HSC Core: Parenting and Caring
Katie G
1. Becoming Parents and Carers
Being a parent or carer is one of the most demanding jobs there is. Over 2.3 million Australians are providing
care for family members who are frail or aged or friends with a disability, illness or chronic condition. This
represents one in every 5 households. Of these, nearly 20% are primary care-givers supplying unpaid informal
support. There are many reasons for people to want to become parents these may include:
- Ego expansion- which means the new child gives the parents a greater sense of importance
- A sense of achievement- that they have fulfilled the need to complete their relationship and give a personal
sense of worth
-Conformity and status needs- as the parents will fit in with others of the same age group who have become
parents
- Love and affection- The need for love and affection which is an important and common reason for beginning
a family which confirms a bond of love between the parents and a need to share affection and love with their
offspring.
- Biological parents
Biological parents are the parents who produce and provide the genetic material for a child. This parenting
beings at the moment of conception, In-viro fertilisation or Artificial insemination and continues until the
parent is incapable of providing it any longer.
 Pregnancy
Is when a woman is carrying a foetus for a term of 40 weeks. This process can be aided scientifically through
processes such as IVF and GIFT or occur naturally. The foetus forms when a sperm finds and fertilises the
ovum in the fallopian tube. The cells are constantly dividing and changing as the zygote moves towards the
uterus. Meanwhile, the lining of the uterus is thickening to accept the new group of cells. The zygote embeds
itself in the uterus wall, usually 6 days after contraception. This process is called implantation. At about the
8th week of pregnancy the embryo becomes a foetus. This is when the foetal organs such as the heart and
kidneys, begin to work on their own. The delivery of the baby usually occurs between the 38th- 40th week of
pregnancy. When it is time for delivery the mother experiences contractions which she feels around her back
and front of her abdomen. As this occurs the cervix dilates and the foetus descends through the birth canal.
Alternately the baby may be born by caesarean section. This involves an incision being made in the
abdominal wall and into the uterus so that the baby can be removed.
- Planned
Planned pregnancies usually allow for better discussion and decision-making to occur between the parents.
This includes the logistics of raising a child and should encompass how the physical, social and emotional
needs of the child can be met. Parents with similar upbringings, cultures and values will find it easier to arrive
in parenting decisions. Planned pregnancies enable the parents to prepare for the change that the baby will
make to that relationship. They may spend time discussing what parenting styles they want to adopt, childcare arrangements they will make or discipline practices they will follow. In a planned pregnancy
consideration can also be given to the cost of raising a child and housing arrangements.
- Unplanned
Unplanned pregnancies can result because of many factors including poor knowledge of contraception,
contraceptive failure, and a feeling of “it won’t happen to me”. An unplanned pregnancy may be a very
difficult experience. Thoughts and feelings are often confused and it may be difficult to ask for help and
support. When an unplanned pregnancy occurs the mother may have to make the decision whether to keep the
baby, adopt it or terminate the pregnancy.
 IVF and GIFT
- IVF– Stands for In-viro fertilisation.
It is where the woman’s ovum is fertilised outside her body. The ovum and sperm are removed from the body
and added together in a fertilisation dish in a laboratory. The zygotes are then allowed to develop for 48 hrs
before implantation into the woman’s uterus. This method of conception was developed in Australia in the
1970s. It is usually performed when the woman is unable to conceive or is infertile. Reasons for use of the
IVF program may also include Fallopian tubes that are diseased or absent, Endometriosis that has resisted
treatment, Male infertility where the sperm count is low or there is low movement of sperm, Female produces
sperm antibodies, or history or genetic disposition to miscarriages or abnormal births.
There are four steps that occur in IVF:
- Stimulation of the ovary to produce several eggs for fertilisation
- Removal of eggs from ovary
- Fertilisation of egg in laboratory
- Embryo transfer. The embryo is placed in the uterus.
-GIFT- Stands for Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer.
It is another option for parents who are unable to conceive through intercourse. The egg and sperm are
transferred into the fallopian tube so that conception occurs inside the body. There is as little interference as
possible. This does not involve creating or subsequently destroying embryos.
-ZIFT- Stands for Zygote Intro-Fallopian Transfer.
It is similar to the GIFT process however, the ovum is fertilised in the laboratory instead of the fallopian
tubes. The zygote is placed in the fallopian tubes.
- Social parents
Social parents participate in the parenting of a child or children. They are not the biological parents who created the
child. They nurture a child through the formative years when for various reasons the biological parents are unable to.
Social parents may be adoptive, foster, step or surrogate.
 Adoption
Adoption is a legal procedure in which the natural parents' rights and obligations toward their children are terminated,
and the adoptive parents assume these rights and obligations. Once a child has been adopted, the natural or birth parents
are no longer responsible for their child; the obligations that they have toward their child, likewise, cease to exist.
There are three types of adoption:
1. Local adoption - Children born in Australia and are adopted by another Australian couple.
2. Inter-country adoption- Children born in an overseas country are given up by their biological parents for adoption and
an Australian adopts them.
3. Special needs adoption- Where a child with special needs such as blindness may be adopted.
Adoption can also occur when a family member has died leaving their children without parents. A blood relative may
assume the role of a parent so that the children have the opportunity to stay in contact with kin or blood relative.
 Fostering
Foster care provides individuals from 0-16 with a safe and stable home environment. It is used when a child’s biological
family is unable to provide for the care and protection of the child/ young person. In this circumstance the Department
of Community Services decide to place the child/ young person with a foster family. Most children are able to return to
their family, the aim is to reunite their family with the child. Children that require foster care are usually quite damaged
and they will exhibit signs of aggression and violent behaviours. It is a temporary situation that can last from a few
weeks to many years because the birth parents have not relinquished their parental rights.
There are three types of foster care:
1. Emergency crisis care – Children whose parents maybe involved in an accident and no care is available or are
arrested (overnight- 2 weeks)
2. Short term foster care – Child protection cases, parental breakdown, mum having a baby (up to 3 months)
3. Long term care – history of neglect, breakdown child is not safe in home (1 week to 18yrs).
 Step-parenting
Step-parenting occurs when a new relationship is formed, and one of the partners already has children. The new partner
becomes a step-parent to the other partner’s children. A blended family may have children from the new relationship as
well as stepchildren. The non-custodial parent has access to the child and pays an amount of money towards the child’s
upkeep.
Advantages may be that the children have at least one male and female role model in their life. The parents are also
more satisfied as they have a partner to contribute to the parenting decision. On the other hand, interpersonal
relationship may be strained, especially in the early stages as children may not be happy to share the parent. A conflict
in values may also arise if the new parent has different views on discipline ect.
 Surrogacy
It is when a woman gets pregnant on behalf of someone who herself cannot carry a pregnancy and have a baby. This is
may be due to a variety of factors. Some include the woman may be infertile and born without a uterus, has had a
hysterectomy, a gay couple wanting to become parents, A female is unable to fall pregnant due to illness. In any of these
cases, the individual who wants a child may approach others who can carry a child and request they do so for them. The
person that has the child for them is known as the surrogate mother. A surrogate mother is someone who gestates and
then gives birth to a child for another person, with the full intention of handing over the child over to that person after
birth.
There are many ways in which the child can be conceived:
- The male partner of an infertile couple impregnates the surrogate mother through natural or artificial insemination. The
surrogate then gives the custody of the child to the couple.
- The embryo created using the sperm and ovum of the couple is implanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother, who
again gives up the child at birth- vitro fertilization program (IVF)
-Examine what it means to be a parent, either biological or social, for both females and males
Biological parent
- Physically- both parents physically either produce the child or are responsible for well-being of child.
- Emotionally- strong bonds formed between parent and child
- Spiritually/ Social- the experience is very fulfilling for both parents
- Legally- responsibility to nurture and support an individual/s for many years or raise the child through the
processes of adopting, fostering, step-parenting and surrogacy
Social parents
- Legally- raise the child through the processes of adopting, fostering, step-parenting and surrogacy
- Physically- parents responsible for total well-being of child (food, clothing, shelter)
-Emotionally- bonding occurs overtime but can be just as strong as from biological parents
- Spiritual/Social- the desire to become parents does not waken just because people cannot produce children
biologically
Men & Women
There are many roles and relationships within a family unit. An important role is that of being a parent. This
role is challenging in today’s changing world. A role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a
person in a certain situation. Roles are an obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by
society. What is expected within a role may be governed by tradition or a set of rules, or it may not be clearly
defined and may change over time. Roles are how people develop socially acceptable behaviour that is
standardised by a group such as a family. Parents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional
provider for a child. They are expected to provide shelter, love, moral direction and socially acceptable
behaviour and more. Despite these common expectations of parents in many cases the roles expected of males
and females differs. The roles and relationships within families are always evolving. There will be different
emphasis placed on tasks for males and females in different cultures and religions and each individual family
as no two families are alike.
At the beginning of the 20th century in Australia the roles of husband and wife within the family were distinct.
Traditionally women were seen as the primary care giver and nurturer in families and men were seen as the
breadwinner, the decision maker and took on the disciplinary role. Although some women did work in paid
employment, this was mainly reserved for single women. When a women married it was expected that they
would leave work to look after the children, home and her husband. This expectation is still prevalent in some
cases today. These stereotypical views of gender-roles are more prevalent in low socio-economic groups and
the expectations are more strongly defined between men and women.
During the First World War, large numbers of women joined the workforce, filling the jobs vacated by the
men sent overseas. Women worked outside the home regardless of their married status. Most women had to
give up these jobs once the men returned and it was not until the Second world war that women were again
employed in large numbers in the workforce. During the 1960s women began to be more assertive. Gradually,
the role of women and attitudes towards them in the workforce changed. Instead of filling in for men, women
sought their own employment opportunities. As a result of this period in time the role of each parent today is
less clearly defined and differs between each family.
The expectation of women is changing even today and men are sharing the responsibility of care even more.
However there are still stereotypical ideas in society that females are more natural parents than males. This
idea often arises from the fact that the mother physically carries the baby and are therefore perceived to bond
more closely with the children. This concept is also emphasised by the fact that men often have trouble
adjusting to parenting because they often do not take an extremely active part in everyday care and nurture.
This common idea can often be seen through advertisement which portray the traditional roles of men and
woman in the home.
While many parents take on the traditional roles, there is more awareness of other possibilities and a move
towards sharing responsibilities. The fatherhood role today includes activities, duties and responsibilities
connected with sharing child rearing, as well as contributing financially to the family. Men can experience the
fathering role in many ways other than being the breadwinner. As attitudes change, we can recognise that
parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together.
- Examine the legal and social implications of birth technologies and social parenting
Birth technologies
Legal
- Must be a suitable candidate eg. Status
(criminal), health, financial status
- Must follow legal guidelines
- Check your legal rights and
responsibilities concerning the process
- Know your legal responsibilities
concerning the process
- Have legal representation
- Know laws
- Artificial Conception Act (1987) Donor
sperm is not considered father, if the
woman has no partner then the child has no
father. Law only concerns sperm/ova
donation. Law allows infertile couples to
have children. May be argued from a
religious standpoint.
Social
Negatives- Must look after yourself
- May have to ‘prove’ yourself to your friends & peer group
- May have family opposition
- Stress eg. Financial situation, emotional process
Positives-People who elect these technologies are motivated to make it
work
-Contributing to society by becoming parents
-May gain self esteem/confidence through becoming parents
-May become better mangers of own lives
Social parenting
Legal
Adoption - When the adopted child is taken from the
biological parent, the parent loses all right they had
with the child.
- The adopted child is given two birth certificates
one from the biological parents the other of the
social parents details.
- The Adoption Information Act 1990, requires the
consent from both the biological parent and child to
see or know each other.
Fostering - Foster parents do not have legal custody over the
child.
- They have the right to be given information about
the dependent.
Step
Step parent has no legal or financial obligations
Parenting unless they adopt the child.
Surrogacy Laws vary from state to state
- In most cases the surrogate mother has legal
rights over the child.
- NSW has no current legislation regarding
surrogacy
-NSW law states that the arrangement of surrogate
motherhood contract is neither prohibited nor
encouraged.
- In NSW, it is an offence to offer money for a
child under the Adoption of children Amendment
Act 1992.
- It is also illegal in NSW to transfer the
registration of the birth to the adopted mother in
surrogacy under the Births, deaths and Marriages
registration Act 1995
- Artificial Conception Act 1984- states that Where
a married woman acting as a surrogate conceives
by artificial insemination, with the consent of her
husband, the law conclusively presumes the
husband to be the father of the child. The biological
father has no right to have his name registered as
the father
Social
- Adoption severs the relationship
between the biological parent and their
child and at times the process of adoption
is surrounded by secrecy throughout their
life.
- Change of the care taking person for
infants and toddlers further affects the
course of their emotional development.
- When infants and young children find
themselves abandoned by the parent, they
not only suffer separation distress and
anxiety, but also setbacks in the quality
of their next attachments, which will be
less trustful.
- There may be conflict between the
biological parents and the surrogate
parents
- Conflict with other peoples values in
the community who believe that it
demeans the status of marriage and a
natural family
- Carer relationships
A carer assists individuals who are unable to satisfy their own needs. Each carer situation is unique. Carers
can be professionals, parents, partners, siblings, friends or children of any age. They may assist an individual
in tasks such as feeding, dressing, bathing, toileting, transportation, organisation of finances, emotional
support or administering medication. They may or may not live with the person they care for and may or may
not be employed. In Australia the majority of carers are relatives. Caring can be rewarding and provide
opportunities for personal growth and the development of skill. But it can also cause frustration and distress
and affect relationships.
 Voluntary
Statistically one in every five households provides care for family members or friends with a disability,
mental illness, chronic condition or who are frail and aged. Informal or voluntary carers provide the bulk of
the care in the community. Carers take on the role due to family responsibility, to provide better care than an
institution and because of emotional obligations. In some cases the cost of paid care may be too high and
voluntary care is necessary. 1 in 5 households provide care for family members or friends who are either
disables, have a mental illness, have a chronic illness or are frail aged. Take on role due to family
responsibility- emotional obligations.
 Paid
There are many types of paid carers. They include foster carers who are adults, direct carers employed by a
service or agency for instance nursing homes, hospitals and baby sitters. The majority of carers in the home
do receive and rely on a government pension, benefit or allowance to support themselves while caring fulltime. For most, this is their principle source of income. Includes foster carers, nursing homes, hospitals,
hostels, respite care, home nursing, teachers, child care workers, baby sitters. Rely on government
benefits/allowance to support themselves
Carer statistics
 70% of primary carers are female
 78% of primary carers are between 18-64 years of age
 40% of primary carers have been providing care for a decade or more
 69% of carers receive government allowances, this is their principal source of income.
-Discuss the variety of circumstances that might lead to an individual requiring care and assess the
implications for planned and unplanned circumstances
Whilst some events are planned, others are unplanned. When planned events occur the individual can plan for assisted
care and may even be able to choose who will care for them, when and what they will do. As a result the individual may
feel a sense of satisfaction or contentment with the role performed by the carer. When an event is unplanned, the
individual may be unable to ‘choose’. Individuals may feel they have little control over who provides the care, when the
care is provided and what the care entails.
Circumstances P or
U
Implications
Voluntar
y options
Paid options available
Considerations for
making decisions about
care
Working
parents,
educational
commitment
P
Dependents need care
during working hours and
school holidays.
Relatives
Friends
Long and family day
care Preschools, Before
and after school care
Cost, Reliability, Safety
availability, Hours,
Location, Learning
experiences, Atmosphere
Psychological
problems,
domestic
violence or
abuse
U
Permanent carers may
decide that they are unable
to cope with dependents in
the short term, or may be
considered unable to cope.
Friends
or
relatives
Short-term, foster care,
Barnardos Counsellors,
Substitute
Care Programs
Safety, Accessibility &
Appropriateness, Legal
issues e.g. age of consent
Cultural issues, Support
plan
Access issues
Bereavement
U
Dependent may no longer
have a carer.
Friends
or
relatives
DoCS, Adoption
Long-term
Fostering, Refuges
Safety, Accessibility &
Appropriateness, Legal
issues, Cultural issues,
Support plan
Acute sickness
U
Permanent carer may be
Friends
unable to care for
or
dependent for a shortperiod. relatives.
Paid live-in carer
Short-term placement
Safety, Accessibility to
normal" patterns of
interaction, Cost
Chronic injury
or illness
U
Permanent carer will
require long term help to
care for dependent & may
also require long- term care
for himself or herself.
Friends
or
relatives
Rehabilitation services
Home and community
care
Safety
Accessibility &
availability
Support for carer &
dependent
Social activity
or
appointments
P
Parent or carer is unable to
care for dependent for a
short period.
Friends
or
relatives
Baby-sitters Occasional
care
Safety, Cost
Accessibility &
availability
Elderly person
who is unable
to care for him
or herself
U
Suitable alternative care
needs to be organised to
suit the needs of the
individual.
Relatives
or
neighbou
rs
Alternative housing
Home and community
care Meals on wheels
Community transport
Cost, Availability, Social
contacts
Parent or carer
with a
dependent with
special needs
P
Temporary care for the
dependent may be needed
to give the parent or carer a
break.
Relatives
friends
Carer respite, Carer
Resource centres
Cost, Reliability,
Availability
Location, Safety,
Suitability
Investigate the significance of gender in carer relationships.
It often depends on the age of the child however generally speaking, gender is not/should not be an issue
Sometimes males need time to establish relationships/bonding with the dependent.
Females:
- Culturally, women are the nurturer’s in our society. They are primary caregivers because they physically
carry the baby or are perceived to be the ones who bond more closely with children.
- Some have more time/ resources.
- May have flexible working hours.
- May not be able to deal with the male dependents caring issues such as toileting.
Males:
- Often have trouble adjusting to parenting because they do not take an active enough part in everyday care
and nurture.
- Some still believe that it is ‘women’s work’ (culturally this may be strictly adhered to ie. Muslim families)
- Have physical strength
- May not be able to manage female caring issues, such as dressing, toileting.
2. Managing Parenting and Caring responsibilities
Preparations for becoming a parent or carer
 Physical – prenatal considerations for parent and child health
There are many ways individuals can prepare to become parents. Three to six months before conception both
parents should begin making preparations for parenting to give the child the best possible start. Both parents
should be as fit as possible, give up smoking and alcohol and both partners should also be checked for genital
or urinary tract infections. Women should check their immunity to rubella as this may cause damage to the
brain sight and hearing of the unborn baby and increase the risk of miscarriage and still birth.
When pregnant it is important for females to have a balanced diet with plenty of fresh fruit, vegetables,
cereals, dairy products, lean meat or alternatives. Extra folic acid is necessary to build the cells DNA,
deficiencies folic acid can increase the chances of spina bifida or other neural tube defects in the baby. They
should not consume foods that carry the organism listeria such as raw meat and soft cheeses. They should gain
knowledge about what prescriptive and non-prescriptive medicine can harm a developing embryo so they do
not consume it. It is important that the parents have regular visits to the doctor so the mother’s weight, urine
and blood pressure can be checked and the baby’s development and position monitored.
It is also important parents know what is involved in pregnancy, birth and life after childbirth. This will help
them make informed decisions and cope with pregnancy and parenthood. They should develop an
understanding of the diagnosis and treatment of childhood illness, injury or diseases. This knowledge is often
gained through antenatal courses. Regular exercise, including stretching will help the body to cope with the
extra demands being made on it before and during labour. While pregnant the mother should avoid contact
sports and other activities with risk of falling. Parents can also consider how and where the baby is born.
 Social changes parents and carers may have to make
After the birth of a baby, priorities change and usually an extensive social calendar is not as important as
spending time together as a family. However it does not mean the end of all social outings, though childfriendly outings will take priority. More planning is usually necessary, either to organise child care or prepare
the necessary equipment needed when a baby is taken out. The parent who cares for the child at home may
feel isolated as they are not stimulated by people of their own intellectual capacity during the day. They will
also miss the social contact with work colleagues and friends. Friends may also change with activities more
likely to involve other families with children. Most couples share the parenting responsibilities to allow each
other some time to go out and enjoy social, leisure and sporting activities. These should be negotiated before
the birth to prevent later problems. Caring my cause frustration and distress, and affect family relationships.
This Is because of the amount of time that the caring role demands. There may also be insufficient time
available for social relationships associated with employment and leisure activities. It is important that carers
maintain social contact with people other than the dependant or they may feel socially isolated.
 Emotional preparations for the new relationships
Life changes after the birth of a child. Family members can experience extra stress, especially if there are
problems between the partners or financial issues. For a biological mother, hormone levels will impact on her
ability to cope with new demands and make the expectant mother moody. Fatigue and nausea may also cause
irritability and depression. For the father, having a new baby can be overwhelming. Having a partner who is
struggling with her emotions will also require dedication and support on the part of the father. The father may
feel neglected as the mother receives all the attention.
Towards the end of a pregnancy the mother may feel large and unattractive, reducing self-esteem. Anxiety
about the birth and the ability to cope and concerns about the baby’s health are al normal parts of pregnancy.
Siblings can also feel neglected, so parents need to include them in pregnancy. They may feel jealous and
insecure about sharing their parents with the new baby and will need reassurance. It is important for parents to
spend time with them after the birth to explain the new family situation and assist older children to adjust to
the new relationships. There may also be concerns when the baby is born regarding what is wrong when he or
she seems unsettled and concerned that the child’s development is not normal. Usually the pregnancy and new
baby affect the extended family positively, bringing them closer together. The extended family often offer
advice and support to the parent-to-be. Caring for someone can be emotionally satisfying, and provide
opportunity for personal growth and development.
 Economic
The costs of a baby vary widely, depending on the child’s health and the parents wants.
There will be medical expenses such as the medical checkups. Maternity clothes, essential equipment, and
clothing for the new baby are necessary. Food costs remain low initially however if the baby is bottle fed this
increases cost. As solid foods are introduced costs rise. As the baby gets older babysitters may be necessary.
Families have to decide whether or not either parent will take extended maternity or parental leave. Assessing
the financial situation and devising a budget ensures that a suitable work and care arrangement is chosen.
Change may involve going from a dual income to a single income.
Factors influencing resource management in the caring relationship
Resources are those things we use to achieve our goals. They may be human or non-human. Resource
management describes how resources can be chosen and used in order to make the most of what we have an
of course to satisfy our needs.
 Dependents affected by the caring relationship
When a parent or carer takes on a new caring relationship this can affect other dependents. The affect on the
dependents will vary according to age, skills, capabilities and special needs.
Parents- When a new baby enters a family, there may be some jealousy felt by siblings. Initially their mother
may be in hospital for a period of time and this unavoidable separation changes the children’s routeings. An
older child may be anxious and act aggressively towards the baby. Some children hide their feelings and
suffer nightmares, or revert to immature behaviour for their age. It is important for children to feel part of the
family and involved with the new arrival.
Carers- If members of a family are caring for an ill or dependent person, they may have less time available for
children in their immediate family. Children may feel resentful that their parent or sibling is caring for another
person. If the carer brings the dependant to stay in the family home, as is the case with foster children or an
elderly person who requires constant care, the child not only has to learn to share their time with their parents,
but also their home.
- Age
- The age of the dependants determines the effect that caring for another will have.
- There is no ideal age gap between siblings. A younger child will have an older sibling
to play with, while the older child will have someone they can be partly responsible for.
- No matter what the age, jealousy or resentment may occur.
When a person being cared for is living with a family, they provide more role models in
the household and more opportunity to develop interpersonal relationships and love.
- The age gap between the parents and the child or the dependant will affect their
relationship. Older parents may have less energy when parenting and caring, while
younger parents may have fewer financial resources and life skills.
The skills and capabilities of the dependants depend on their age and level of
- Skills
development. Dependants who have developed skills to prepare meals and assist in
- Capabilities
household tasks will be of benefit to the family. Communication skills are important.
- Special needs - For example a newborn baby would require different care to a teenager, adult or
individuals with a learning difficulty.
- Some children have a temporary or permanent physical or mental disability, and thus
special needs.
- It is estimated that 1 in 5 children have special needs at some time in their childhood.
This can range from severe developmental problems which could be permanent, to a
minor speech difficulty that responds to treatment in a few months.
- Most parents experience shock, disbelief and guilt on the diagnosis of a disability.
These feelings may be short-term or long-term. They will have to seek additional
support, specialist help or counselling for this dependent. This all takes time and it will
be more difficult if they are already caring for a person with a disability.
 Resources
Decisions have to be made about which resources to use or allocate, and which ones to conserve or
interchange with other resources.
- Time
- Energy
- Finances
- Housing
- Everyone has the same amount of time available each day. The tasks that are
accomplished in that time will depend on values, goals and other resources available.
- Time is likely to be limited for a carer with dependents.
- A parent/carer may have to remain at home all day. This may make them feel as though
they have not achieved anything significant.
- The division of labour can be discussed.
- Dependants have greater demands placed on their energy.
- They may feel physically drained.
- Management of the carer’s energy will be necessary to prevent fatigue.
- Maximum use of energy can often be obtained using a combination of human and nonhuman resources.
- Many government benefits are available to parents and carers (e.g. Family tax benefit,
Carers Payment).
- Families can receive payments such as the Family Tax Benefit, to help with the cost of
raising children, as well as the Child Care benefit, which reduces the cost of child care.
- Can reduce mortgage payments while parent is on maternity leave.
- Strategies include saving in advance, taking out a loan, applying for benefits, budgeting.
- Full time carers of an adult or child with a disability chronic illness or who is frail aged,
receive a carer payment, a pharmaceutical allowance payment and health care cards.
- Housing is a basic need.
- Location may need to change in proximity to school and transport.
- More space may be needed during the expanding stage of the life cycle. Parents/carers
and dependents need room for sleep and play. Families should consider housing location
with regard to transport, parks, child-care facilities, medical facilities, distance from family
and friends and location of schooling and employment.
- A house may be too big or too small to meet the needs of the individual.
- Housing may not be suitable for the care of individuals who have special needs. E.g if an
elderly family member has a stroke and requires special care, he or she may need to move
to a nursing home where there will be trained carers present 24 hrs a day. Sometimes a
home needs modification to cater for the dependant. A carer may need to substitute stairs
with ramps or install an inclination (chair that moves up and down stairs) to enable easy
access to all areas in the home. In the bathroom handrails may be needed to help with
showering or bathing.
- Housing may also depend on the overall cost. The family may rent or purchase a home
depending on their income and the amount they have available for a deposit. The type of
accommodation determines the cost of housing for example a unit is likely to be cheaper
than a single dwelling bought in a similar area. The location of the housing also determines
the overall cost. Ocean views increase the cost of housing while country areas are usually
less expensive than a large city.

Access to services
- Access to services will influence resources management in the caring relationship.
- Individuals vary in their ability to access resources.
- There are many community and government groups and services available to parents and carers. However,
many families are unaware of these.
- When leaving the home to access service, parents and carers have to make arrangements for the dependent.
This may mean having a babysitter or relative look after the dependant while the carer visits the service, or
organising strollers, car capsules, or transport with wheelchair access.
- With dependants it is not simply a matter of walking out the door. Equipment such as changes of clothes,
nappies and baby bottles may have to be prepared for the trip. This may impose on other resources such as
time, energy and money.
- Some remote areas do not have the same parenting and caring services available as do larger towns and
cities. It may be necessary for some families to relocate their housing either temporarily or permanently while
seeking assistance.
Examine how effective resource management impacts on parenting and caring and propose strategies for
parents and carers in different situations.
Housing Age Special Needs
Finances Access to services Time Energy Skills + Capabilities
3. Parenting and Caring relationships
-Roles in parenting and caring
A role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a person in a certain situation. Roles are an
obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by society. Roles are how people develop
socially acceptable behaviour that is standardised by a group such as a family.
 Individuals and groups who adopt roles
There are many individuals and groups who take on responsibility for parenting and caring. In their first few
months of life, babies become attached to the people who care for them. Over time, bonds develop with a
carer who is not a member of the immediate family. The aged, ill or disabled may require the service of
groups to assist them if they cannot look after themselves or their family is unable to support them. Those
who adopt parenting and caring roles vary greatly in Australia, including parents, grandparents, relatives,
teachers, paid carers, and significant others such as friends, doctors and social workers.
 Parent/s including foster, adoptive, and non-custodial
Parents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional provider for a child. They are expected to
provide shelter, love, moral direction, socially acceptable behaviour and much more.
Foster carers meet the needs of a child who is placed in their care. Legally, the foster carer maintain the daily
responsibilities of the child, while the long-term welfare of the child remains with the state government. The
child may have suffered physical, social or emotional problems and will need extra love and care. Foster
parents must be dedicated, and should offer affection, flexibility and open communication.
Adoptive parents take on the legal rights and responsibilities for a child. It is a lifelong commitment to the
child.
When the parents divorce, the non-custodial parent usually has to provide the maintenance and come to an
arrangement regarding their access to children. The non-custodial parent often has the responsibility of the
child on weekends. It is usually the father who is the non-custodial parent, but this is slowly changing.
- Investigate the impact each group may have on the individual for whom they care
Grandparents
- Positive Impacts:
- Develop bonds with children, they have flexible hours, they can teach
the child about family history and cultural values , provide physical,
economic and emotional support, child care alternative, have a special
role in the life of the child. Parents feel safe and secure knowing the
child is in the hands of someone they trust. They can trust them to
discipline and pass on family values while in their care.
- Help with feeding and playing with babies. Help with child care.
Extended family offers respite care, Parents get energy renewal, assists
in socialisation, wider range of significant others, they act as a role
model, provide meals, reinforce family values and culture, play an
important role in the transmission of culture and the family’s value
system.
- Older brothers and sisters are role models for each successively
younger child. The imitation of role models is vital in influencing the
social and psychological development of children.
Teachers - Provide a stable role model, Aid in the development of children’s
social skills, Promote educational values
- Teachers are legally responsible for the welfare of the child whilst they
are at school
- Influence child’s behaviour by the consistent application of
expectations of behaviour and educational standards
- Child care workers take on daily responsibilities. Other carers
- Paid
including nurses, physiotherapists etc take are of the disabled and
carers
chronically ill.
- Allow play experience, components in physical, social and
psychological development.
- They play a large role in the socialisation of children
- Self play and directed play with other children of the same age offers
the child skills in discipline and communication
- It is important that when parents select a paid carer for the child that
the carer has similar values and expectations of the child’s behaviour..
Significan - Doctors care for health, social workers help with behavioural
problems, marriage issues and finding jobs, neighbours and friends offer
t others
support (emotional and baby sitting). They must be trusted and
e.g
respected so that in future years the child will go to them for advice.
doctors,
- Ensure health and wellbeing, provide safety and security, escape for
social
the child.
workers,
neighbou - Neighbours and friends, also impact on child-rearing. E.g if
neighbour’s child has fewer restrictions, then the more closely
rs and
supervised children will feel their parents are too harsh. This will also
friends.
influence parenting decisions.
- Friends will be important during adolescents as they begin to question
the values and culture that has been passed on by family. Adolescents
accept or reject the behaviour and standards of the peers around them.
Relatives
including
siblings
Negative Impacts:
- Can add stress and
unwanted criticism. Less
energy and mobility, they
may lead an independent
lives with no time, stress
and strain on the family
relationship by perhaps
offering unwelcome advice
- Younger children may be
jealous of the new baby,
may give unwanted advice.
- Older brothers or sisters
may sometimes feel
responsible for their
siblings.
- Parents may have
different educational
values to teacher.
- Child may become
attached to carer, loss of
parenting roles.
- Conflicting expectations
can lead to confusion for
the child as they strive to
please the adults in their
life
- May step over the
boundary, always there.

Role expectations of parents and carers
Society holds expectations for both men and women in the parenting and caring role. The role that each
parent or carer must fulfil include:
- Providing basic needs
- Establishing family goals and moral values
- Providing an income and financial security
- Creating a nurturing, loving and understanding home environment
- Encouraging the development of skills and abilities of dependants
- Recognising individuality and developing responsibility in the child
- Demonstrating reasonable discipline measures upon children and dependants
- Sharing duties, obligations and family management
- Enjoying and sharing in children and dependants’ activities
- Providing positive role models
Critically analyse expectations of males and females in parenting and caring roles in a changing society.
There are many roles and relationships within a family unit. An important role is that of being a parent. This
role is challenging in today’s changing world. A role is a pattern of social behaviour that is expected of a
person in a certain situation. Roles are an obligation that a person needs to meet to fulfil a task as seen by
society. What is expected within a role may be governed by tradition or a set of rules, or it may not be clearly
defined and may change over time. Roles are how people develop socially acceptable behaviour that is
standardised by a group such as a family. Parents adopt the role of being the economic, social and emotional
provider for a child. They are expected to provide shelter, love, moral direction and socially acceptable
behaviour and more. Despite these common expectations of parents in many cases the roles expected of males
and females differs. The roles and relationships within families are always evolving. There will be different
emphasis placed on tasks for males and females in different cultures and religions and each individual family
as no two families are alike.
At the beginning of the 20th century in Australia the roles of husband and wife within the family were distinct.
Traditionally women were seen as the primary care giver and nurturer in families and men were seen as the
breadwinner, the decision maker and took on the disciplinary role. Although some women did work in paid
employment, this was mainly reserved for single women. When a women married it was expected that they
would leave work to look after the children, home and her husband. This expectation is still prevalent in some
cases today. These stereotypical views of gender-roles are more prevalent in low socio-economic groups and
the expectations are more strongly defined between men and women.
During the First World War, large numbers of women joined the workforce, filling the jobs vacated by the
men sent overseas. Women worked outside the home regardless of their married status. Most women had to
give up these jobs once the men returned and it was not until the Second world war that women were again
employed in large numbers in the workforce. During the 1960s women began to be more assertive. Gradually,
the role of women and attitudes towards them in the workforce changed. Instead of filling in for men, women
sought their own employment opportunities. As a result of this period in time the role of each parent today is
less clearly defined and differs between each family.
The expectation of women is changing even today and men are sharing the responsibility of care even more.
However there are still stereotypical ideas in society that females are more natural parents than males. This
idea often arises from the fact that the mother physically carries the baby and are therefore perceived to bond
more closely with the children. This concept is also emphasised by the fact that men often have trouble
adjusting to parenting because they often do not take an extremely active part in everyday care and nurture.
This common idea can often be seen through advertisement which portray the traditional roles of men and
woman in the home.
While many parents take on the traditional roles, there is more awareness of other possibilities and a move
towards sharing responsibilities. The fatherhood role today includes activities, duties and responsibilities
connected with sharing child rearing, as well as contributing financially to the family. Men can experience the
fathering role in many ways other than being the breadwinner. As attitudes change, we can recognise that
parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together.
- Factors influencing parenting and caring relationships
There are many factors that influence the decisions made by parents and carers. Being responsible for a child
or dependent is a life-altering, time-consuming but rewarding experience. Parents and carers make decisions
and bring up their children and dependents according to their beliefs and life experiences.
Media Relationships (the nature of)
Gender Age Socioeconomic status
Style of Parenting Culture and Religion Education Needs (special) Experience (previous/own)
- Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships.
This may be a determining factor as to how well the role of parenting/caring is carried out due to
Age
experience. A teenage parent is still growing and developing and they have experienced less of a life than
adults. They do not have the same knowledge and skills, career or financial security. On the other hand
they may be more energetic and enthusiastic as parents to begin with. The older the parent the greater the
chance of them being financially stable and they greater experience they possess. However it may mean
that they are less able to deal with the noise and energy levels of active babies and toddlers. Many people
may decide to have their child later as they are a long-term commitment and the couple may wish to
travel, establish their home, career and relationship first before commencing the change of lifestyle a baby
would bring. Some women, as they get older, feat that their fertility is diminishing and may decide to be a
sole parent. However the risk of complications during pregnancy increases with age. The age of the
parents may affect the types of values taught to the children
Culture
and
religion
Educati
on
The majority of primary carers are middle-aged women. For young people their caring role can have
positive effects such as developing skills and building strong relationships, but these are likely to be
outweighed by the negative short-and long terms effects on their health and wellbeing.
Majority of primary carers are middle aged women. Young carers receive little recognition, understanding
and support from the community.
There are often differences in child-rearing methods from culture to culture. In western cultures such as in
Australia, the adult parents nurture children. However, in many cultures including Aboriginal, Polynesian
and Jamaican, siblings have the same responsibilities for child care as do the mother and father. In other
cultures the carer is expected to take on the role of caring for an elderly parent. The commitment of a
family to a religious group may affect the lifestyle of the family. Religious or spiritual groups provide a
set of rules and behaviours, special times for worship and festivals, they may even dictate the necessary
dress and diet of the family. The principles of the family may be guided by the religion e.g attitudes
towards sexual relations, gender roles and reading materials. Parenting decisions may also be influenced
by religion e.g what educational institution they send their child to. However conflict can occur if the
parents hold onto strict traditions and values and the child is conforming to the Australian culture. A
person from one culture/religion caring for a person from another culture/religion can find it difficult as
they may have different expectations and standards. Will reflect in the way parents bring up their children
and carers look after others.
Our families are the first people who teach us about life. The education system that a child experiences
can affect his or her views on life as well as values and beliefs. Education is more than just traditional
subjects it is designed to influence the child’s choices and lifestyle now and in the future. An individuals
level of education may influence the type of relationship that is developed with dependents. Generally,
those with higher levels of education tend to research parenting techniques. This can assist their parenting
role and relationship although excessive information may serve to confuse the parent. The education of
the parent may help with parental decisions such as whether or not television shows such as ‘The
Simpsons’ should be censored, or suitable books to read to the child. The adults education may also
influence the education they expose their child to for example if they did not attend pre-school they may
not feel this is important for their children. Parents and carers with more education tend to be able to
access more services, and therefore have more resources available to them. The parent’s value of
Gender
Previou
s
experie
nces/
own
upbring
ing
Socioec
onomic
status
Media
education influences their goals for their children’s education and how important a child perceives
education to be. For example if the parent went to a private school they may enroll their children in the
same or a similar school when the children are born.
The gender of the parent or carer can significantly influence the relationship the individual ahs with the
child or the person being cared for and significantly affects the way the child is raised. Traditionally,
women were seen as the primary caregiver in families. However, this is changing and men are sharing the
responsibility of care for the dependents. However in lower socioeconomic status gender roles are more
strongly defined e.g the father as the disciplinarian and the mother as the nurturer. Similar expectations
are placed on children where gender is concerned e.g rough activities boys and gentle activities for girls.
Children’s concepts of gender roles develop from their own experiences and observations. Children who
grow up in households where the mother and father work get a sense that both parents are capable of
bringing in an income, and are most likely to share domestic duties.
Positive relationships with parents in early childhood help to establish gender identity. A father who is
confident with his own masculinity will show this and play dolls and trucks with both his sons and
daughters. This will show his nurturing side as well as offer a strong male identity. As attitudes change,
we can recognise that parenting and caring is something that both males and females can pursue together
Parent and carer’s previous experiences and their own upbringing influence how they themselves parent.
Parents have ideas about what parenthood involves and their own capabilities. These ideas are often based
on observations of other parents and these are supplemented with other facts such as culture, the media
and gender. This may lead to often unrealistic or impractical expectations. Parents must ensure that their
goals in parenting are realistic to ensure success. The majority of parents who abuse their children were
abused, neglected or molested in their own childhood. If a dependent’s experience is that the female has
always undertaken the caring responsibility then, as they become adults, they will expect this to happen.
Every learning experience in ones life gives life meaning and direction. If an experience is pleasurable
you will want to repeat it. If an experience was unpleasant you would try to avoid it. Things that you take
with you from your childhood include goals, values beliefs, standards e.g if parents value education, you
are likely to share this value, the manner in which discipline was enforced, creative solutions to parenting
problems, parenting styles, type of relationship developed with the child.
Family income determines the resources utilized for maintaining relationships. The more money
available, the greater the variety of choices the parents have available to them such as pre-school, music
lessons or home help. Families who are socioeconomically disadvantaged usually have limited choices
(opportunities and resources). These activities are not essential and children may not be advantaged by a
lot of material goods. These things, however can allow socialisation to develop and the parent to spend
more time with the child. For parents with low incomes, there are less expensive ways for their children to
develop their socialisation skills and relationship e.g community playgrounds, swimming pool and
children’s parties.
Socioeconomic status is often very significant for carers as those on lower incomes usually cannot afford
to pay for care and therefore have to take on the role of carer themselves. This may mean that they cannot
earn an income and must rely on government payments and benefits. People’s type of occupation
influences their relationship with their dependent. The no. of hours parents work, their type of work and
the activity level of their job, all determine how much time and energy is available to spend with the
child.
Parents may not wish their children to be influences by the behaviour portrayed in the media. Trying to
produce images of parenting that are often shown in the media is not realistic and trying to reproduce
them may cause tension in relationships. Material goods are often advertised so as to make the parent or
child think they must have them. In order to meet the needs of children parents are persuaded to purchase
an array of goods, ranging from nappies to soft drink. The media can be used in a positive way to
enhance parenting experiences. Children can watch television with their parents and discuss the parenting
styles portrayed. There are licensing codes that ensure television shows are shown at the appropriate time
of the day. Shows with adult themes or violence are shown after 8:30pm when the majority of children are
not watching television. Television shows are also given ratings. The parent can then gauge if they wish
their child to watch the televisions show or movie. The media can also be a barrier to communication in
families e.g the television occupies the children and they do not communicate with parents.
Nature
of
relation
ship
It can be positive and negative. Positive can be valuable information obtained from documentaries current
affairs etc. Media can give updates on educational material for parents. Negative- stereotypes programs
portray. Programs such as Home and away portray family relationships very differently to the norm.
Children have access to the internet but don’t have the maturity to cope with some of the sites. Media can
be a learning tool for children e.g electronic games and computer skills but they must be monitored. What
parents/carers and children view in the media can influence their value formation.
The nature of the relationship between the parent or carer and dependent influences the development of
the bond that develops. While some parents fall in love with the baby straight away, some parents may
suffer the baby blues and take a while to bond with the baby and a small percentage suffer from post-natal
depression. This is a serious condition requiring help from a doctor and often a support group. The
emotional development of the child will be affected by the extent to which infants form bonds of
affection. Contact through skin, eyes, familiar smells and sounds strengthen the baby’s feelings of
comfort and security. These feelings can be enhanced through breastfeeding, talking to or cuddling the
baby. Love is a basic need of every individual, and parents who accept their children will truly love them.
They will offer continuous and undemanding love that will assist with the child’s emotional and social
development. Children who are unloved or have parents who show little interest in them may feel
insecure unhappy, fail to thrive physically or have difficulty dealing with their emotions. They may be
unable to love or form long-lasting bonds of affection.
The nature of the relationship is particularly important in the caring role. For example, it can be very
difficult for an adult son to take on the role of caring for a father from whom he has felt distanced
emotionally for most of his life. Similarly an adult son may feel awkward having to bathe, feed and toilet
his elderly mother.
- Relationship between parents and children are influenced by:
1. family structure e.g blended extended etc.
2. The age of the children- child dependent, teenager- independent
3. Age differences between the parents and child. Young parents may want to be friend not the parent.
4. Parenting style used.
5. The amount of bonding that occurs.
 Styles of parenting
& - Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships
Authoritarian
Democratic
Permissive/
indulgent
Negligent
Summary
- Value obedience
- Either parent makes the decision
without consultation with children.
- If the mother controls the family it
is said to be matriarchal, if the father
controls the family it is said to be
patriarchal.
- All family members have a say in
decision making.
- Children are encouraged to
participate in decision making and
accept consequences and
responsibility for their own
behaviour.
- Lack of communication between
family members
- Parents place few demands and
limits on children
- Parents allow children to do what
they like
- Child’s behaviour is tolerated
- Parents indulge children in material
possessions to keep the child placate.
- Parents allow the child to make
demands and respond to these.
- Rarely give instruction and when
they do, they are not concerned if
they are not obeyed
- Based on theory that freedom
develops character and domineering
parents produce neurotic children
- Parents do not often meet the needs
of the children socially, physically,
emotionally, culturally or spiritually
resulting in neglect. -Often this style
is a result of experiences/own
upbringing and is cyclical.
- Parent may be over critical of the
child and so do not meet emotional
needs
Positive/advantages
- Parents can manage
children’s behaviour
- Controlled situation
- Decisions can be made
quickly and efficiently.
- Child learns the values
being taught.
- Children input in the
family is valued
-Development of values.
- Everybody’s rights are
considered.
- Children are valued as a
member of the family
- Win- win situation in
decision making
- Limited stress as there are
few rules
Negative/ disadvantages
- Children do not have a say
on their own future
- Children do not develop
independence in decision
making.
- No advantages to the
children except they may
be placed with a family
that promotes stability.
- Children are in danger or
being abused or neglected.
- Limited access to resource
to modify the behaviour or
parenting style.
- Children’s well being
suffers; they develop low
self-esteem, poor identity
and feeling of failure.
- Children may be removed
from family unit
- There may be conflict in
decisions depending on
opinion.
- Rules and consequences,
may be difficult in crisis
situations
- Children may not receive
resources needed
- Lacks a sense of belonging
and trust
- When parents enforce rules
children will not accept as
they do not value them.
- Can be inconsistent in the
management of family life
-Children behave incorrectly.
- Because misbehaviour is
often ignored children often
have difficulty in social
settings.
- Children taught not to value
conformity.
 Special needs
All parents hope that their child is healthy, but this is not always the case. A child with special needs is not
rare and they need more attention and care. There are many conditions that may result in special needs. These
include chronic conditions such as asthma, learning disorders such as dyslexia, a developmental disorder such
as autism; a physical disorder such as visual impairment or the child may be advanced for their years, as in a
gifted child.
Special needs may include dietary requirements, exercise regimes, dressing of wounds, administering of
medications, assistance with showering, toileting or other personal hygiene procedures. For children it may
mean home schooling.
The World Health Organisation defines disability as a ‘restriction or lack (resulting from an impairment) of
ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being. Early
identification of special needs is very important. Many disabilities can be diagnosed before birth through
ultrasound, nuchal translucency or amniocentesis (down syndrome). Other special needs may go unnoticed for
many years.
- Illness
- Disability
- Examine each influence to determine its effect on parenting and caring relationships
- Will require extra time, money, effort and attention from the parent or carer.
- Child or those cared for can feel dependant and can therefore be frustrated
- It may cause a carer or parent to become overprotected and can cause conflict.
- An parent with special needs may not be able to spend as much time with their children
as they may feel sick or tired most of the time
- Other children in the family without special needs may feel neglected
- Caring for someone with special needs can be more demanding and can have more of a
negative affect on the carer.
-Gifted and talented children need special attention so that they reach their full potential.
- Disabilities may affect relationships by creating barriers to communication and
autonomy.
- Parents and carers may need to become more organised planning, more flexible.

- Family
- Work
- Sport/
leisure
- Other
Multiple role expectations as a result of commitments to:
Parenting and caring represents a constant struggle for them to meet their own needs and those of their
dependents. After taking on a caring role most parents/carers find they have to re-prioritise their tasks
to accommodate their new role as a caregiver. It may be necessary to lower standards in
housekeeping, or decrease working hours to meet the growing demands of the family.
Parents and carers are often trying to balance their role in the family with their role as a member of the
paid workforce. The demands on the individual to work harder and longer hours in order to progress in
the workplace have taken a toll on family life. Many children are placed in care so that both parents
are able to earn a wage (dual career family) to improve their family’s standard of living. After having
a child, many families opt to have the mother work reduced hrs or not at all to cater for the needs of the
children. Paternity leave is becoming more popular. Part-time or casual work is also popular with
mothers who have the opportunity to gain money and contribute financially to the household as well as
improve their self-esteem.
Sport/leisure time is important to individuals to improve their wellbeing and increase social contacts.
It is difficult to balance the multiple roles expected of parents but it is important to make time to relax
and participate in something you enjoy. This will decrease stress levels and improve interaction within
the family because there is time to let off steam without all the other pressing commitments. The
complexity of roles can lead to conflict for example a young carer who joins a basketball team could
have difficulty attending training because of commitments to a disabled parent.
Commitment to community groups such as church youth groups, a group of girl guides, a learning
disability group, etc may also affect the parenting and caring relationship.
Daily commitments of male and females in 1997 according to ABS
Time spent on
domestic
duties
Employment
Caring for
related activities children
Men: 2hrs 30
mins
Men 9hrs
Women: 3 hrs
46min
Women: 7hrs
30 mins
Helping, doing
favours for
family and
friends
Men: 1hr 36
min
Men: 50% less
than 30 min, 7%
spent 2 hrs or
more
Women: 27% less Women: 1 hr,
than 30m, 24% 2 18 min
hrs or more
Free time
Leisure time
Men: 5hr 28
min
Men: 3 hr 1 min
Women 5hr
4m
Women: 2hr 39
min
According to the information in the survey from ABS men engage in more passive leisure activities such as
watching television and playing video or computer games which are more time consuming, and women spent
more time engaging in less passive activities such as handiwork and crafts. Because of the time it takes to set
up an activity such as handiwork and crafts and the difficulty finding a space and time where the children are
not touching things may make it more difficult to engage in these activities. Men can engage in passive leisure
with children, therefore making it easier.
- Explore the role they play when developing a positive relationship in:
- Caring for someone else
- Being cared for
- Analyse a range of family weekly schedules in order to determine the extent of commitment that parenting
and caring requires.
- Examine a number of case studies to determine how parents and carers manage their multiple roles.
Propose strategies to assist parents and carers with this management.
- Rights and responsibilities in parenting and caring
 Rights
The United Nations has developed a Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
- Parents and carers
Rights of parents/carers
Direct and control the upbringing of the children
with reasonable limits. To make decisions
regarding the daily care, discipline and control of
their dependents.
Enhance children’s development through
appropriate and effective guidance of behaviour
Provision of suitable education
Provision of social interaction
How can parents/carers rights be supported
Through parent/carer education programs, advice from
children’s centres, discussion with teachers to negotiate
management of children
Parent education programs, discussion with counsellors,
assistance from community organisations
Information provided in regard to the facilities available,
financial assistance to provide for educational needs
Allowing parents to access social activities for children
regardless of socioeconomic status, culture, gender or
ability.
Other rights:
- To be respected
- Make medical treatment available for their children.
- Take legal proceedings on their child’s behalf.
- To be given recognition for their role within the family unit.
- Consent to their child’s adoption.
- To set limits on behaviour and initiate standards that should be met within the family
- Carers specifically to receive financial assistance, be recognised and acknowledged for being a carer and to
have respite.
- Children
Children can be defined as those under the age of 18 yrs. There is a need to identify the rights of a child,
however in most countries there are no legal or social structures specifically dedicated to children’s rights.
The healthy development of children is crucial to the future of any society. Children are more vulnerable than
adults they are more affected by the actions and inactions of the government. Children have no political or
economical power and are thus vulnerable to exploitation and abuse.
In Australia each state and territory has agencies and legislation that protect the needs and rights of children.
In New South Wales this is the Children and Young Persons (care and protection) Act 1998. There are also
international legal rights that protect children. Australia has signed and is bound to uphold the United Nations
Convention of the Rights of the Child. The Convention is a landmark treaty which sets out the specific legal
rights that all children should have. It makes the care and protection of every child a priority for everyone,
especially governments.It has established new ethical principles and international norms of behaviour towards
children.
Children’s rights
Every child has the right to:
- Right to a safe and healthy
life
- Feel safe and valued
- Be nurtured in a peaceful
environment.
–To be protected from the elements
- Right to an education
- Equality in education
- Right to Protection from
discrimination
Children have the right to be protected
from discrimination, regardless of their
race, religion, cultural beliefs, ethnic or
social origin or disability.
- To an identity
In the family they are given a name,
nationality, and family ties, an
opportunity to participate in cultural
and artistic activities.
- To have the opportunity to make
decisions about the future
- To express self
- To have access to information
- To special protection in times of war
- To special care for the disabled
- To protection from abuse
- To protection from harmful work
- To special treatment if arrested
Others
Realistic expectations on children’s
participation within the family and
community, use positive language
when communicating
To be treated with dignity
To a family
The right to a supportive
environment
How can parents ensure the rights of
the child are supported
Providing appropriate housing, give
positive encouragement, have
reasonable expectations in regard to
behaviour educational success, tasks
performed
Ensure that the child attends
regularly a suitable educational
facility encourage additional
learning to enhance their specific
needs and interests
Advocate on behalf of children’s
rights, provide a voice for the child,
express points of view on behalf of
the child in regard to their culture,
beliefs and opinions
- To know and be cared for by both
parents
Appropriate behaviour management,
reasonable tasks given to children,
assistance and advice given
- Other person in care
Persons in care have the same human rights as other members of Australian society. They also have the right
to ensure that their specific needs are met. Their rights are irrespective of the nature, type or degree of
disability. They have a right to:
- Dignity
- Be part of the community
- Realise their development
- Choose their own lifestyle
- Adequate care, compassion and understanding
- Participate in decisions that affect their lives
- Receive services
- Pursue grievances in relation to services
- Be protected from abuse, neglect, exploitation and discrimination
- An identity
 Responsibilities
- Parents and carers (duty of care, setting limits, discipline)
- Parents and carers have certain responsibilities towards those in their care. Parenting responsibility involves
‘all duties, powers, responsibilities and authority which, by law, parents have in relation to children’, as
outlined in the Family Law Reform Act 1995.
- The family law reform act 1995 requires that both parents be responsible for the short and long term care of
their children. The responsibility of children only ceases with a court order, adoption, when the child marries
or when the child reaches 18 years of age.
Duty of care:
Parents and carers have a responsibility to the child and those they care for known as duty of care. This means
that all the needs of the child or person being cared for must be met. If a child is neglected or abusedphysically, psychologically or emotionally- then duty of care has not been met. Duty of care is transferred.
This occurs when parents place children in childcare centres or schools meaning that these groups assume
duty of care and can be held accountable if there is found to be a breach.
- All the needs of the child or person being cared for mist be met
- Because children aren’t matured it is necessary that the parent sets limits for their behaviour and a series of
consequences
- Care for an support their child
- To protect their child from harm
- Provide for the basic needs of their child
- Financially support the child
- Provide safety, medical care and education
- By law parents must provide maintenance for their children and can be charged with a criminal offence if
they neglect or abuse a child.
Setting limits:
Because children are not fully matured and have fewer life experiences, it is necessary that parents set limits
for their behaviour. The consequences should be age appropriate and reflect the seriousness of the
transgression e.g a 2 year old snatches a toy from another child- the consequence may be to return the toy to
the first child while explaining this action was not nice. Distract the ‘naughty’ child with another toy.
Parents define these limits initially, but children develop and become more aware of and responsible for their
own actions and consequences of their actions, limits are negotiated. Setting limits begins when parents let a
child cry for longer before responding. Parents set limits for toddlers by saying “no” or “don’t touch”- simple
rules, usually designed to protect their safety By setting limits, parents are developing independence and the
child is better able to accept the responsibility for their own decisions. For example limits may be set on
bedtimes or the boundary or area around the home where the child can play.
Discipline:
Just as essential is a serious of consequences for each inappropriate action that the child elects to follow.
Discipline refers to guiding, teaching and leading by example. It does not mean withholding love, smacking or
shouting or imposing rigid rules. When children exceed the limits, parents need to make the punishment
effective and appropriate. According to the law, parents have the right to control their child’s behaviour
through reasonable application of discipline. In New South Wales unreasonable force may lead to the parent
being charged with assault under the Crimes Act 1990. Child-care workers are prohibited from using any type
of corporal punishment against the child in their care.
- Children (towards parents, and other family members)
To achieve a happy and healthy family life, all family members should be people who care about and respect
others, both at home and in the community. Whatever the family structure, this can happen only if each
member accepts and carries out his or her responsibilities within the family. Children have many rights.
Responsibilities are inextricable to the various rights of children. Children have many responsibilities within a
house-hold towards their parents as well as other members. Some responsibilities would include.
Broad categories of children’s
rights
Responsibilities of children
Right to an identity
To accept the responsibilities and privileges appropriate to their
identity. Respecting themselves and being honest
Right to a family
To respect other family members and to extend affection and
courtesy to their parents and siblings. To treat their parents,
other adults, siblings and friends with respect, courtesy and
consideration. Fostering positive relationships with siblings.
Keeping family issues within the household. Acting in a
responsible manner when out in the public, because their
behaviour reflects on the rest of the family
Rights to express oneself and have
access to information
To respect the rights of others to have and hold an opinion and
listen to them
Right to a safe and healthy life
To respect their own bodies and to keep themselves safe and
respect others
Right to special protection in times
of war
To value other people’s lives and act in ways to keep them safe
Right to an education
To attend school
Right to special care for the
disabled
To acknowledge the carer and to use support services
appropriately
Right to protection from
discrimination
Not to discriminate against others, to be tolerant and accepting
of all people in the community
Right to protection against abuse
To report and seek support, not to abuse others e.g. through
bullying, sexual harassment or abuse
Right to protection from harmful
work
To wear protective clothing and follow safety guidelines
Right to special treatment if
arrested
To follow the laws and behave in a socially acceptable manner
Legislations that protect the rights of children:
- The Children and Young persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW)
Provision of opportunities for children to express their views and opinions, particularly in relation to children
in care, and protection from abuse and neglect.
- Child support (Assessment) Act 1989 (cth)
Ensures that provision is made for children in case of separation or divorce, particularly in relation to financial
support.
- The child support legislation amendment act 2001 (cth)
Provision of economic resources for families to support children in the provision of a safe, secure and stable
environment.
- Minors (Property and Contracts) Act 1970 (NSW)
Protects the rights of children from being bound to a legal agreement in regard to the lease or purchase of
goods or services, allows a child over 14 years to seek medical advice without parental permission.
- Family provisions Act 1982 (NSW)
Children to be given equal access to provisions in the case of death of a family member
-
Useful websites- www.austlii.edu.au, www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au
Laws that support and protect the legal rights of parents and carers.
- Adoption Act 2000 (NSW)
Gives the adoptive parent legal rights and responsibilities of a child and takes the rights away from the natural
parents
- Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW) In relation to fostering.
Provision for foster parents, ensuring the rights of the child In their care and their rights to provide ‘out of
home care’
- Status of Children Act 1996 (NSW)
In surrogacy the birth mother has all legal rights for the child and the husband or de facto partner is presumed
to be the father under the act
- Family Law Act 1995 (Cth)
Residency and contact of the children is given to both parents in the case of separation and divorce,
highlighting the rights of the child.
 Sources of conflict between parents and children, carers and cared for.
Conflict is a disagreement or difference in opinion. Conflict can and does often occur in a parenting and
caring relationship. Conflict needs to managed effectively in order to be resolved. The cause of conflict needs
to be identified and the rights and responsibilities of all need to be considered. A range of approaches can be
used to negotiate and mediate in order to seek an agreement and resolution.
Sources of conflict
How to resolve these
- The child growing and wanting to assert
- The conflict is often short term.
independence.
- Opening lines of communication are necessary to
minimise theses outbursts.
There is often tension between parents and children - The parents need to become aware that as children grow
particularly when children are developing
and mature, they need increased responsibility for their
independence and exercising their right during
own actions, but also more freedom.
adolescence.
- Children, however, need to treat parents with respect and
use their advice wisely, because parents have more life
experiences and are trying to minimise any harm to their
child.
- Limit setting
- Strategies could include the parent discussing why the
Children and adults may have different opinions on limits were set, for instance why they didn’t want the child
the limits. For instance children may feel their
to stay out late.
parents methods and reasons for discipline are not
- They could then come to an agreement on the behaviour
appropriate.
management or negotiating a consequence or punishment
with the child.
- Caring can be repetitive, stressful, tiring, difficult, - Taking respite
depressing and lonely. Therefore conflict often
- Taking time for themselves
arises from stress levels, moods and expectations.
- Accessing carer resources and support groups to discuss
Conflict can arise if a carer doesn’t feel respected.
such problems and gain assistance.
- The dependent with disability may not be satisfied - They can consult with the Department of Aging
with the level of care and intervention being
Disability and Home Care for advice and resolution of the
received.
conflict.
Conflict may arise from the moods or emotions
- Open communication between carer and dependent.
relating to a disability- pain, side effects,
– Carer must allow the dependent to have a level of
frustration, lack of mobility, lack of social
independence and let them feel self-sufficient.
interaction, limited autonomy. The dependent may
- The dependent must recognise that they do need help
want to have some level of independence and thus
with some aspects and allow the carer to do their job.
does not co-operate.
- A mediator may be used to resolve the conflict.
- Low Socioeconomic status and economic strain.
- Gain access to the variety of free services available.
- Conflict can arise between parents when they
Sometimes in a caring relationship if the conflict cannot be
cannot agree on the same decision relating to the
resolved amicably then a mediator may be consulted. An
children and family’s well being.
example of a conflict which may require mediation is in
the separation or divorce situation where both parents find
it difficult to come to an agreement about the care of
children.
-When foster children and carers are in conflict
- In this situation the Department of Family and
Community services would act on their behalf.
- Conflict can occur when there is a difference in
opinions, values, attitudes, beliefs and goals. When
being cared for, points of view and behaviour may
clash.
- Analyse the rights and responsibilities of parents, carers, children and other persons in care to determine
areas where tension or conflict might exist.
- Investigate the implications of cultural and gender differences in setting limits.
- Recognise the differences that may exist between the rights and responsibilities of parents and those of
carers in different situations.
4. Support for Parents and Carers
- Health services
There are many services that provide health care for the family. These include the family doctor or the local
hospital. Some hospitals specialise in treatment of children such as the Children’s hospital at Westmead.
Paediatricians and other specialists are available to meet the health needs of children in this type of hospital
Community health services provide midwives and other child professionals such as community nurse to give
information to new parents and check on the child’s progress. They also provide mental health services,
sexual assault services and more. Child, family, youth and community health services provide:
- Early childhood health
- Individual and group counselling
- Speech pathology
- Physiotherapy
- Occupational therapy
- Developmental assessments
- Play gym
- Women’s health
- Hearing and vision screening for school children
Palliative care/ Palliative care Australia
Is a special kind of health care for individuals and families who are living with life threatening illness, usually
in an advanced stage. The focus of palliative care is to provide the best quality of life for the terminally ill by
ensuring their comfort and dignity. Palliative care services may be provided in the home, in the community
based settings .eg nursing homes, in palliative care units and in hospitals.
Target groups: terminally ill individuals and their families and carers.
How service is accessed: 1. With your permission your health care professional may refer you to a specialist
or palliative care service. 2. You, or someone acting on your behalf, may access palliative care directly by
contacting the community care service in your region.
The cost of accessing the service: The cost of palliative care services depend on which setting you are
receiving them from. They are generally free through Medicare. Medicare usually covers public hospital and
hospice feed. Fees for private patients are usually covered by private health insurance. You may be asked to
pay for hire of equipment for use at home such as special beds, wheelchairs or commodes. You will pay for
the cost of medication and supplies at home.
Services offered by palliative care workers:
- Nursing and advice
- Pain and symptom relief
- Physiotherapy
- Loan of equipment
- Dietary advice
- Instructions on how to care for the ill person and how to give medications
- Home support services that provide assistance with household tasks
- Relief for the caregiver
- Counselling and emotional support
- Grief counselling
- Follow- up counselling after death.
Tresillian Family Care
Tresillian family care aims to ‘promote the health and well-being of families with babies and young children’.
Tresillian offers a 24 hr parent help line, a home visiting service, day stay clinics, emergency occasional care,
residential support units, a child-care centre and a post-natal depression service.
Community nurses/ Karitane
These centres cater for first time families with children up to children up to five years of age. Karitane is an
agency that provides support, guidance and information to families experiencing parenting difficulties.
What it offers:
Volunteer home visiting
The Karitane Volunteer Program is a home visiting service which offers practical support to first time families
with children under the age of three (3) years. In 2000 the organisation was selected through a tendering
process, to manage the Families First Volunteer Home Visiting Program. The Karitane Volunteer Program
provides home visits and telephone support to the family by specially trained volunteers many of whom have
their own parenting experiences. The family may be a single parent family or a family finding it hard coping
with the new baby, or they may be isolated and have no family or friends close by. Families are linked to a
volunteer, on a one to one basis, and are offered group support, home or hospital visits and/or telephone
support.
The Karitane Volunteer Programs cater to the linguistic and cultural boundaries of child rearing practices for
the many communities in the area. It has grown across diverse cultural boundaries in South Western Sydney
where over 160 languages are spoken. The majority of volunteers and families within the program are from
non English speaking backgrounds. The service is not limited to families with issues of child abuse and
neglect but is available to families who have been identified as needing extra support.
Volunteer workers will assist by:
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Providing personal support for families
Reducing the loneliness of isolation new families feel
Helping manage with the new child in different situations
Suggesting parenting information
Explaining positive ways for parents and children to play together
Involving fathers and others in activities
Helping families to develop and increase their personal and community support systems
Encouraging the families to develop skills to recognise and manage their problems
A 24-hour care line and email facility
The Karitane Careline is a statewide 24 hour Telephone Information Service. Child and Family Health Nurses
are available for consultation on a wide range of issues concerning infants and children from birth to five (5)
years of age.
Some of the issues you may like to discuss include:
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Feeding problems - breast, bottle or solids
Sleep and settling routines
Immunisation information
Weaning
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Toilet training
Management of gastro-oesophageal reflux
Developmental milestones
Toddler behaviour management
Information regarding common childhood illness/problems
Any other queries carers may have regarding this age group
There is also a website for parents which contains survival tips for parents. There is also family care
cottages, and pre and post-natal depression care.
Whilst in the unit, parents have access to the following professionals:
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Child and Family Health Registered Nurses
Enrolled Mothercraft and Parentcraft Nurses
Lactation Consultants
Paediatricians
Social Workers and Psychologists
Psychiatrists
How the service is accessed: local practitioner referral, if you are leaving the hospital they may arrange for a
community to visit you as a part of your “continuing care” or the parent may directly contact the service
through calling the local community health centre. Internet or by phone Families may be referred to the
program by a nurse, the hospital, a community health worker, GP or other agencies. They can also self refer.
Cost: To email and access website is free, it utilises volunteers to come and visit the home and make phone
calls which all have experience in parenting.
- Welfare agencies
Welfare agencies can provide resources to help meet the needs of parents, carers and families. They aid to aid
people in crisis. Because so many primary carers in Australia are under financial strain, many may seek the
assistance of welfare agencies in meeting a variety of their needs. Families may be unable to earn money,
provide adequate food and shelter for their children or lack appropriate parenting skills necessary to meet duty
of care.
The Salvation Army
Is one of the prominent welfare agencies in Australia. It helps people without discrimination and offers
practical and spiritual help for families through emergency assistance, child sponsorship, telephone and
personal counselling. The salvation army targets all people in need. It is easily accessible service. It can be
accessed through their stores, website or phone.
St Vincent DePaul
Operates child-care centres and family crisis centres, hostels and nursing homes for the aged, women’s and
family refuges, and offer family care and support, care for people with mental illness and pregnancy
counselling. It raises money from its members through poor boxes, through the proceeds of the centres of
charity, through donation from the public and some government funding.
Wesley Mission
Has a real mission-to minister to a community with real needs. Their vision is serving people, building hope
and honouring God. They offer a range of aged services, counselling, child and family services, disability
support, employment, health services, and youth services. Their ministry is diverse so they can support those
in need effectively-wherever they are. It is a free service. They receive their funding from government grants
and subsidies, donations, asset sales, legacies, services, sales of goods and other income. They are accessed
through phone, website, or local centres.
- Parenting groups
These are specific groups related to parenting that offer advice, information and support for all parents.
Parentline is an example of a confidential free telephone service for people who want information and advice
about caring for children. Trained staff who are parents themselves offer advice on child and adolescent
behaviour and development, and provide information about services for parents.
Parentline assists callers to: obtain a better understanding of the way their family works, believe in themselves
and their own skills and strengths, reflect on and develop strategies for changing how things are done in their
family in a way that suits their individual family's needs, access over-the-phone training through the Positive
Parenting Program (Triple P) developed by the University of Queensland
Callers to Parentline may expect to: use the service as often as they need, speak to the same counsellor,
choose the gender of the counsellor, be treated with respect and understanding for their responsible role as a
carer for children
Connecting with local ongoing support
Parentline counsellors have up to date information on services and resources in local communities and can
direct callers to ongoing support.
The Multiple birth Association refers parents of twins, triplets and other multiple births to their nearest twins
club for information, support and social contacts. As a result of IVF, there has been an increase in the number
of multiple births.
Birth classes- These provide the education to enable parents to acquire the practical and emotional skills
needed to raise children. Almost all parents find that raising kids is more challenging than they expected. As a
result such classes use informal learning specifically designed to teach skills of parenthood and help them
cope with a range of challenges from minor frustrations to major hardships. Parenting programs put parents in
contact with agencies and organisations that can assist them in raising their children.
- Community groups
These are associations in local areas that offer services for parents and children to meet their needs. For
example play groups arrange for a group of parents and their children under give years of age to meet
regularly for company, support and use of the available play facilities.
Meals on Wheels is a charity that depends on volunteers who prepare and deliver meals to people who have
difficulty preparing a balanced meal. It also gives some social contact. Meals on Wheels is for the frail, aged,
younger people with disabilities and their carers in Australia. It promotes the concept of 'care in the
community' and encourages and supports the involvement of volunteers in the provision of the Meals on
Wheels service in Australia
Groups such as ‘Aunties and Uncles’ offer respite to parents and children in difficult circumstances. They
provide time out for parents in stressful circumstances. They aim to prevent the break-up of families, to
provide support for families whose children are socially and emotionally at risk, To provide children with the
opportunity to experience the stability and benefits of ongoing extended family relationships. To restore
parents' self-confidence by encouraging them to accept the responsibility for their lives. To encourage
volunteer "Aunts" and "Uncles" to co-create the program to make the relationship as much like a real family
situation as possible. To encourage members of the community to support each other.
- Government agencies
Various levels of government offer payments, services and advice to the public. Government agencies are
services and organisations provided by various levels of government that offer payment, support, services and
advice to members of the general public. Examples of Government agencies includes Health services
Australia, Department of Health and Ageing, Department of Industrial relations, Child Support Agency,
Medicare Australia. These all aim to alleviate some of the pressures placed on parents and carers in today’s
society. These agencies interrelate to provide parents and carers with the financial and living support they
require.
Centerlink
Centerlink is an agency provided and funded by the Australian government that delivers a wide range of
services to the Australian community. It operates under the Department of Human services and delivers
services and payment of behalf of a number of Government departments including: the department of
employment and workplace relations, the department of family and community service and the Department of
education science and training. The target group is parents requiring financial assistance, to become more selfsufficient and improve the chances of those employed in finding a job. It provides, child care services,
education assistance, pensions, workforce participation, social services. Centrelink is free to access.
Centrelink can be accessed via phone, the local centerlink office, website and email.
Department of housing
This is one of the largest providers of public housing in the world and provides a range of housing solutions to
meet the needs to today’s community. The target audience is people, both parents and carers who have a low
income or are socioeconomically disadvantaged, who require assistance with rent and decent, affordable
housing and accommodation in the public sector. They also provide accommodation for those who are
homeless or at risk of becoming homeless.
The Dept. is funded by the NSW Government and is involved in: - Public Housing advice, referral and
assessment, private rental help, home purchase assistance, Aboriginal Housing, Community Housing, Urban
renewal, Assessment management and commercial investment, and policy development.
- Childcare services
Childcare services provide care for children while the parent works or has other responsibilities. Some
childcare services include pre-school, vaccination care, before and after school care, occasional care and
nannies.
Types of Childcare Facilities
 Long daycare– usually 6.30am – 7.30pm everyday; from 3 months old
 Work based Childcare- creches; care is provided at or near the worksite
 Short daycare– usually privately owned; 9am-3pm; 3-6yrs old
 Family daycare- operates out of a carers own home; limited no. of children; 3-6yrs
 Playgroup- not child minding centres; parents expected to attend with the child
 Baby health/early childhood centres– assists in the healthy development of kids
Pre-school
Pre-schools are formal, centre-based child-care services offering an educational and developmental services
for children 3 to6 years old in preparation for school. Pre-school has set hours, and educational program that
meets the regulations set by the federal department of family and community services. As there must be a
qualified early childhood teacher to plan and implement the program, children experience a professional and
caring attitude and the more structured education approach is good preparation for primary school. It is an
opportunity for the child to mix with others in a relatively structured setting. Some have a half-day format
which helps the transition from being at home all day when they reach school age. Some pre-schools cater for
working parents/carers by running an 8am to 6pm day and allow children in up to 5 days per week. They
modify these programs to include a rest period and more free play. If there is a management committee the
parents are given the opportunity to have input into the running of the centre. They allow the parent to work,
study or have time away from their children. They may be community-based or provided at a workplace.
Access: The local community centre will be able to provide the names and locations of the preschools in local
area. They also can be obtained via the internet or through the phone book in the yellow pages.
Costs: The costs vary among pre-schools. Payments can be made daily, monthly or quarterly for each term
the child is enrolled. Pre-schools are generally funded by the federal government, and therefore the
government benefits for the parents and carers are available.
Source of funding: Day-care centres can be government-funded or privately operated. For a fee they offer
care on a part-time or full-time basis.
Commonwealth Carer Respite Centre
Target group: Commonwealth Carer Respite centers provide information and allow the carer to take a break.
There is a variety of respite options available and thus the Respite centre has no specific target group. It can
be organised for emergency situations or specific groups such as those with language needs.
Access: As there are approximately 90 Commonwealth carer respite centers across Australia a free call to the
Commonwealth carer respite hotline on 1800 059 059 is the first step in accessing this service. Here they will
coordinate access to respite services in local areas.
Cost: There is no fee for the service, however a contribution is recommended. Some respite services charge a
small fee. For example the Manning support services charges $3 an hour or $13 for a day outing. No person is
denied service based on cost.
Source of funding: Commonwealth Carer Respite Centres are an Australian Government initiative, funded
through the Federal Government’s National Respite for Carers Program. Their main source of funding is the
Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing, with some funding from the Department of Family and
Community Services since March 2000.
Family Day care
This is when children are cared for in the homes of registered carers. Formal care is not centred based and it is
therefore more personal because there is less children and they are in a home setting. The carer can be chosen
due to similar cultural values and expectations. Family Day care is effective because it is flexible and caters
for emergency/crisis situations as well as overnight care.
Access: Internet via organisations websites, online child-care directories, the yellow pages, and the local
community centre.
Cost: Family day care is usually cheaper than centre-based care, but the child care benefit is still available as
it is a form of registered care. The fees will vary as do the periods of payment.
Source of funding: Family day care is federally funded, and usually sponsored by a local council.
- Carer support groups
Because caring is such a big responsibility, carers will often need to seek the support of others in similar
situations or with expertise in a related area. There are a large number of carer support groups.
Carer’s support groups specialise in offering advice and support for carers. They are essential to ensure
positive wellbeing and relationships and are particularly important for unpaid carers. They specialise in
providing information and advice regarding problems they are trying to manage. They allow carers to discuss
their caring situation, have time out and to exchange resources. They provide support, information, and offer
education and training. They allow people in similar circumstance to share experiences, feelings ,concerns
and information. Many support groups focusing on specific illnesses or disability.
Commonwealth Carer Respite Centre
Target group: Commonwealth Carer Respite centers provide information and allow the carer to take a break.
There is a variety of respite options available and thus the Respite centre has no specific target group. It can
be organised for emergency situations or specific groups such as those with language needs.
Access: As there are approximately 90 Commonwealth carer respite centers across Australia a free call to the
Commonwealth carer respite hotline on 1800 059 059 is the first step in accessing this service. Here they will
coordinate access to respite services in local areas.
Cost: There is no fee for the service, however a contribution is recommended. Some respite services charge a
small fee. For example the Manning support services charges $3 an hour or $13 for a day outing. No person is
denied service based on cost.
Source of funding: Commonwealth Carer Respite Centres are an Australian Government initiative, funded
through the Federal Government’s National Respite for Carers Program. Their main source of funding is the
Commonwealth Department of Health and Ageing, with some funding from the Department of Family and
Community Services since March 2000.
Carers NSW- Talk-Link Support group
Talk-Link is a teleconferencing support group where a group of 6 carers and 2 trained facilitators meet on the
telephone. The facilitators help carers explore the emotional impact of caring and identify ways of managing
their situation.
Target group: This program is targeted at carers from all walks of life. Some conferences may focus on one
group such as young carers. The main target group is carers who are isolated or lead a busy lifestyle and are
therefore unable to access other support groups.
The cost: This service is accessed through a free call to the Commonwealth carer resource centre on 1800 242
636. This service is cost free to carers unless they wish to make a donation.
Source of funding: Talk-Link is an Australian Commonwealth government initiative run through Carers
Australia & NSW. Funding is also through the Australian government department of health and ageing.
Donations are another source of funding.
The Working Carers Support Gateway
The Working Carers Support Gateway is an online carer support group which provides information to help
carers manage their work and care responsibilities. There is 24 hours a day online discussion forum where
general questions about working and caring can be asked. The website also holds a monthly chat room hosted
by high profile guests which provides an opportunity for carers to ask questions in areas such as health. The
posted stories provide insight into the experiences of working carers and are a source of inspiration and
support.
Target group: The target group is those who manage paid employment with unpaid caring. It aims to help
those whose responsibilities in caring may affect their ability to cope at work, and visa versa.
Access: The service is accessed online at www.workingcarers.org.au
Cost: The cost of accessing the website and membership is free.
Source of Funding: The working carer support gateway is developed by the Disability & Aged Information
Service a non-government project. This is funded by the home and community care program which is jointly
financed by the Commonwealth and State governments.
Surrogacy and the law
Surrogacy refers to a situation in which one woman has a child on behalf of another woman or couple. The
child may be conceived by sexual intercourse or by artificial insemination and be carried by a surrogate or
substitute mother.
There are various legal and social implications for this form of parenting.
Read the following case study and complete the related questions in the student activity.
Peter and Marie have been married for 10 years. Peter is happy in his career as an engineer and Marie has
worked in sales for 5 years. They have been trying for a child unsuccessfully for 4 years and have tried all
avenues for assisted pregnancy. Their doctor has said that their chance of having a child is very low. They feel
that their family is not complete without a child and have been investigating other ways to complete their
family.
Marie’s sister Rita suggested that they should try surrogacy. Rita is willing to be the surrogate mother and to
have the baby for Marie and Peter. The baby will be conceived by artificial insemination, using Peter’s sperm
and Rita’s egg. Rita has three children of her own. Rita’s children and her husband Ben have no concerns
about her going through with this procedure in order to help Marie and Peter have a family.
Peter and Marie will pay for Rita’s medical bills and will support her emotionally during her pregnancy.
i.
ii.
iii.
Outline the laws or acts specific to regulating surrogacy arrangements in NSW.
Describe two acts which are relevant to the case study on Peter and Marie.
Interpret the acts related to surrogacy and provide answers to the following issues:
 rights of the biological father
 birth certificates and persons named as the mother and father
 becoming the legal parents of a surrogate child.
b. Discuss arguments for and against surrogacy. When developing your arguments, consider the
viewpoints that might be expressed by different groups within society. Sample groups are listed
below. One example of each argument has been provided in the table below.
Sample groups from within the community:
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A childless couple.
A homosexual couple.
A blended family.
A surrogate family.
A religious group.
A single person.
Example arguments.
Arguments FOR surrogacy
A childless couple is unable to conceive through other techniques of artificial conception such as
IVF. Usually surrogacy is seen as the final resort of an infertile couple. This argument may be
used by couples who are infertile for medical reasons such as cases where the female has tubal
disease or the male has defects in sperm. May also be used by blended families, where one
partner is infertile e.g. when the male has had a vasectomy several years previously.
Arguments AGAINST surrogacy
Surrogacy is unacceptable for couples who opt to use it for non-medical reasons, e.g. if they are afraid
of the birthing process if they do not accept body changes that are apparent with pregnancy or if they
are inconvenienced in their career aspirations because of the time required off work to deliver a child.
Answers: Surrogacy and the law in NSW
Surrogacy laws in NSW
Outline the laws or acts specific to regulating surrogacy arrangements in NSW.
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NSW has no current legislation regarding surrogacy.
NSW law states that the arrangement of a surrogate motherhood contract is neither
prohibited nor encouraged.
Describe two acts, which are relevant to the case study on Peter and Marie.
Examples of acts that are relevant to this case study are:
Part VII of the Family Law Act 1975 (Commonwealth) relates to the guardianship and custody of children. In
a surrogacy arrangement, interested parties include the commissioning parents (Marie and Peter), the sperm
and ova donors (Peter and Rita), the surrogate mother (Rita) and the surrogate mother’s spouse (Rita’s
husband or partner). The Family Court will decide issues of guardianship and custody on the basis of the best
interests of the child. If there is no dispute between the parties there is no need for a surrogacy arrangement to
come to judicial notice, although commissioning parents may seek security for their surrogacy arrangement by
registering a child agreement under Section66ZC of the Family Law Act 1975.
Adoption of Children Act 1965: Commissioning couples (Marie and Peter) in a surrogacy arrangement may
often wish to adopt the child. An adoption order transfers all parental rights and duties to the adopting parents
(Marie and Peter) and extinguishes those of the natural parents (Rita and her husband).
Artificial Conception Act 1984: Where the child is conceived by use of artificial insemination, parentage may
be determined under the provisions of this Act. This Act implies that, for a surrogacy arrangement, where a
married woman acting as a surrogate conceives by artificial insemination (Rita) with the consent of her
husband, the law presumes the husband (Rita’s husband) to be the father of the child. The biological father
(Peter) may have no right to have his name entered on the register of births as the father. The law requires that
the surrogate’s husband (Rita’s husband) be registered as the father. The law presumes the birth mother (Rita)
to be the legal mother and therefore requires her name to be entered on the register of births. However the
position in NSW is unclear, because no legislation has been enacted to assign maternity following artificial
conception. It is therefore uncertain who would be treated as the legal mother of a child born in a surrogacy
arrangement.
The Children (Care and Protection) Act 1987 prohibits placement of a child with anyone who is not a relative
for a period in excess of 28 days in any 12-month period. Anyone receiving a child who is not related is
required to have a licence to foster issued by the Department of Family and Community Services. No offence
would be committed if one member of the commissioning couple is, in law, the parent of the child. (In this
case study, neither Marie nor Peter would be recognised as the parents of the child).
The Registration of Births, Death and Marriages Act 1973 makes it an offence to supply false or misleading
information in an application to register a birth. Unless both of the commissioning parents (Marie and
Peter)were, in law, the parents of the child, they could not lawfully register the child as their own.
Interpret the acts related to surrogacy and provide answers related to the following issues:



rights of the biological father
birth certificates and persons named as the mother and father
becoming the legal parents of a surrogate child
In this case study Peter is not recognised as the father, even though he is the biological father, and therefore he
has no rights as a father. He would need to apply to adopt the child if he wants to be recognised as the legal
father of the child.
Neither Marie nor Peter would be registered as the parents of the child on the birth certificate. Rita and her
husband would be registered as the parents. Both Marie and Peter would need to apply to adopt the child, in
order to be recognised on the birth certificate as the legal parents of the child.
To become the legal parents of the child, Marie and Peter would need to apply to the Family Court. The
Family Court would require evidence to satisfy the Court as to the suitability of Peter and Marie becoming
parents by adopting the child. The Court would also require consent from Rita and her husband to relinquish
parental rights of the child. In this case, as there is no apparent dispute between the surrogacy parents (Rita
and Rita’s husband) and the commissioning parents (Marie and Peter), custody, guardianship and parental
rights would probably be awarded to Marie and Peter. In the interim period before becoming the legal parents,
Marie and Peter would need to apply for a license to foster the child, as they would have the child for more
than 28 days in any 12-month period. At all times, the Family Court would make changes only if these
changes were in the best interests of the child.