The Path of Empire
1890-1899
The American Pageant
Chapter 29
Imperialist Stirrings
 Large product/food exports forced isolationist U.S. to develop outward
focus.
 Problems of labor/agrarian unrest could be eased through access to
foreign markets.
 Pulitzer/Hearst papers wrote of excitement abroad.
Imperialist Stirrings (2)
 Missionaries inspired by Strong’s Our Country… encouraged export
of American religion/values to “backward” peoples.
 T. Roosevelt & Lodge believed in geopolitical Darwinism: world goes
to strong & fit.
Imperialist Stirrings (3)
 Sense of urgency: other nations grabbing territories in Africa, gaining
concessions from China.
 Mahan’s The Influence of Sea Power (1890) stimulated steel naval
race, renewed calls for U.S.-built isthmian canal.
Imperialist Stirrings (4)
 New outward focus shown in Blaine’s “Big Sister” policy to open
Latin American markets.
 Led to 1st Pan-American Conference (1889).
 With outward focus came diplomatic crises:
Imperialist Stirrings (5)
 1889: Dispute w/ Germany over Samoan Islands.
 1891: Lynching of 11 Italians in LA almost brought war.
 Chile/US barely avoided war over deaths of 2 U.S. sailors.
 Disputes showed aggressive new national mood.
Venezuelan Squall
 1895-96: 50-year dispute over Venezuela/British Guiana boundary
intensified w/ gold discovery in disputed area.
 Anti-British sentiment in U.S. led Cleveland & Sec. of State Olney to
accuse Britain of flouting Monroe Doctrine.
Venezuelan Squall (2)
 Olney: Britain must submit to arbitration, U.S. was now cal-ling shots
in W. Hemisphere.
 Brits: dispute is not U.S. busi-ness, Monroe D. irrelevant.
 Cleveland call for commission of experts as prelude to war.
Venezuelan Squall (3)
 Britain, through more power-ful, did not want war – had own
problems with Germany.
 Britain consented to arbitra-tion: were awarded most of disputed area
anyway.
 Cleveland made Monroe Doct. claim stick, Europe upset.
Venezuelan Squall (4)
 Latin American republics pleased with U.S./Cleveland’s protection of
them.
 Britain determined to pursue friendship with U.S. as balance against
Europeans (Great Rapprochement).
Spurning Hawaiian Pear
 Missionaries (1st in 1820) & their children brought Amer-ican
influence to Hawaii.
 1840s: State Dept. warned nations to leave HI alone.
 1875: Trade agreement.
 1887: Agreement to give U.S. use of Pearl Harbor.
Spurning Hawaiian Pear (2)
 1890: McKinley Tariff hurt HI sugar exports, so American planters in
HI wanted annex-ation by U.S. to avoid tariffs.
 1893: Minority whites success-fully revolted against Queen
Liliuokalani, U.S. minister urged annexation.
Spurning Hawaiian Pear (3)
 New pres. Cleveland suspected wrongdoing: withdrew treaty, sent
investigator to HI.
 Probe: majority in HI opposed to annexation, effort halted.
 Events instigated expansionist debate: Cleveland criticized for
opposing Manifest Destiny.
Cubans Rise in Revolt
 Cubans’ dissatisfaction with Spanish rule stoked in 1894: U.S. sugar
tariff crippled Cuban sugar industry.
 Cuban rebels burned cane fields, sugar mills, trains in hopes of driving
Spanish out or inviting U.S. intervention.
Cubans Rise in Revolt (2)
 U.S. favored rebels due to (1) desire for freedom; (2) investment/trade; and (3) Spanish were threat to shipping.
 Concentration camps further increased U.S. sympathies.
 Cleveland rebuffed efforts to recognize revolt or start war.
Mystery of the Maine
 Yellow journalists Hearst/ Pulitzer competed to “scoop” each other in
Cuba, increased U.S. agitation for war.
 Cuban conditions worsen: Cuban Spaniards riot against proposed
Cuban self-rule (1897).
Mystery of the Maine (2)
 Battleship Maine dispatched to Cuba to protect/evacuate Americans if
necessary.
 2/9/1898: Hearst published Dupuy de Lôme letter impugn-ing
McKinley – tensions high.
 2/15/98: Maine exploded in Havana harbor, 260 killed.
Mystery of the Maine (3)
 Cause?
U.S.: explosive submarine mine.
Spain: internal & accidental.
 Modern investigation: Spanish were correct (1976).
 But U.S. believed in Spanish treachery, war now inevitable.
McKinley-Dogs of War
 McKinley attempted to avoid war, especially after Spain agreed to
U.S. demands of armistice, no conc. camps.
 Hanna, Wall St. did not want war, but public demanded it.
 McKinley feared that Dems would win in 1900 if no war.
McKinley-Dogs of War (2)
 4/11/1898: McKinley, believing the
people should rule, sent war
message to Congress.
 Congress declared war, but with Teller Amendment: once Spain
ousted, U.S. promised freedom to Cubans.
Dewey’s Victory
 Americans excited about war, but observers thought U.S. unprepared.
 Army: only 2,100 officers & 28,000 men, compared with 200,000
Spanish in Cuba.
 Navy: Spanish appeared more powerful on paper.
Dewey’s Victory (2)
 However, the Spanish navy was dilapidated compared to new U.S.
steel navy.
 So ordered by asst. sec. of navy T. Roosevelt, Commodore Dewey
attacked & easily defeated Spanish in Manila harbor (5/1/98).
Imperialistic Plums
 Dewey, national hero, did not have army to capture forts: waited for
reinforcements.
 Meanwhile foreign warship came to protect their nationals – Dewey
nearly clashed with more powerful German fleet, British were
friendly.
Imperialistic Plums (2)
 8/13/98: American troops captured Manila, collaborated with rebel
leader Aguinaldo.
 7/7/98: U.S. annexed HI as a “necessary” way station to
supply/reinforce Dewey.
 HI residents given U.S. citizen-ship, made a territory in 1900.
Confused Invasion
 Spanish sent Adm. Cervera to Cuba with run-down ships.
 U.S. east coast panicked.
 Cervera blockaded by U.S. navy at Santiago harbor.
 Strategy: have army come up behind Cervera.
Confused Invasion (2)
 Woolen-uniformed U.S. army led to Cuba by Gen. Shafter.
 Force included “Rough Riders” – undisciplined but fearless cowboys.
 Riders commanded by Wood; Roosevelt quit navy to be offi-cer,
though no military exp.
Confused Invasion (3)
 June, 98: 17,000 leave for Cuba, Riders had to rush transport, arrived
w/o horses.
 Disorganized Spanish offered little resistance, but did inflict heavy
casualties on Rough Riders at San Juan Hill.
Curtains for Spain
 Cervera knew he was doomed, but ordered by Spain to fight for honor:
entire fleet destroy-ed on July 3, only 1 U.S. death.
 Gen. Miles quickly liberated Puerto Rico from Spanish.
 8/12/98: Spain signed armistice, war ended.
Curtains for Spain (2)
 Malaria, typhoid, dysentery & yellow fever had devastated U.S. troops
in Cuba: Roosevelt demanded army be moved.
 Only 400 killed in battle, over 5,000 killed from disease (esp. typhoid
fever).
McKinley Heeds Duty
 Late 1898: In negotiations with Spanish, U.S. secured Cuba, Guam,
Puerto Rico.
 But what to do with large, populated Philippines?
 McKinley felt honor would not allow a return to Spanish rule or
simple abandonment.
McKinley Heeds Duty (2)
 Leave alone to anarchy or rule by aggressive Germans?
 Acquire Philippines and maybe give freedom later?
 Protestant missionaries wanted to acquire Philippines to convert from
Catholicism.
 Wall St. wanted profits there.
McKinley Heeds Duty (3)
 McKinley sought divine guid-ance: felt led to take Philip-pines to
Christianize, civilize.
 Satisfied people, business.
 Problem: Manila fell day after armistice, not spoils of war
 Resolution: U.S. agreed to pay $20M for Philippines.
Course (Curse?) of Empire
 Philippines inhabited by alien race, culture: not a typical candidate for
statehood.
 Prominent Americans (Twain, Gompers, Carnegie, James) form AntiImperialist League to protest expansion.
Course (Curse?) of Empire (2)
 Anti-imperialist arguments: (1) Doesn’t annexation violate “consent of
the governed” principle? (2) U.S. must avoid entanglement in Far East.
 Expansionists arguments: patriotism, glory, natural resources, profits.
Course (Curse?) of Empire (3)
 Reps. had trouble getting Spanish treaty through Senate.
 Dem. Bryan unexpectedly rose to its support: argued that we already
had islands, let’s accept treaty so we can give Filipinos independence
sooner.
 2/6/99: Passed by 1 vote.
Perplexities in PR/Cuba
 What to do with 1 million poor Puerto Ricans?
 1900: Foraker Act gave PR some popular gov’t.
 1917: Given U.S. citizenship.
 U.S. helped improve educa-tion, sanitation, transporta-tion, but many
left for NYC.
Perplexities in PR/Cuba (2)
 Question: did U.S. Constitu-tion & laws follow flag?
 Insular Cases (1901): divided Sup. Ct. said Congress could decide
what rights/laws to extend to acquired territories.
 Rough Rider Gen. Wood led military gov’t in Cuba.
Perplexities in PR/Cuba (3)
 Wood greatly improved gov’t, finance, education, agriculture & public
health.
 Dr. Reed found yellow fever spread by mosquitoes: wiped out yellow
fever in Havana.
 Per Teller Amendment, U.S. left Cuba in 1902.
Perplexities in PR/Cuba (4)
 But Cuba vulnerable to others.
 Cubans forced to into Platt Amendment: could not impair
independence by treaty or debt, U.S. could intervene to restore order,
Cuba agreed to sell/lease coaling/naval stations, e.g. Guantanamo.
New Horizons
 War showed U.S. was world power, gained int’l respect.
 But success led to indifference to military preparedness.
 New imperialist spirit & territorial gains worried Latin America,
pleased British, made Germany envious.
New Horizons (2)
 W/ Philippines, U.S. became Far Eastern power, but Phil. proved to be
Achilles’ heel.
 War did result in support for bigger navy, War College.
 War patriotism helped heal North/South division.