US History
Ultimate Study Guide
Part I
Colonial History (1600-1763)
1.Separatist vs. non-Separatist Puritans – Radical Calvinists against
the Church of England; Separatists (Pilgrims) argued for a break
from the Church of England, led the Mayflower, and established the
settlement at Plymouth
2.Northwest Passage – believed to provide shortcut from Atlantic to
Pacific, searched for by Giovanni de Verrazano for Francis I in the
race to Asian wealth
3.Conversion Experience – required of members of the Puritan
Church; took the place of baptism required by the Catholic Church
4.Social Reciprocity – society naturally punishes criminals
indiscriminantly
5.Church of England – Protestant church led by the king of England,
independent of Catholic Church; tended toward Catholicism during
reign of Catholic royalty
6.Atlantic slave trade – often debtors sold to slave traders by African
kings seeking riches; Columbian Exchange
7.Jamestown – first permanent English settlement in the Americas
(1607), along James River
8.John Smith – introduced work ethic to Jamestown colony,
sanitation, diplomat to local Native American tribes; had fought
Spanish and Turks
9.Pocahontas – key to English-Native American relationship, died in
England in 1617
10.Mayflower Compact – foundation for self-government laid out by
the first Massachusetts settlers before arriving on land
11.John Winthrop – Calvinist, devised concept of “city on a hill” (“A
Model of Christian Charity”); founded highly successful towns in
Massachusetts Bay
12.“City on a Hill” – exemplary Christian community, rich to show
charity, held to Calvinistic beliefs
13.Indentured servants – settlers to pay the expenses of a servant’s
voyage and be granted land for each person they brought over;
headright system
14.Maryland Act of Religious Toleration (1649) – mandated the
toleration of all Christian denominations in Maryland, even though
Maryland was founded for Catholics (but majority was protestant)
15.James I, Charles I – reluctant to give colonists their own
government, preferred to appoint royal governors
16.William Penn and the Quakers – settled in Pennsylvania, believed
the “Inner Light” could speak through any person and ran religious
services without ministers
17.Roger Williams – challenged New Englanders to completely
separate Church from State, as the State would corrupt the church
18.Anne Hutchinson – challenged New England Calvinist ministers’
authority, as they taught the good works for salvation of Catholicism
19.The Half-Way Covenant – New Englanders who did not wish to
relate their conversion experiences could become half-way saints so
that their children would be able to have the opportunity to be saints
20.Bacon’s Rebellion – rebels felt the governor of Virginia failed to
protect the frontier from the Native Americans
Independence (1763-1789)
21.Navigation Acts – only English and American ships allowed to
colonial ports; dissent began in 1763
22.Mercantilism – ensured trade with mother country, nationalism; too
restrictive on colonial economy, not voted on by colonists
23.Charles II, James II – tried to rule as absolute monarchs without
using Parliament, little to no sympathy for colonial legislatures
24.William and Mary – ended the Dominion of New England, gave
power back to colonies
25.Dominion of New England – combined Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Plymouth (and later
Jersey and New York) into one “supercolony” governed by Sir
Edmond Andros, a “supergovernor”
26.The Glorious Revolution – William and Mary kicked James II out
of England (exiled into France), allowed more power to the
legislatures
27.James Oglethorpe – established colony of Georgia as a place for
honest debtors
28.The Enlightenment – emphasis on human reason, logic, and
science (acquired, not nascent, knowledge); increased followers of
Christianity
29.Benjamin Franklin – connected the colonies to Britain, opposed to
unnecessary unfair taxation; strong influence on Albany Plan
30.The Great Awakening – began by Edwards to return to Puritanism,
increased overall religious involvement, gave women more active roles in religion, more and
more ministers sprouted up throughout the country; mainly affected towns and cities
•
Deists – believed that God created the universe to act through
natural laws; Franklin, Jefferson, Paine
•
George Whitefield – powerful speaker, toured the country and
inspired many into Christianity
•
Jonathan Edwards – Puritan minister, led revivals, stressed
immediate repentance
•
New Lights vs. Old Lights – New Lights brought new ideas,
rejected by Old Lights; both sought out institutions independent
of each other
31.Albany Plan of Union – colonies proposed colonial confederation
under lighter British rule (crown-appointed president, “Grand
Council”); never took effect
32.French and Indian War – French threat at the borders was no
longer present, therefore the colonies didn’t need English protection;
more independent stand against Britain
33.Proclamation of 1763 – prohibited settlements west of Appalachian,
restriction on colonial growth
34.Salutary Neglect – Parliament took minor actions in the colonies,
allowing them to experiment with and become accustomed to selfgovernment, international trade agreements
35.Writs of Assistance – search warrants on shipping to reduce
smuggling; challenged by James Otis
36.Townshend Act (1767) – similar to Navigatio; raised money to pay
colonial officials by American taxes; led to Boston boycott of
English luxuries
37.Sugar Act – increased tariff on sugar (and other imports), attempted
to harder enforce existing tariffs
38.Stamp Act– taxes on all legal documents to support British troops,
not approved by colonists through their representatives
•
Stamp Act Congress – held in New York, agreed to not import
British goods until Stamp Act was repealed
•
Virginia Resolves – “no taxation without representation,”
introduced by Patrick Henry
39.Currency Act – prohibited colonies from issuing paper money,
destabilized colonial economy
40.Virtual Representation – all English subjects are represented in
Parliament, including those not allowed to vote
41.The Loyal Nine – group of Bostonians in opposition to the Stamp
Act, sought to drive stamp distributors from the city
42.Sons of Liberty – organized and controlled resistance against
Parliamentary acts in less violent ways (strength of martyrdom),
advocated nonimportation
43.Declaratory Act – allowed Parliament to completely legislate over
the colonies, limited colonists’ say
44.Boston Massacre – British soldiers shot into crowd of snowball
fight; two of nine soldiers (defended by John Adams) found guilty of
manslaughter
45.Committees of Correspondence – committees appointed from
different colonies to communicate on matters; asserted rights to selfgovernment, cooperation between colonies
46.Tea Act (1773) – intended to save British East India Company from
bankruptcy, could sell directly to consumers rather than through
wholesalers (lowered prices to compete with smuggled tea)
47.Boston Tea Party – peaceful destruction of British tea in Boston
Harbor by colonists disguised as Indians
48.Quebec Acts – former French subjects in Canada allowed to keep
Catholicism, while American colonists expected to participate in the
Church of England
49.Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) – in reaction to the Boston Tea
Party; closing of Boston Harbor, revocation of Massachusetts charter (power to governor),
murder in the name of royal authority would be tried in England or another colony
50.Suffolk Resolves – organize militia, end trade with Britain, refuse to
pay taxes to Britain
51.Olive Branch Petition – politely demanded from the king a ceasefire in Boston, repeal of Coercive Acts, guarantee of American rights
52.Thomas Paine, Common Sense – stressed to the American people
British maltreatment and emphasize a need for revolution; appealed
to American emotions
53.George Washington – American commander-in-chief; first
president, set precedents for future presidents, put down Whiskey
Rebellion (enforced Whiskey Tax), managed first presidential
cabinet, carefully used power of executive to avoid monarchial style
rule
54.Whigs (Patriots) – most numerous in New England, fought for
independence
55.Tories (Loyalists) – fought for return to colonial rule, usually
conservative (educated and wealthy)
56.British strengths and weaknesses – British citizenship
outnumbered colonies’, large navy and professional army; exhausted
resources (Hessians hired), national debt
•
Colonial strengths and weaknesses – fair amount of troops,
short guerilla tactics, strong leaders (Washington);
nonprofessional army that could not handle long battles
57.Battle of Saratoga – American general Horatio Gates was
victorious over British general Burgoyne
58.Valley Forge – scarce supplies (food and clothing), army motivated
by von Steuben
59.Battle of Yorktown – last major battle; surrender of Cornwallis, led
King George III to officially make peace with the colonies
60.Treaty of Paris (1783) – full American independence, territory west
of Appalachian ceded to America, loyalists to be compensated for
seized property, fishing rights off of Newfoundland
61.American society during the Revolution – British-occupied cities,
new governments, fighting by any with experience, loaned money,
African-Americans and Native Americans involved
62.Articles of Confederation – states joined for foreign affairs,
Congress reigned supreme (lacked executive and judicial), one vote
per state, 2/3 vote for bills, unanimous for amendments; too much
power to states, unable to regulate commerce or taxes
63.Virginia Statute on Religious Freedom (1786) – foundation for
First Amendment, offered free choice of religion, not influenced by
state
64.Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – defined process for territories to
become states (population reached 60,000), forbade slavery in the
new territories
65.Alexander Hamilton – pushed for Assumption (federal government
to assume state debts), pushed creation of the National Bank (most
controversial), loose interpretation of Constitution, leader of
Federalist Party
66.James Madison – strong central government, separation of powers,
“extended republic”
67.Shays’s Rebellion – mistreated farmers, fear of mobocracy, forced
people to think about central government
68.Connecticut Compromise – advocated by Roger Sherman,
proposed two independently-voting senators per state and
representation in the House based on population
•
Virginia Plan – bicameral congressional representation based
on population
•
New Jersey Plan – equal representation in unicameral congress
•
Commerce Compromise – congress could tax imports but not
exports
69.Federalism – strong central government provided by power divided
between state and national governments, checks and balances,
amendable constitution
70.Changes in the Constitution from the Articles – stronger union of
states, equal and population-based representation, simple majority
vote (with presidential veto), regulation of foreign and interstate
commerce, execution by president, power to enact taxes, federal
courts, easier amendment process
•
Articles’ achievement – system for orderly settlement of West
•
Elastic Clause (“necessary and proper”) – gives Congress the
power to pass laws it deems necessary to enforce the
Constitution
71.Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists – Anti-Federalists wanted states’
rights, bill of rights, unanimous consent, reference to religion, more
power to less-rich and common people; Federalists wanted strong
central government, more power to experienced, separation of
church and state, stated that national government would protect
individual rights
72.The Federalist Papers – written anonymously by Hamilton, Jay, and
Madison; commentary on Constitution, republicanism extended over
large territory
Post-Independence and Critical Period (1789-1800)
73.Judiciary Act of 1789 – established federal district courts that
followed local procedures, Supreme Court had final jurisdiction;
compromise between nationalists and advocates for states’ rights
74.Bill of Rights – protected rights of individual from the power of the
central government
75.Bank of the United States – Hamilton’s plan to solve
Revolutionary debt, Assumption highly controversial, pushed his
plan through Congress, based on loose interpretation of Constitution
76.Report on Public Credit – proposed by Hamilton to repair war
debts; selling of securities and federal lands, assumption of state
debts, set up the first National Bank
77.Report on Manufactures (tariffs) – Hamilton praised efficient
factories with few managers over many workers, promote
emigration, employment opportunities, applications of technology
78.Strict vs. Loose interpretation of the Constitution – loose
interpretation allowed for implied powers of Congress (such as the
National Bank), strict interpretation implied few powers to Congress
79.Whiskey Rebellion – Western Pennsylvanian farmers’ violent
protest against whiskey excise tax, Washington sent large army to
put down revolt, protests to be limited to non-violent
80.Citizen Genet – Edmond Genet contributed to polarization of the
new nation by creating his American Foreign Legion in the south,
which was directed to attack Spanish garrisons in New Orleans and
St. Augustine
81.Impressment – British Navy would take American sailors and force
them to work for Britain
82.Jay’s Treaty – provided for evacuation of English troops from posts
in the Great Lakes
83.Nullification – states could refuse to enforce the federal laws they
deemed unconstitutional
84.Federalists and Republicans – the two political parties that formed
following Washington’s presidency; Federalists for stronger central
government, Republicans for stronger state governments
85.Washington’s Farewell Address – warned against permanent
foreign alliances and political parties, called for unity of the country,
established precedent of two-term presidency
•
Neutrality Proclamation of 1793 – response to French attempts
for alliance with US
86.XYZ Affair – French foreign minister (Talleyrand) demanded bribe
in order to meet with American peace commission, made Adams
unpopular among the people
87.Alien and Sedition Acts – meant to keep government unquestioned
by critics, particularly of the Federalists
88.Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions – argued that states had the
right to determine whether or not the laws passed by Congress were
constitutional
89.12th Amendment – required separate and distinct ballots for
presidential and vice presidential candidates Citizen Genet –
Edmond Genet contributed to polarization of the new nation by
creating his American Foreign Legion in the south, which was
directed to attack Spanish garrisons in New Orleans and St.
Augustine
90.Second Great Awakening – emphasis on personal salvation,
emotional response, and individual faith; women and blacks;
nationalism (Manifest Destiny)
Jefferson’s Administration and Growth of Nationalism (1800-1820)
91.Election of 1800 – Adams, Jefferson, and Burr: Adams lost,
Jefferson and Burr tied, Hamilton convinced other Federalists to
vote for Jefferson to break the tie
92.Barbary Pirates – North African Muslim rulers solved budget
problems through piracy and tributes in Mediterranean, obtained
fees from most European powers
93.Midnight judges – judges appointed to Supreme Court by Adams in
the last days of his presidency to force them upon Jefferson,
Marshall among those appointed
94.Marbury v. Madison – John Marshall declared that the Supreme
Court could declare federal laws unconstitutional
95.Lewis and Clark expedition – Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark sent by Jefferson to explore the Louisiana Territory on
“Voyage of Discovery”
96.Non-Intercourse Act – sought to encourage domestic American
manufacturing
97.Macon’s Bill No. 2 – president has power to cease trade with any
foreign country that violated American neutrality
98.Embargo Act (1807) – prohibited exports (and imports) based in
American ports, most controversial Jefferson legislation
99.War hawks – Clay and Calhoun, eager for war with Britain (War of
1812)
100.Henry Clay and the American System – Henry Clay aimed to
make the US economically independent from Europe (e.g., support
internal improvements, tariff protection, and new national bank)
101.John C. Calhoun – opposed Polk’s high-handedness, avid
Southern slave-owner (right to own property, slaves as property)
102.William Henry Harrison – military hero from War of 1812;
elected president 1840, died of pneumonia a month later, gave
presidency to Tyler
103.Battle of Tippecanoe – decisive victory in the War of 1812 by
Harrison over Tecumseh, used in Harrison’s campaign for
presidency
104.Hartford Convention – December 1814, opposed War of 1812,
called for one-term presidency, northern states threatened to secede if their views were left
unconsidered next to those of southern and western states, supported nullification, end of
Federalist Party
•
Essex case – Federalist cause leading up to Hartford
Convention
105.Era of Good Feelings – Monroe presidency, national unity behind
Monroe, post-war boom (foreign demand for cotton, grain, and tobacco), Depression of 1819
(cheap British imports, tightened credit, affected West the most)
106.James Monroe – provided country with a break from partisan
politics, Missouri Compromise, issued Monroe Doctrine
107.Missouri Compromise (1820) – Maine as free state, Missouri as
slave state, slavery prohibited north of 36°30’
Tallmadge Amendment – no further introduction of slaves into
Missouri, all children born to slaves to become free at 25
108.Rush-Bagot Treaty (1817) – agreement between US and Britain to
remove armed fleets from the Great Lakes
109.Adams-Onis Treaty – remainder of Florida sold by Spain to US,
boundary of Mexico defined
110.Monroe Doctrine – Europeans should not interfere with affairs in
Western Hemisphere, Americans to stay out of foreign affairs;
supported Washington’s goal for US neutrality in Americas
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Age of Jackson (1820-1850)
111.Panic of 1819 – Bank tightened loan policies, depression rose
throughout the country, hurt western farmers greatly
112.Election of 1824 – “corrupt bargain” and backroom deal for JQ
Adams to win over Jackson
113.Tariff of Abominations – under JQ Adams, protectionist tariff,
South considered it the source of economic problems, made Jackson
appear to advocate free trade
114.Jackson’s Presidency – focused on the “Common Man;” removal
of Indians, removal of federal deposits in BUS, annexation of
territory, liberal use of veto
115.Transportation Revolution – river traffic, roadbuilding, canals
(esp. Erie), rise of NYC
•
Erie Canal – goods able to be transferred from New York to
New Orleans by inland waterways
•
National Road – part of transportation revolution, from
Cumberland MD to Wheeling WVa, toll road network;
stimulated Western expansion
116.Indian Removal Act – Jackson was allowed to relocate Indian
tribes in the Louisiana Territory
•
Five Civilized Tribes – Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks,
Chickasaws, and Seminoles; “civilized” due to their
intermarriage with whites, forced out of their homelands by
expansion
•
“Trail of Tears” – Cherokee tribe forced to move from
southern Appalachians to reservations in current-day
Oklahoma, high death toll
•
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia – first attempt of Cherokees to
gain complete sovereign rule over their nation
•
Worcester v. Georgia – Georgia cannot enforce American laws
on Indian tribes
117.Spoils System – “rotation in office;” Jackson felt that one should
spend a single term in office and return to private citizenship, those
who held power too long would become corrupt and political
appointments made by new officials was essential for democracy
•
Kitchen Cabinet – Jackson used personal friends as unofficial
advisors over his official cabinet
118.Lowell mill/system – young women employed by Lowell’s textile
company, housed in dormitories
119.Cotton Gin – allowed for faster processing of cotton, invented by
Eli Whitney, less need for slaves
120.Nullification Controversy – southern states (especially South
Carolina) believed that they had the right to judge federal laws
unconstitutional and therefore not enforce them
•
South Carolina Exposition and Protest – written by Calhoun,
regarding tariff nullification
121.Bank of the United States – destroyed by Jackson on the grounds
that it was unconstitutional and too much power for a federal
institution
•
Pet banks – small state banks set up by Jackson to keep federal
funds out of the National Bank, used until funds were
consolidated into a single treasury
•
Independent Treasury Bill – government would hold its
revenues rather than deposit them in banks, thus keeping the
funds away from private corporations; “America’s Second
Declaration of Independence”
•
Specie – paper money; specie circular decreed that the
government would not accept specie for government land
122.Maysville Road Veto – vetoed by Jackson on the count that
government funds for the Maysville Road would only benefit one
state
123.Liberty Party – supported abolition, broke off of Anti-Slavery
Society
124.Whig Party – believed in expanding federal power on economy,
encouraged industrial development; could only gain power on the
local level, led by Henry Clay (anti-Jackson)
125.John C. Calhoun – opposed Polk’s high-handedness, avid
Southern slave owner
126.Marshall Court (all cases) – Marbury v. Madison (judicial
review), McChulloch v. Maryland (loose Constitutional
interpretation, constitutionality of National Bank, states cannot
control government agencies), Gibbons v. Ogden (interstate
commerce controlled by Congress), Fletcher v. Peck (valid contract
cannot be broken, state law voided), Dartmouth College v.
Woodward (charter cannot be altered without both parties’ consent)
127.Second Great Awakening – religious movements, traveling
“meetings,” rise of Baptist and Methodist ministries; Charles G.
Finney
•
Burned-Over District – heavily evangelized to the point there
were no more people left to convert to other religions, upstate
New York, home to the beginning of Smith’s Mormonism
movement
128.Horace Mann – worked to reform the American education system,
abolitionist, prison/asylum reform with Dorothea Dix
129.William Lloyd Garrison – editor of The Liberator (strongly
abolitionist newspaper calling for immediate abolition of slavery),
fought for feminist movement (“Am I not a woman and a sister”
picture of slave woman)
130.Frederick Douglass – runaway slave, well-known speaker on the
condition of slavery, worked with Garrison and Wendell Phillips,
founder of The North Star
131.Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 – for women’s rights, organized
by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, modeled requests
after the Declaration of Independence
•
Elizabeth Cady Stanton – organized Seneca Falls Convention,
founded (with Anthony) National Women Suffrage
Organization
•
Angelina and Sarah Grimké – fought for women’s rights and
abolition, “Men and women are CREATED EQUAL!”
132.Dorothea Dix – worked towards asylums for the mentally insane,
worked alongside Mann
133.John Humphrey Noyes/Oneida Community – John Noyes, New
York; utopian society for communalism, perfectionism, and complex
marriage
•
New Harmony – first Utopian society, by Robert Owen
134.Hudson River School – American landscape painting rather than
Classical subjects
135.Transcendentalism – founded by Emerson, strong emphasis on
spiritual unity (God, humanity, and nature), literature with strong
references to nature
•
Ralph Waldo Emerson – in Brook Farm Community, literary
nationalist, transcendentalist (nascent ideas of God and
freedom), wrote “The American Scholar”
•
Henry David Thoreau(Wa l d e n and On Civil Disobedience)–
in Brook Farm Community, lived in seclusion for two years writingWalden, proved that man
could provide for himself without materialistic wants
Slavery and Sectionalism (1845-1860)
136.Nat Turner’s Rebellion – Nat Turner led a slave rebellion in
Virginia, attacked many whites, prompted non-slaveholding
Virginians to consider emancipation
137.Yeoman Farmers – family farmers who hired out slaves for the
harvest season, self-sufficient, participated in local markets
alongside slave owners
138.Underground Railroad – network of safe houses of white
abolitionists used to bring slaves to freedom
Harriet Tubman – worked alongside Josiah Henson to make
repeated trips to get slaves out of the South into freedomKSJ
8
139.“Wage slaves” – northern factory workers who were discarded
when too old to work (unlike the slaves who were still kept fed and
clothed in their old age)
140.Nativism – anti-immigrant, especially against Irish Catholics
141.The Alamo – Mexicans held siege on the Alamo (in San Antonio),
Texans lost great number of people, “Remember the Alamo”
•
Stephen Austin – American who settled in Texas, one of the
leaders for Texan independence from Mexico
142.James K. Polk – “dark horse” Democratic candidate; acquired
majority of the western US (Mexican Cession, Texas Annexation,
Oregon Country), lowered tariffs, created Independent Treasury
143.Oregon and “Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” – Oregon Territory
owned jointly with Britain, Polk severed its tie to Britain, forced to
settle for compromise south of 49° rather than 54°40’
144.Manifest Destiny – stated the United States was destined to span
the breadth of the entire continent with as much land as possible,
advocated by Polk
145.Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – acquired Mexican Cession (future
California, Arizona, and New Mexico); Mexico acknowledged
American annexation of Texas
Wilmot Proviso – slavery to be barred in all territory ceded from
Mexico; never fully passed Congress
146.California Gold Rush – gold discovery in Sutter’s Mill in 1848
resulted in huge mass of adventurers in 1849, led to application for
statehood, opened question of slavery in the West
The Civil War (1850-1880)
147.William Seward – Secretary of State under Lincoln and Johnson;
purchase of Alaska “Seward’s Folly”
148.Compromise of 1850 – (1) California admitted as free state, (2)
territorial status and popular sovereignty of Utah and New Mexico,
(3) resolution of Texas-New Mexico boundaries, (4) federal
assumption of Texas debt, (5) slave trade abolished in DC, and (6)
new fugitive slave law; advocated by Henry Clay and Stephen A.
Douglas
•
Fugitive Slave Act – runaway slaves could be caught in the
North and be brought back to their masters (they were treated as
property – running away was as good as stealing)
149.Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin– depicted the evils of
slavery (splitting of families and physical abuse); increased
participation in abolitionist movement, condemned by South
150.Know-Nothing (American) Party – opposed to all immigration,
strongly anti-Catholic
151.Popular Sovereignty – the principle that a state should decide for
itself whether or not to allow slavery
152.Kansas-Nebraska Act – territory split into Kansas and Nebraska,
popular sovereignty (Kansas slave, Nebraska free); proposed by
Stephen A. Douglas
•
“Bleeding Kansas” – border ruffians in election on issue of
slavery incited controversy, proslavery group attacked
Lawrence, Kansas, Pottawatomie Massacre
•
Lecompton Constitution – proslavery constitution in Kansas,
supported by Buchanan, freesoilers against it (victorious),
denied statehood until after secession
•
John Brown – led Pottawatomie Massacre, extreme
abolitionist who believed he was doing God’s work
•
Pottawatomie Creek (May 1856) – John Brown and his sons
slaughtered five men as a response to the election fraud in
Lawrence and the caning of Sumner in Congress
•
Republican Party – formed in response to Kansas-Nebraska
Act, banned in the South, John C Fremont first presidential
candidate
153.Harpers Ferry (1859) – Brown aimed to create an armed slave
rebellion and establish black free state; Brown executed and became
martyr in the North
154.Dred Scott v. Sandford – slaves could not sue in federal courts
(blacks no longer considered citizens), slaves could not be taken
from masters except by the law, Missouri Compromise
unconstitutional, Congress not able to prohibit slavery in a state
155.Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) – over Senate seat for Illinois
(Douglas victor), Lincoln stated the country could not remain split
over the issue of slavery
•
Freeport Doctrine – Douglas was able to reconcile the Dred
Scott Decision with popular sovereignty; voters would be able
to exclude slavery by not allowing laws that treated slaves as
property
156.Fort Sumter – first shots are fired at Charleston, North Carolina
157.20-Negro Law – exempted those who owned or oversaw twenty or
more slaves from service in the Confederate Army; “rich man’s war
but a poor man’s fight”
158.Anaconda plan – the Union planned a blockade that would not
allow supplies of any sort into the Confederacy; control the
Mississippi and Atlantic/Gulf of Mexico
159.Ulysses S. Grant – won battles in the West and raised northern
morale (esp. Shiloh, Fort Henry, and Fort Donelson), made Union
commanding general
160.William T. Sherman – pushed through northern Georgia, captured
Atlanta, “march to the sea” (total war and destruction), proceeded to
South Carolina
161.Robert E. Lee – opposed to slavery and secession, but stayed loyal
to Virginia, despite offer for command of Union Army
162.Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson – Lee’s chief lieutenant and
premier cavalry officer
163.Battle of Antietam – Lee’s attack on Maryland in hopes that he
could take it from the Union, bloodiest day of the war, stalemate,
McClellan replaced by Burnside, stalemate, South would never be so
close to victory again
•
Emancipation Proclamation – issued by Lincoln following
Antietam (close enough to a victory to empower the
proclamation), declared slaves in the Confederacy free (did not
include border states), symbolic gesture to support Union’s
moral cause in the war
164.Battle of Gettysburg – Lee invaded Pennsylvania, bloodiest battle
of the war, Confederate Pickett’s Charge (disastrous), Lee forced to
retreat (not pursued by Meade), South doomed to never invade North again, Gettysburg Address
given by Lincoln (nation over union)
165.New York City draft riots (1863) – drafting extremely hated by
Northerners, sparked by Irish-Americans against the black
population, 500 lives lost, many buildings burned
166.Military Reconstruction Act (1867) – South divided into 5
military districts; states to guarantee full suffrage for blacks; ratify
14th amendment
167.Compromise of 1877 – South to gain removal of last troops from
Reconstruction; North wins Hayes as president
Part II
Business and Labor: The Gilded Age (1865-1900)
& Progressivism and Populism (1900-1920)
168.Andrew Carnegie – achieved an abnormal rise in class system
(steel industry), pioneered vertical integration (controlled Mesabie
Range to ship ore to Pittsburgh), opposed monopolies, used
partnership of steel tycoons (Henry Clay Frick as a
manager/partner), Bessemer steel process
169.Standard Oil Trust – small oil companies sold stock and authority
to Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company (consolidation), cornered
world petroleum market
170.John D. Rockefeller – Standard Oil Company, ruthless business
tactics (survival of the fittest)
171.Vertical and horizontal integration – beginnings of trusts
(destruction of competition); vertical- controlling every aspect of
production (control quality, eliminate middlemen - Rockefeller);
horizontal- consolidating with competitors to monopolize a market
(highly detrimental)
172.Sherman Anti-Trust Act – forbade restraint of trade and did not
distinguish good from bad trusts, ineffective due to lack of
enforcement mechanism (waited for Clayton Anti-Trust Act)
173.United States vs. EC Knight Company – decision under Sherman
Anti-Trust Act shot down by Supreme Court – sugar refining was
manufacturing rather than trade/commerce
174.National Labor Union – founded by William Sylvis(1866);
supported 8-hour workday, convict labor, federal department of
labor, banking reform, immigration restrictions to increase wages,
women; excluded blacks
175.Knights of Labor – founded by Uriah Stephens (1869); excluded
corrupt and well-off; equal female pay, end to child/convict labor, employer-employee relations,
proportional income tax; “bread and butter” unionism (higher wages, shorter hours, better
conditions)
•
Terence V. Powderly – Knights of Labor leader, opposed
strikes, producer-consumer cooperation, temperance, welcomed
blacks and women (allowing segregation)
176.American Federation of Labor – craft unions that left the Knights
(1886), led by Gompers, women left out of recruitment efforts
•
Samuel Gompers – focused on skilled workers (harder to
replace than unskilled), coordinated crafts unions, supported 8hour workday and injury liability
177. “Yellow dog contracts” – fearing the rise of labor unions,
corporations forced new employees to sign and promise not to be
part of a union
178.Pinkertons – detectives hired by employers as private police force,
often used to end strikes
179.Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) – 10-year moratorium on Chinese
immigration to reduce competition for jobs (Chinese willing to work
for cheap salaries)
180.Haymarket Bombing – bomb thrown at protest rally, police shot
protestors, caused great animosity in employers for workers’ unions
181.Eugene V. Debs – led railroad workers in Pullman Strike, arrested;
Supreme Court (decision in re Debs) legalized use of injunction
(court order) against unions and strikes
182.Social Darwinism – natural selection applied to human
competition, advocated by Herbert Spencer, William Graham
Sumner
183.Henry George, Progress and Poverty – single tax on speculated
land to ameliorate industrialization misery
184.Edward Bellamy, Looking Backwards – state-run economy to
provide conflict-free society
185.Karl Marx, Das Kapital – working class exploited for profit,
proletariat (workers) to revolt and inherit all society
186.Thomas Edison – electric light
, phonograph
, mimeograph,
Dictaphone, moving pictures
187.Louis Sullivan – led architectural movement to create building
designs that reflected buildings’ functions, especially in Chicago
188.Interstate Commerce Act – created Interstate Commerce
Commission to require railroads to publish rates (less discrimination, short/long haul), first
legislation to regulate corporations, ineffective ICC
189.Social Gospel movement – stressed role of church and religion to
improve city life, led by preachers Walter Raushenbusch and
Washington Gladen; influenced settlement house movement and
Salvation Army
190.Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Association
(YMCA & YWCA) – provided housing and recreation to city
youth, imposing Protestant morals, unable to reach out to all youth
191.Jane Addams – helped lead settlement house movement, cofounded NAACP, condemned war and poverty
192.Hull House – Jane Addams’s pioneer settlement house (center for
women’s activism and social reform) in Chicago
193.Salvation Army – established by “General” William Booth,
uniformed volunteers provided food, shelter, and employment to
families, attracted poor with lively preaching and marching bands in
order to instill middle-class virtues
194.Declining death rate – sewer systems and purification of water
195.New immigrants vs. old immigrants – old immigrants from
northern and western Europe came seeking better life; new
immigrants came from southern and eastern Europe searching for
opportunity to escape worse living conditions back home and often
did not stay in the US
196.Cult of domesticity – Victorian standards confined women to the
home to create an artistic environment as a statement of cultural
aspirations
197.William Marcy Tweed – leader of Tammany Hall, gained large
sums of money through the political machine, prosecuted by Samuel
Tilden and sent to jail
198.Tammany Hall – Democratic political machine in NYC,
“supported” immigrants and poor people of the city, who were
needed for Democratic election victories
199.Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie, The Financier – attacked
industrial elite, called for business regulation, publisher refused
works breaking with Victorian ideals
200.Regionalist and naturalist writers – writing took a more realistic
approach on the world, regionalist writers focused on local life (Sarah Orne Jewett), naturalist
writers focused on economy and psychology (Stephen Crane)
201.Bland-Allison Act (1878) – government compromised to buy and
coin $2-4 million/month; government stuck to minimum and
inflation did not occur (lower prices); economy grew
202.Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890) – government to buy silver
to back money in addition to gold
203.James G. Blaine – Republican candidate for president in 1884,
quintessence of spoils system; highly disgusted the mugwumps
(many Republicans turned to Democrat Cleveland)
204.Pendleton Civil Service Act – effectively ended spoils system and
established civil service exams for all government positions, under
Pres. Garfield
205.Farmers’ Alliance movement – Southern and Midwestern farmers
expressing discontent, supported free silver and subtreasury plan (cash advance on future crop –
farmers had little cash flow during the year), criticized national banks
•
Greenback Party – supported expanded money supply,
health/safety regulations, benefits for workers and farmers,
granger(farmer)-supported
•
Populist Party – emerged from Farmers’ Alliance movement
(when subtreasury plan was defeated in Congress), denounced
Eastern Establishment that suppressed the working classes;
Ignatius Donnelly (utopian author), Mary E Lease, Jerry
Simpson
206.Convict-lease system – blacks who went to prison taken out and
used for labor in slave-like conditions, enforced southern racial
hierarchy
207.Civil Rights Cases – Civil Rights Act of 1875 declared
unconstitutional by Supreme Court, as the fourteenth amendment
protected people from governmental infringement of rights and had
no effect on acts of private citizens
208.Plessy v. Ferguson – Supreme Court legalized the “separate but
equal” philosophy
209.Munn v. Illinois – private property subject to government
regulation when property is devoted to public interest; against
railroads
210.Jim Crow laws – educational and residential segregation; inferior
facilities allotted to African-Americans, predominantly in South
211.Coxey’s Army – Coxey and unemployed followers marched on
Washington for support in unemployment relief by inflationary
public works program
212.Panic of 1893 – 8,000 businesses collapsed (including railroads);
due to stock market crash, overbuilding of railroads, heavy farmer
loans, economic disruption by labor efforts, agricultural depression;
decrease of gold reserves led to Cleveland’s repeal of Sherman
Silver Purchase Act
213.William Jennings Bryan – repeat candidate for president,
proponent of silver-backing (16:1 platform), cross of gold speech
against gold standard; Democratic candidate (1896)
•
Free silver – Populists campaigned for silver-backed money
rather than gold-backed, believed to be able to relieve working
conditions and exploitation of labor
214.Triangle Shirtwaist fire – workers unable to escape (locked into
factory), all died; further encouraged reform movements for working
conditions
215.Gifford Pinchot – head of federal Division of Forestry, contributed
to Roosevelt’s natural conservation efforts
216.Frederick W. Taylor, Principles of Scientific Management–
increase working output by standardizing procedures and rewarding
those who worked fast; efficiency
217.Industrial Workers of the World – supported Socialists, militant
unionists and socialists, advocated strikes and sabotaging politics, aimed for an umbrella union
similar to Knights of Labor, ideas too radical for socialist cause
•
“Big Bill” Haywood – leader of IWW, from Western
Federation of Miners
218.Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class – satirized
wealthy captains of industry, workers and engineers as better leaders
of society
219.Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life – activist
government to serve all citizens (cf. Alexander Hamilton); founded
New Republicmagazine
220.John Dewey – social ideals to be encouraged in public school
(stress on social interaction), learning byd oin g
221.Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. – law meant to evolve as society
evolves, opposed conservative majority
222.Booker T. Washington – proponent of gradual gain of equal rights
for African-Americans
•
“Atlanta Compromise” speech – given by BTW to ease
whites’ fears of integration, assuring them that separate but
equal was acceptable, ideas challenged by DuBois
223.WEB DuBois, Souls of Black Folk – opposed BTW’s
accommodation policies, called for immediate equality, formed
Niagara Movement to support his ideas
224.National Association for the Advancement of Colored People–
formed by white progressives, adopted goals of Niagara Movement,
in response to Springfield Race Riots
225.Muckrakers – uncovered the “dirt” on corruption and harsh quality
of city/working life; heavily criticized by Theodore Roosevelt; Ida
Tarabell (oil companies), David Graham Phillips (Senate), Aschen
School (child labor – photography), mass magazinesMc C l u re’s and
Collier’s
•
Upton Sinclair, The Jungle – revealed unsanitary nature of
meat-packing industry, inspired Meat Inspection Act and Pure
Food and Drug Act (1906)
•
Thomas Nast – political muckraking cartoonist, refused bribes
to stop criticism
226.Robert La Follette – created the Wisconsin Idea (as governor of
Wisconsin) – regulated railroad, direct-primary system, increased
corporate taxes, reference library for lawmakers
227.Mann Act – made it illegal to transport women across state borders
for “immoral purposes,” violated by black boxer Jack Johnson (w/
white woman)
228.Women’s Christian Temperance Union – led by Francis Willard,
powerful “interest group” following the civil war, urged women’s
suffrage, led to Prohibition
229.Charlotte Perkins Gilman – women must gain economic rights in
order to impact society (cf. rising divorce rates)
230.Northern SecuritiesCase – Northern Securities Company (JP
Morgan and James G. Hill - railroads) seen by Roosevelt as “bad”
trust, Supreme Court upheld his first trust-bust
231.Theodore Roosevelt – first “modern” president, moderate who
supported progressivism (at times conservative), bypassed
congressional opposition (cf. Jackson), significant role in world
affairs
232.Square Deal – Roosevelt’s plan that aimed to regulate corporations
(Anthracite coal strike, Dept. of Commerce and Labor, Elkins and Hepburn Acts), protect
consumers (meat sanitation), and conserve natural resources (Newlands Reclamation Act)
233.Preservationism vs. Conservationism – Roosevelt and Pinchot
sided on conservation rather than preservation (planned and
regulated use of forest lands for public and commercial uses)
234.William H. Taft – “trustbuster” (busted twice as many as
Roosevelt), conservation and irrigation efforts, Postal Savings Bank System, Payne-Aldrich
Tariff (reduction of tariff, caused Republican split)
235.Bull Moose Party – party formed from Republican split by
Roosevelt, more progressive values, leaving “Republican Old
Guard” to control Republican party
236.New Nationalism – federal government to increase power over
economy and society by means of progressive reforms, developed
by Roosevelt (after presidency)
237.New Freedom – ideas of Wilson: small enterprise, states’ rights,
more active government, trustbusting, left social issues up to the
states
238.Woodrow Wilson – Democratic candidate 1912, stood for antitrust,
monetary change, and tariff reduction; far less active than Roosevelt,
Clayton Anti-trust Act (to enforce Sherman), Child Labor Act
239.Federal Reserve Act – created Federal Reserve System, regional
banks set up for twelve separate districts, final authority of each
bank lay with the Federal Reserve Board, paper money to be issued
“Federal Reserve Notes”
Imperialism (1885-1920)
240.Pan-Americanism – James G. Blaine sought to open up Latin
American markets to the U.S.; rejected by Latin America due to fear
of U.S. dominance and satisfaction with European market
241.Yellow journalism (Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst)
– aimed to excite American imperialist interests; media bias,
subjective representation of events
242.Jingoism – belligerent nationalism against other threatening nations
243.Secretary of State John Hay – ex-Lincoln secretary; worked to
gain Open Door Notes’ acceptance from the major powers
244.Open Door Policy – sought to eliminate spheres of influence and
avoid European monopolies in China; unaccepted by the powers in
mind
245.Spanish American War (1898) – McKinley reluctant; armed
intervention to free Cuba from Spain; Roosevelt’s “Rough Riders”
made attack on Spanish at Cuba
•
Explosion of USS Maine – meant to provide evacuation
opportunity for Americans in Cuba; internal accidental
explosion blamed on Spanish mines, leading to SpanishAmerican War
•
Platt Amendment – U.S. would ensure that Cuba would be
protected from European powers and maintain a place in Cuban
affairs; provided coal and naval stations
246.US acquisitions: Philippines, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam–
granted to U.S. at the end of Spanish-American War; Philippines
were captured after treaty, and thus not part of spoils, but kept as
territory with an inevitable movement for independence; Philippines
and Hawaii steps toward Asia
•
Naval battle in Manila Bay, Philippines – Admiral Dewey
defeated Spanish initially; American troops (aided by
Aguinaldo’s insurgents) captured Manila, leading to annexation
247.TR mediates Russo-Japanese War – secretly sponsored peace
negotiations so as to prevent Japanese or Russian monopoly on Asia;
concerned with safety of Philippines
248.President Theodore Roosevelt – military and naval preparedness
249.Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine – U.S. felt it was its
duty to “watch out” for the interests of other countries in the Western
hemisphere; provided justification for invasions of Latin America.
250.Panama Canal – needed to protect new Pacific acquisitions, U.S.
took over the project from the French after overcoming ClatytonBulwer Treaty (prohibited exclusive control of canal) with the HayPauncefote Treaty
251. “Gentlemen’s Agreement” (1908) – in response to Japanese
discrimination in San Fran schools; Japanese to stop laborers into
U.S., Californians forbidden to ban Japanese from public schools
252.“Dollar Diplomacy” – government would protect America’s
foreign investments with any force needed; under president Taft
253.Moral Diplomacy – intervention in Mexican Revolution (Madero
overthrew dictator Diaz) to overthrow Madero out of fear of
property confiscation, General Huerta (seen as “brute” by Wilson,
sought new leader) replaced Madero
254.Invasion of Mexico, Pancho Villa – Huerta’s enemy, reluctantly
supported by U.S.; U.S. sought Villa’s submission due to terrorism,
eventually assassinated; Wilson’s policy highly unpopular
World War I (1910-1920)
255.Lusitania – British passenger liner secretly carrying ammunition
sunk by German u-boat, included American passengers
256.Zimmerman Note – intercepted by Britain; Germany proposed
alliance with Mexico, using bribe of return of TX, NM, and AZ;
Japan included in alliance
257.Unrestricted submarine warfare – Germany announced that it
would sink all (including American) ships, attempt to involve U.S. in
war
258.Creel Committee – Committee on Public Information; aimed to
sell America and the world on Wilson’s war goals; propaganda,
censorship, “four-minute men” speeches, “Liberty Leagues” (spy on
community)
259.War Industries Board – attempted to centralize production of war
materials; ineffective due to American desire for laissez-faire
government
260.Conscription policies – Selective Service Act to require men to
register with few exceptions; women and blacks drafted/enlisted,
highly successful
261.Herbert Hoover’s Food Administration – relied on voluntary
compliance (no formal laws), propaganda; high prices set on
commodities to encourage production, Prohibition
262.Wilson’s 14 points – public treaties, free trade, free seas, reduced
armament burdens, anti-imperialism, independence to minorities,
international organization
263.League of Nations – foreshadowed in 14 points, hoped to
guarantee political independence and integrity of all countries
264.Great Migration – mass migration northward; mainly blacks
migrating from the southern states into the north hoping for less
discrimination
265.Lodge Reservations – 14 formal amendments to the treaty for the
League of Nations; preserved Monroe Doctrine, Congress desired to
keep declaration of war to itself
266.Isolationism – avoided league of Nations, opposed Latin American
involvement
267.Espionage Act and Sedition Act – fines and imprisonment for
aiding the enemy or hindering U.S. military; forbade any form of
criticism of the government and military
268.Schenk v. U.S. – upheld constitutionality of Espionage Act;
Congress right to limit free speech during times of war
269.“Red Scare” (1919) – anti-communist crusades due to fear of
radicalism spurred by Bolshevik rebellion
270.Palmer Raids – Congressional support to raid houses of radicals
believed to have connections to communism
271.“Red Summer,” race riots (1919) – spurred by Great Migration,
large-scale riots, lynchings, &c.
The 1920s and 1930s
272.Nativism – severe immigration laws to discourage and discriminate
against foreigners, believed to erode old-fashioned American values
•
Birth of a Nation – spawned resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan
based on The Clansman
•
Ku Klux Klan – spread quickly; opposed everything that was
not White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP) (and conservative),
Stephenson’s faults and jail sentence led to demise
•
National Origins Act (1924) – reduced quota, reduced
numbers from eastern and southern Europe, Asians banned,
Canadians and Latin Americans exempt
•
Sacco & Vanzetti Trial – prejudiced jury sentenced them to
death, caused riots around the world, new trial denied
273.Scopes Trial – Darwinian (influenced by jazz age and new
scientific ideas) against Fundamentalist (the Bible and Creationism);
John Scopes convicted for teaching Darwinism (defended by
Clarence Darrow); Scopes found guilty
274.Prohibition, rise of organized crime – supported by women and
churches, instituted by Volstead Act, lacked enforcement;
bootlegging and speakeasies, Al Capone and John Dillinger –
gangsters and organized crime (casual breaking of the law)
275.Frederick W. Taylor, Scientific Management – efficient working
methods to increase productivity; usually resulted in lower wages
(hated by workers), power to managers
276.Henry Ford’s assembly line – mass production of the Model-T,
workers as potential consumers (raise wages), supported other
industries and raised employment
277.Bruce Barton:The Man Nobody Knows – glorification of
business, Jesus as a businessman, relationship between religion and
manufacturing
278.Radio – new industry, leisure time with family, sports industry
stimulated, political advertisements, newscasts, broadcast of music
279.Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) – Alice Paul; shocked
traditionalism, League of Women Voters supported; new
organization of women who were now more independent
280.Flappers – expressed new freedom of women, sexual revolution
281.Margaret Sanger & birth control – illegal, but widely accepted;
with new promiscuity
282.Jazz – dance music, slave spirituals adapted into improvisation and
ragtime; jazz migrated along with blacks in the Great Migration
283.“Lost Generation” – new generation of writers outside of
Protestantism, resentment of ideals betrayed by society; Fitzgerald
(despised materialism, Great Gatsby), Hemingway (disillusionment,
war experience), Lewis (against upper class –Babbit and
Mainstreet), Faulkner (stream of consciousness), T.S. Eliot
284.Harlem Renaissance authors: Langston Hughes, McKay, Zora
Neale Hurston, Countee Cullet – praise and expression of black
culture of the time
285.Marcus Garvey, United Negro Improvement Association
(UNIA) – “Back to Africa” movement for racial pride and
separatism; inspired self-confidence in blacks
286.Charles Lindbergh – considered a hero for his solo crossing of the
Atlantic by plane
287.Washington Disarmament Conference (1921) – US, Britain,
Japan, France, and Italy to reduce naval tonnage and halt
construction for 10 years; US and Japan to respect Pacific territorial
holdings, Kellog-Briand Pact to “outlaw war”
288.Dawes Plan (1924) – to make German reparations from WWI more
accessible to Germans; evacuation of troops from Germany,
reorganization of the Reichsbank, and foreign loans
289.Conservative policies of Harding and Coolidge – lowering of
income taxes for wealthy (trickle-down economics), refusal to create
higher prices to help farmers (McNary-Haugen Bill)
290.Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922) & Smoot-Hawley Tariff
(1930) – raised tariffs extremely high on manufactured goods;
benefited domestic manufacturers, but limited foreign trade
291.Teapot Dome scandal – Albert Fall accused of accepting bribes for
access to government oil in Teapot Dome, Wyoming
292.Herbert Hoover, secretary of commerce – known as “wartime
food czar;” created recreation policies and reintroduced leisure
culture and conservation ethic to get Americans escaping the cities
and improve tourism, &c.
293.Andrew Mellon, secretary of the treasury – introduced the
“trickle-down” economics theory in order to promote business and
increase money available for speculation
294.Farm crisis – agricultural depression as precursor to the
depression; unheeded omen of problems in the economic structure
(prices too low – too much supply for the demand)
295.Causes of the depression – rise in stock prices and speculation,
decline of construction industry, mistaken “trickle-down”
economics, reliance on credit
•
Stock market crash (1929) – stock prices fell drastically;
without buyers, the stocks became essentially worthless; cause
bank crashes, &c.
296.Hoover’s policy of voluntarism – emphasized importance of
private charities to help the depression
•
Hoovervilles – sets of cardboard box houses that epitomized
the country’s blame on Hoover for the cause of the Depression
297.Bonus Army – veterans from WWI sought their pensions before
they were too old to use them; they were denied and were run out of
Washington (violently, by MacArthur)
298.Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) – attempted to boost
economy by making loans to banks and insurance companies,
hoping to restart them
299.President Franklin Roosevelt – introduced his “New Deal,” won
election by a relative landslide (he was not Hoover, whom the public
now did not trust)
•
New Deal – FDR’s plan (although vague during the campaign)
to restart the economy and pull America out of the Great
Depression
•
“Brain trust” – FDR’s inner circle of experts rather than just
politicians in the cabinet
300.“Hundred days” – accomplished great number of relief, recovery,
and reform efforts; sought practical solutions to the problemsby
experimentation
•
Emergency Banking Relief Act – four-day banking holiday to
create controlled inflation, followed by reopening of sound
banks, and reorganization of unsound banks
301.“First” New Deal Programs: 1933-35, improved (but not
recovered) economy
a.National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) & National Recovery
Administration (NRA) – prevented extreme competition, labormanagement disputes, and over-production; federally
coordinated consensus of business leaders (Hugh Johnson) to
regulate businesses (wages, limits, working conditions)
b.Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) – subsidies to farmers to
decrease production and thus increase prices
c.Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) – hydroelectric power to
river valley; brought social and economic development to very
poor area
d.Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) – employed young jobless
men with government projects on work relief and environment
e.Federal Emergency Relief Act (FERA) – provided more funds
to state and local relief efforts
f.Public Works Administration (PWA) – Harold Ickles, provided
public construction projects
g.Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) – insured
deposits < $5000, reassured American public of the worth of
banks
302.“Second” New Deal Programs: 1935-38, reform-minded, more
political
a.Social Security Act of 1935 (SSA) – used withheld money from
payrolls to provide aid to the unemployed, industrial accident
victims, and young mothers; principle of government
responsibility for social welfare
b.Works Progress Administration (WPA) – Harry Hopkins;
provide work for unemployed and construct public works, &c. through Emergency Relief
Appropriation Act; much like Civil Works Administration
c.Wagner Act / National Labor Relations Act – collective
bargaining rights, closed shops permitted (where workersmust
join unions), outlawed anti-union tactics
d.Fair Labor Standards Act – banned child labor, established
minimum wage
303.Keynesian economics – philosophy that deficit spending during a
depression would increase purchasing power and stimulate
economy; FDR disagreed with the policy at first and borrowed
money to cover deficits
304.Indian Reorganization Act (1934) – halted sale of tribal lands,
enabled tribes to regain unallocated lands; repealed Dawes Severalty
Act of 1887; helped secure Indians’ entry into New Deal
associations; led by John Collier
305.Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor – first female cabinet
member
306.Butler v. U.S. – killed the AAA, although FDR insisted on
continuing by creating smaller state-level AAAs
307.Schechter v. U.S. – unconstitutionalized the NRA due to delegation
of legislative authority from Congress to executive
308.Court Packing – Judiciary Reorganization Bill; FDR’s attempt to
put in extra judges who would support him without doubt
309.“Okies” and “Arkies” – Americans who were forced out of their
homes in Oklahoma and Arkansas (respectively) due to the dust
storms and drought known as the Dust Bowl
310.Deportations of Mexicans – nationalists against foreign nonEnglish speaking workers (took jobs away from American men);
encouraged to leave the U.S.
311.Critics of FDR: Father Charles Coughlin (benefited only wealthy
people and corporations), Huey Long (“share our wealth”), Francis
Townshend (Old Age Revolving Pension)
312.Split of AFL in 1935 – loss of members due to new following of
CIO and discrimination
313.Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) – created by John L.
Lewis for unskilled labor, organized “sit-down strike” against GM to
work for recognition
314.Dorothea Lange – hired to photograph ordinary Americans
experiencing the depression
World War II (1920-1945)
315.Good Neighbor Policy – withdrawal of American troops from
foreign nations (especially Latin America) to improve international
relations and unite western hemisphere; Clark Memorandum
(rebukes the “big stick”); peaceful resolution of Mexican oil fields
316.Isolationism in 1920s & 1930s – Americans concerned with
economic depression; sought to avoid European involvement, no
apparent immediate threats
317.Neutrality Acts, 1935-37 – prohibited aiding of belligerent nations,
banned civilian involvement; limited power of president during
international war, built up armed forces
318.Quarantine Speech, 1937 – FDR encouraged democracies to
quarantine their opponents (economic embargos); criticized by
isolationists
319.Neutrality Act, 1939 – allowed sale of weaponry to democracies on
“cash-and-carry” basis, avoided full-blown war; danger zones
proclaimed; solved American unemployment crisis
320.“Four Freedoms” speech – FDR asked for increased authority to
aid Britain; freedom of speech/expression, of religion, from want,
from fear; resulted in Lend-Lease
321.Lend-Lease Act (1941) – President to offer military supplies to
nations “vital to the defense of the US”; ended US neutrality
(economic war against Germany); Hitler began to sink American
ships (limited scale)
322.Pearl Harbor – Japanese bombing of ships in harbor; resulted in
FDR’s request for declaration of war against Japan; Germany and
Italy responded with declarations of war
323.First American strategy in WWII – FDR and Churchill agreed to
defeat Germany first rather than concentrate on Japan
324.Important WWII Battles:Midway (US Signal Corps, turning
point of war in the Pacific), D-Day (Eisenhower’s amphibious
invasion of Normandy, led to depletion of German forces),
Stalingrad (Russians defeated Germans, saved Moscow and
Leningrad, turning point in Europe)
325.Japanese internment – fear of Japanese-Americans as traitors, sent
off (by law) to internment camps; removal of deemed threats in
military areas
326.Reasons for US to drop atomic bombs – risk of too many
casualties and high costs for hand-to-hand combat/invasion,
Japanese surrender unlikely
327.Yalta Conference (1945) – established world organization; Soviet
Union pledged to allow democratic procedures in Eastern Europe;
pledge broken, led to Cold War
328.Potsdam Conference (1945) – decided to punish war crimes,
established program for de-Nazification of Germany
329.The Homefront – westward migration of workers (new economic
opportunities, esp. aircraft industry), high rates of divorce and
family/juvenile violence, women encouraged to work in factories,
still held inferior to men
•
Rationing – Americans at home reminded to conserve
materials in all aspects of life to support the military; resulted
in saving up of money to cause economic boom after war
330.Rosie the Riveter – symbol of women workers during the war
331.John L. Lewis – through CIO, led three coal mine strikes (some of
the very few strikes during the time period)
332.Braceroprogra m – brought in Mexicans for temporary jobs,
concentrated in southern CA, given extremely poor working
conditions (as they were not American citizens)
•
Zoot Suit riots – racism riots against Mexican laborers
(imported for jobs)
333.A. Philip Randolph and the March on Washington – led
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters: threatened a siege on DC if
FDR did not agree to end discrimination in military
334.Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) – prohibited
discrimination in any government-related work; increased black
employment
1945-1960
335.President Harry Truman – first president to show positive
response to civil rights movement; worked heavily on keeping
Soviet spread of communism in check
336.Jackie Robinson – first African-American in major league baseball
337.Desegregation of Armed Forces (1947) – banned racial
discrimination in federal practices; To Secure These Rights called for
desegregation, anti-lynching, end of poll taxes
338.Dixiecrats, 1948 – fought for old Southern way of life (states’
rights), attempted to gain higher standing within Democratic party;
aimed to deny Truman enough electoral votes to avoid his reelection
by nominating Strom Thurmond (SC governor)
339.Fair Deal – preservation of New Deal, attempt at additions; raised
minimum wage, public housing, old-age insurance extension,
agricultural price supports (lowering of farm price)
340.George Kennan – US ambassador to Russia, notified Truman of
Soviet ambitions to expand empire and overthrow other political forces; established concern for
Soviet policy in Eastern Europe, Germany, and the Middle East
•
Containment – aimed to prevent spread of communism
341.Truman Doctrine – support people oppressed by communism and
non-democratic governments; worked with democratic governments
in Greece, Turkey, and Israel
342.Marshall Plan – US provided financial assistance to recover
economies in Europe; aimed towards anti-communist governments in France, Italy, and
Germany; Eastern European nations prohibited from receiving help from US
343.Berlin Airlift – Soviets cut Berlin off from the rest of Germany by
blockade; US organized airlift to drop supplies into Britain;
blockade lifted in May 1949
344.North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – response to Berlin
crisis, warned Moscow that threats would be answered with force;
Warsaw Pact formed by Soviets in response
345.Soviet atomic bomb – September 1949, US no longer held
monopoly; two atomic powers
346.China turns communist – Mao Zedong (communist) defeated
nationalist forces of Kai-Shek (supported by US); seen as defeat for
US, not officially fully recognized until 1973
347.Korean War – Soviet-aided North Korea attack on South Korea;
MacArthur named general on behalf of UN (excluded Russia), US
supplied majority of troops; recapture of South Korea and
suppression of North forces to northern border; introduction of
Chinese, MacArthur fired for suggestion to use nuclear weapons on
China; nuclear incentives for peace negotiations
348.President Dwight D. Eisenhower – Republican, popular hero of
WWII; “dynamic conservatism” as a middle ground btw. Rep. and
Dem.; Interstate Highway System (ulterior motive of weapons
transportation); St. Lawrence Seaway opened Great Lakes to
Atlantic Ocean via locks; Depts. Of Health, Education, and Welfare
to oversee New Deal programs
349.Conformity in the 1950s – strong patriotism and need to conform
to try to avoid blame during red scare, non-churchgoers, unmarried,
and critics suspected as communists
•
Suburbia – middle class; white flight from urban areas due to
black migration; government supported insurance for
homeowners and builders
•
“Baby Boom” – unprecedented sudden growth spurt of
American population (especially urban and suburban areas)
•
“Cult of Domesticity” returns – women believed to belong in
the home, scientific “evidence”; widespread in magazines, TV,
&c.
350.GI Bill of Rights – government ensured readjustment rights to GIs
after WWI unrest, loans to veterans for higher education and
mortgages (contributed to economic prosperity)
351.Consumerism – Americans could now spend what they had been
told to save during the war (disposable income); increased
purchasing of luxury items
•
“Affluent Society” – economic prosperity of American society
following WWII; doubling of national income, jobs to women,
defense industry’s support of economy
352.Non-conformity: Elvis Presley, Marilyn Monroe, James Dean,
Beatniks – rebelled against conservative conformity of the rest of the
country (esp. targeted youth)
353.Rock ‘n’ Roll – influence of African-American blues, music of the
younger generation (gap between them and their parents)
354.David Riesman (The Lonely Crowd) – “outer directed” Americans
conforming to peer pressure on moral and social issues, rather than
independently thinking on morals
355.Richard Nixon, Alger Hiss – Nixon led movement to Hiss’s
indictment; convicted of perjury, Nixon gained national prominence
356.McCarthyism – attacked people for being communist by
association and unsubstantiated claims, against Truman, Marshall, and Ike; downfall came with
attack on the military (condemned by Senate); led hysteria of the red scare
•
Domino theory – one country that falls into communism will
cause surrounding nations to also fall “like dominos”; spurred
by Southeast Asia regimes (esp. Vietnam)
•
Community on Un-American Activities (HUAC) – attacked
public figures (Hollywood, New-Dealers, liberals) to root out
communist spies
•
Truman’s Loyalty Program – Truman tested for communist
alliances within government; government employees prohibited
from taking part in remotely-communist activities
•
Rosenbergs – executed for leaking atomic secrets to Soviets,
avowed communists
357.John Foster Dulles – secretary of state, policy to liberate captive
people in Eastern Europe by political pressure and propaganda;
massive retaliation to counter Soviet/Chinese aggression with
nuclear weapons;brin ksmanship to be persistent to solve crises
(even to the extent of war)
358.CIA overthrow of Iran (1953) – installed Shah as dictator,
overthrew Moussadegh (communist interests), in order to resist
nationalization British oil holdings
359.CIA overthrow of Guatemala (1954) – overthrew Pres. Guzman
after he nationalized American fruit fields and accepted arms from
USSR (communist sympathies)
360.Sputnik – caused American hysteria (1957), fear that Soviets were
technologically superior; led Ike to order more rigorous education
program to rival Soviets (National Defense Education Act)
361.National Aeronautics Space Agency (NASA) – launched in 1958
by Ike; successful launch of American satellite (Explorer I); massive
arms builup
362.U-2 Incident – American U-2 spy plane shot down over USSR
(Ike: “for national security); US suspended further flights,
Krushchev demanded apology (refused)
363.Ike’s Farewell Speech – warned of dangerous military-industrial
complex (newly-found power of the military to affect the path of
democracy)
364.AFL-CIO (1955) – unemployment jitters; expelled Teamster union
(resorted to gangsterism); height of power of workers’ unions
365.US economy since WWII (service economy) – highest peacetime
deficit in US history (due to lower tax rates for high-income taxpayers, spent too much money
attempting to reduce price supports to farmers)
366.Brown v. Board of Education(1954) – blacks denied admission to
all-white school; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson, negating “separate but equal”, ordered
integration of schools as soon as possible; white southerners protested (refused to attend
integrated schools)
367.Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955) – Parks
arrested for refusing to give up bus seat to white man, African
American leaders called for city-wide boycott of bus system (lasted
almost 400 days); Supreme Court ruled segregated buses
unconstitutional
368.Martin Luther King Jr., Southern Christian Leadership
Conference – led boycott, became leader of civil rights movement;
urged nonviolent resistance (cf. tactics of Ghandi);
369.Little Rock Crisis (1957) – Ike forced to send National Guard to
escort black children to school to quell riots and resistance (first time
since Reconstruction that troops used in the south to enforce
Constitution); resistance by white community (private schools)
370.Greensboro sit-in (1960) – nonviolent protest to college students
(NC) being refused lunch service; part of “sit-in” movement to
integrate all aspects of life (hotels, entertainment, &c.)
371.Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 – commission on civil rights to
attempt to guarantee the ballot to blacks; showed government’s
changing views of race relations
1960-present
372.Election of 1960 – Kennedy vs. Nixon, Kennedy (due to televised
charisma) won over Nixon (pale and nervous)
373.President John F. Kennedy – second youngest president, entered
presidency as tensions of the Cold War increased; unable to get
major initiatives through Congress due to conservative bloc; tax cuts
(economic stimulation); reluctantly gets involved in civil rights;
emphasizes Space Race (man on the moon)
374.Rachel Carson, Silent Spring – effects of pesticides on the
environment; changed way Americans viewed their impact on nature
375.Berlin Wall – due to threat of nuclear war, Soviets erected wall to
separate East Berlin from West Berlin (end exodus of intellect to
west); symbol of communist denial of freedom
376.Peace Corps – created in 1961 as example of liberal
anticommunism in third world countries; “reform-minded
missionaries of democracy”
377.Alliance for Progress (Marshall Plan of Latin America)–
Americans feared Soviet infiltration into Latin America, placed
secret police and military forces to prevent it
378.Bay of Pigs invasion – CIA attempt to institute Cuban support to
overthrow Castro; cover-up uncovered, became representation of
Cuban resistance to American aggression
379.Cuban Missile Crisis – storage of Soviet missiles in Cuba (threat
of nuclear war); Krushchev demanded that US never invade Cuba
and remove forces from Turkey; mutual compliance with each
other’s demands
380.Nuclear Test Ban Treaty – prohibited testing of nuclear bombs
above ground to slow the nuclear arms race and the release of
nuclear fallout into the atmosphere
381.Freedom Riders (Congress of Racial Equality - CORE)–
interracial group of protestors who aimed to dramatize the violations
of the call for desegregation; harsh treatment by southern whites
provoked Kennedy to more strictly enforce desegregation
382.James Meredith – black veteran escorted to be enrolled in Univ. of
Miss. by military (school reluctant, cf. Little Rock Nine)
383.March on Birmingham – King hosted myriad nonviolent
protesting activities to fill jail with protestors, Bill Connor (police
commissioner) began violent resistance to protestors
384.March on Washington, “I have a dream” – 25,000 people
(including whites) convened for political rally, MLK’s speech to
historical event; attempted to push civil rights bill through Congress
385.Assassination of JFK, Warren Commission – Assassinated by
Lee Harvey Oswald (hated his anti-Cuban policies); LBJ instituted Warren Commission to
investigate assassination (headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren)
386.President Lyndon B. Johnson – dealt with Vietnam War, “Great
Society” program for improvement of American society, antipoverty
and anti-discrimination programs
•
“Great Society” – LBJ’s flood of proposals to Congress for the
beautification and amelioration of American society (War on
Poverty, Medicare, public education spending, public television
(PBS), National Endowments for the Humanities and Arts
(NEH, NEA))
387.Affirmative Action – sets of programs geared towards minorities
and oft-discriminated populations
•
Immigration Act of 1965 – abolished national origins quotas,
dramatically increased immigration (especially from Asia and
Latin America)
•
Civil Rights Act of 1964 – banned racial discrimination and
segregation (public), bias by federal government; enforced by
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
•
Voting Rights Act of 1965 – prohibited use of any devices
(e.g., literacy tests) to deny the right to vote and enforced black
suffrage rights
388.Forced busing – due to parents unhappy with encouraged
segregation of schools, Supreme Court instituted forced busing
policies (using school buses as a method of integration)
389.Malcolm X, Nation of Islam – Black Muslim worked to raise
black spirits and pride (cf. Marcus Garvey); emphasized black
institutions rather than mere desegregation, blacks to gain freedom
at any cost
390.Black Power, Stokely Carmichael – black rights leader, heavily
influenced by Malcolm X (advocated black separatism rather than
integration)
391.Black Panther Party – another black separatist movement; known
for peaceful demonstrations, but more for police shootouts
392.Gains for women – rejection of negative portrayals of women
(language, entertainment), increased quality and use of education,
more job opportunities, acceptance into military
•
National Organization of Women – founded by Betty
Friedan, Bella Abzug, and Aileen Hernandez; lobbied for equal
opportunity where the EEOC was lacking (gender
discrimination); lawsuits and mobilization of public opinion
•
Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique – denounced the
“housewife trap” which caused educated women to hold even
themselves inferior to men
•
Roe v. Wade – unconstitutionalized all state laws prohibiting
women’s rights to have an abortion performed during the first
trimester of pregnancy
393.César Chávez, United Farm Workers – used nonviolent protest
and boycott to achieve better working conditions for farmers (esp.
Mexican-Americans)
394.Vietnam War – United States aided South Vietnam in its war of
power struggle against North Vietnam, the Vietcong, USSR, and
China
•
Ngo Dinh Diem – Catholic communist autocrat of Vietnam,
assassinated (with aid of US)
•
Ho Chi Minh – contending communist politician in Vietnam,
had more popularity than Diem, took power upon Diem’s death
•
Vietcong – National Liberation Front, guerilla militia from
south Vietnam fighting alongside the Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (North Vietnam)
•
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution – Congress authorized LBJ to repel
and prevent aggression against US troops in Vietnam, used as a
blank check (perhaps too much, caused protests)
•
Tet Offensive (1968) – NLF attacked numerous South
Vietnamese cities and American embassies, eventually
repulsed; spoiled LBJ’s record to reelection, resulted in massive
protests in US to end the war; atrocities such that war could
only end in stalemate
395.Impact of LBJ’s Vietnam decision on 1968 election – left primary
open to Robert Kennedy and Eugene McCarthy, both promising to
end the controversial war
396.“New Left” (free speech movement) – youth activists (often
liberal arts students) spoke out against Vietnam War, supported
widespread liberalization
•
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) – part of the New
Left that envisioned “participatory democracy” (individuals control life-affecting decisions), end
materialism, militarism, and racism; inspired by young black activists
•
Anti-war protests – concentrated on college campuses, handin-hand with New Left
•
Counterculture: sex, drugs, and rock ‘n’ roll – youth looked
to doing as they pleased, heedless of the consequences
involved, musical and sexual revolutions
397.Andy Warhol - pop art, mass production of art by screening
398.Warren Court: desegregation (Brown v. Board of Ed), rights of the
accused (Miranda v. Arizona), voting reforms (Wesberry v. Sanders,
Reynolds v. Sims, Katzenbach v. Morgan)
399.1968 as “the year of shocks” - Tet Offensive in Vietnam,
assassination of MLK and Robert Kennedy (presidential candidate),
Riot of Democratic National Convention (Chicago police beat
antiwar protestors), Black Panthers
400.1968 Presidential Election – George Wallace vs. Nixon vs.
Humphrey; very narrow popular vote triumph to Nixon (although he
had clear majority of electoral votes)
401.Richard Nixon (R), “Southern Strategy” – lured many southern
Democrats to the Republican party (esp. due to southern opposition
to Civil Rights Act of 1964)
402.George Wallace, American – appealed to many conservatives,
especially southerners (opposed massive protests and integration)
403.Vietnamization – part of Nixon’s tri-faceted plan to honorably
remove troops from Vietnam; wean the South Vietnamese off of
American support, gradually reducing number of American troops
present
•
Bombing and invasion of Cambodia – another part of
Nixon’s out-of-Vietnam plan, destroy supply routes to North
Vietnam through Cambodia
404.Kent State Protest – Kent State University students protesting
against invasion of Cambodia, not allowed to demonstrate, violence
(murder) caused by guardsmen
405.“Silent Majority” – speech symbolized polarization between
conservatives and liberals
406.Conservative backlash against liberalism – conservatives like
Reagan benefited from denouncing the New Left and excessive
antiwar protests; gave him political prominence
407.Détente, realpolitik – détente achieved with USSR and China by
withdrawal from Vietnam; realpolitik shed the use of doctrines and
policies, instead using China and USSR in alternative ways to
achieve other goals (pitting China and USSR against each other, as
communist nations)
408.Nixon visits China and Russia (1972) – bridging communication
gaps, epitome of détente
•
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) – Nixon agreed
with USSR to achieve nuclear equality rather than the
superiority that threatened the destruction of the world; further
reduced tensions between the two countries
409.New Federalism – Nixon’s domestic policy; federal revenues
shared with states (revenue sharing), minimum incomep ro p o s e d
410.Watergate Scandal – despite near-guaranteed second term,
campaign workers burglarized Democratic offices, cover-up
unsuccessful, resigned to avoid impeachment
•
Nixon pardoned by Ford to get country focused on more
important matters
411.Energy Crisis, OPEC – increased already high rate of inflation by
quadrupling the price of crude oil
412.Stagflation – Ford’s and Carter’s presidencies experienced a
recession and inflation simultaneously, solved by Keynesian
economics
413.President Jimmy Carter – Panama Canal Treaty, diplomacy with
China, end of recognition of Taiwan; little accomplished
domestically due to conservative opposition, foreign policy more
successful; Washington outsider
•
Experienced high interest rates, inflation, increased government
spending, rising unemployment, decreased union membership
414.Humanitarian diplomacy – fought for human rights in Africa,
Panama Canal returned to Panama, relations with China resolved
415.Camp David Accords (peace btw Egypt and Israel) – followed
years of tension, Israel would leave newly acquired lands from war,
Egypt would respect Israel’s other land claims; accords not
completely followed, Sadat (Egypt) assassinated
416.Iran Hostage Crisis, 1979 – American hostages taken by UShating Shiites upon Shah’s flight from uprising, botched rescue
attempts
417.Soviet invasion of Afghanistan – despite CIA-sponsored Soviet
resistance, Afghanistan taken by Soviet Union; ended détente
between USSR and US
418.Deregulation – drastic cutbacks in regulation of business by the
federal government (banks, transportation, communications
419.Election of 1980 – decisive victory to Reagan due to his appeal
over Carter (now unpopular due to lack of success in the presidency
420.President Ronald Reagan – offered a New Deal (reminiscent of
FDR) of smaller government, reduced taxes, and free enterprise;
Washington outsider
421.Conservatism – belief in minimal government so as to allow the
people their own free reign, lower taxes to stimulate economy, &c.
422.Religious Right – political action for religion justified by decreased
presence of religion in society; Pat Robertson’s Christian Coalition
to expand national influence
423.Reaganomics – capitalism would become productive when
uninhibited by taxes and regulation
424.Supply-side economics, tax cuts – tax cuts to increase population
spending (help economy), drastic cutting back on government
programs due to lack of funds
425.Nicaraguan Contras – guerilla army sponsored by CIA to attack
procommunist revolutionaries in Nicaragua; fear of another Vietnam
426.“Evil Empire” speech, “Star Wars” – Reagan called the Soviet
Union an “evil empire”; Korean passenger plane shot down near
Moscow (increased anti-Soviet rhetoric); Strategic Defense Initiative
(SDI) used space-based lasers as defense from nuclear attack
427.Mikhail Gorbachev – Soviet leader undergoing tensions on
superpower and domestic level
428.Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty (1987)–
Reagan and Gorbachev agree to remove and destroy nuclear
weapons from Eastern and Western Europe; eased international
tension and allowed Soviet domestic reforms to take place
429.Fall of communism in Eastern Europe (1989) – Gorbachev
announced Soviet withdrawal of power from all of Eastern Europe,
including Berlin (wall torn down, free movement, &c.)
430.Fall of Soviet Union (1991) – Gorbachev decreased nuclear
arsenals, Communist Party lost power, Boris Yeltsin (president of
Russian Republic) led Muscovites to take control
431.“Graying of America” – economic recession (collapse of savings-
and-loan industry, increasing deficit due to Reagan tax cuts, retail
decreased, higher crime rate)
432.Economic transition to service economy in late 20th century (end
of industrialism) – higher focus on services (esp. education) rather
than material products
433.President H.W. Bush – carried on Reaganomics, Gulf War,
Savings and Loan Scandal
434.Gulf War, “Operation: Desert Storm” (1991) – Saddam
Hussein’s invasion of Kuwait despite peace treaty and refusal to
abandon Iraqi occupation
435.1992 Election – Bush vs. Clinton vs. Perot; focus on stagnancy of
economy and problems of middle class (Clinton)
436.President Bill Clinton – scholarly, welfare-reform, “Contract with
America,” impeachment over Monica Lewinski Scandal, War in
Kosovo
437.Gays in the military – ended exclusion of homosexuals from
military; due to controversy, compromise of “don’t ask, don’t tell”
instituted
438.North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA (1994)–
established free trade zone between Canada, United States and
Mexico, net gain in jobs due to opening of Mexican markets
439.“Contract with America” (1994) – Newt Gingrich (Republican
congressman) planned for success of Republican party in upcoming
election by pledging tax cuts, congressional term limits, tougher
crime laws, balanced budget amendment, popular reforms &c.
440.Clinton impeachment (1997) – helped approval ratings, not
removed from office despite all the efforts of Republican
congressmen
441.Bush v. Gore(2000) – Gore promising with experience, Bush
appealing by family influence and plans for presidency (tax cuts,
education reform, defense, &c.)
442.9/11 Terrorist Attacks on NYC & DC (2001) – planes hijacked by
terrorists for destruction; blame pinned on Al Qaeda and Osama bin
Laden, sought out in attempt to completely destroy terrorism
443.Invasion of Afghanistan (2002) – overthrow of the Taliban, in
search of bin Laden
444.Invasion of Iraq, removal of Saddam Hussein, 2003 – Iran, Iraq,
and North Korea designated as the “axis of evil,” institution of
democratic government in Iraq to replace Hussein’s dictatorship
(return to spread and protection of democracy throughout the world,
moving beyond containment of communism)