any judgment
Read the speaker
These are some of the points and observations which can make one a good listener.
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TRAITS OF A GOOD LISTENER
It is good to be a speaker but difficult to be a good listener. If listening is done carefully it can help us learn a
lot. Following are the traits of a good listener:
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Adequate hearing
Recognition of problems that affect listening
Relationship between listening and vocabulary
Judging well what is heard
Readiness to listen to others
Ability to discriminate among sounds and ideas
Ability to supply meanings to symbols
Evaluating medium and manner of speaker
Willingness to disregard prejudices
BARRIERS IN EFFECTIVE LISTENING
There are some barriers which hinder the effective listening. Thinking is the biggest obstacle in listening
process which diverts the listeners from what speaker is saying. The barrier are:
1.
Physical Barriers : Rigidity, prejudice, poor retention, premature evaluation, hurried conclusions,
impatience, status, incorrect articulation etc.
2.
Psychological Barriers : Ambiguity in thoughts, illusion, complexity, closed mind, cognitive dissonance
etc.
3.
Language Barriers : Ambiguous language, poor knowledge, excessive use of dialects, poor
pronunciation etc.
4.
Nonverbal Distractions : Improper gestures and postures, uncommon signs and symbols, eye contact
etc.
5.
Grandstanding : It is pretending of speaker that he knows everything and commit the mess
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE LISTENING
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Listening skill is not complex. It can be developed through following observations or tips:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Spend more time on listening than talking
Do not finish the sentences of others
Do not answer the questions with questions
BE aware of biases. Do not bring them in when listening
Never daydreams. Concentrate.
Let the speaker talk. Do not try to dominate the conversation or discussion
Provide feedback but let the speaker complete his talk or lecture
Be objective in analysis
Take brief notes
Be interested
The above tips are very much useful for improving listening skills because hearing is sensation, listening is
interpretation.
________________________________________________________
POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is listening? Explain the types of listening.
How do you differentiate active/passive listening?
Explain empathetic listening?
What are the main features of good listener?
what the barriers of effective listening?
Discuss the steps or tips to be considered or taken for effective listening?
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