University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
Emergence and Development of Balkan Nationalism
Outline
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Early Balkan National Awareness
Greece
Serbia
Bulgaria
The Macedonian Question
Development of Albanian nationalism
The Balkan wars
Early National Awareness among Balkan peoples
• The Ottoman-Habsburg military border system
– The Croats and the Illyrian Movement
• 1699, Slavonia-Voyvodina border zone established
– Settled predominantly by Serbs who fled the Ottoman empire
– Autonomy of the Serbian Orthodox church – 1713
– Border Serbs religious autonomy played well with their former Ottoman millet traditions and
reinforced the old millet sense of group identity
– Exposure to emerging national and ethnic concepts
– Linking of autonomous church organization with growing sense of ethnic awareness
– Orthodox church connection with Russia - patronage
– 1794, first Serbian modern history – Jovan Rajic
– Dositei Obradovic – created exclusively Serbian literary language (artificial), fought against
Church domination in cultural life
Early National Awareness in the Ottoman Balkans
• No conditions for evolution similar to Western Europe
– No privileged zimmi noble class with claims to “nation” status
– No parallel to Western Europe’s political, intellectual and cultural development of Balkan
zimmi urban middle class
– No political partnership with Ottoman sultans
– No secular education
• Romantic ethno-national awareness – foreign import
• Sense of group belonging beyond the local in the millet
• Centuries of millet existence established religion as the Ottoman zimmis’ primary
criterion for group identity
• Ottomans build a political partnership with the ecclesiastical millet leaders and
not the urban middle class
Greek ethnic awareness
• Phanariote Greeks
– Controlled the Orthodox millet hierarchy
– Positioned to serve as the privileged elite in shaping group identities
– Had a sense of continuity with their pre-Ottoman, Byzantine past that no other group
possessed
• By the middle of 18th c. Greek merchant colonies operate in Central European
trade centers, Mediterranean and Russian Black Sea commercial ports
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
• Contacts with Europe brought about a split
– Those adhering to preserving millet leadership and dominance within the Ottoman Empire
– Those espousing ethno-national political aspiration, rejecting Ottoman sovereignty –
Evgenious Voulgaris of Corfu
• Revolutionary activity under the influence of France
– 1814, Society of Friends in Odessa
– Secret revolutionary societies in Greek colonies in Europe
• Sought support from Russia
– John Capodistrias – Russia’s foreign minister
• Traditional Phanariot leadership rejected revolutionary aspects of nationalism,
embraced cultural-linguistic ones
• Enforced their existing sense of Greek cultural superiority
– However, led to deeply rooted anti-Greek ethnic reaction
– Evolved into outright national hostility once ethno-national concept espoused
Independent Greece
• 18th c., Greek communities established outside the Ottoman Empire, secular
schools opened, nationalism
• Ottoman Greek society divided between Phanariotes and peasants, traditionalists
and secularists
• Secularists supported by the peasants – receptive to ethno-national revolutionary
ideas
• After 1817, Society of Friends aimed at national revolution and creation of
independent Greek state
– Initial support from Russia (Orthodox cultural affinity)
• 1821, Ottomans destructed in Anatolia, Ali Pasha of Ioannina, radicals call for
action – Alexander Ypsilantis
– Ypsilantis invades Moldova, Russian refuses support, defeated
Ottoman Serbs
• Two centuries of almost separate millet status under the Ohrid and Pec
Patriarchates
– Serbian speaking clerics – modicum of independent representative administration, direct
diplomatic relations
– 1766-67, patriarchates eliminated
• Ethnic awareness disseminated to the Ottoman Serbs by Habsburg border Serbs
and through the monasteries in Mount Athos
• 1804, uprising of Ottoman Serbs
• 1814, collection of Serbian folk songs and tales - Vuk Karadzic
• By 1824, Serbian literary language based on vernacular
– Based on Karadzic’s Herzegovinian dialect – bridge between Serbian and Croatian, thus,
modern Serbo-Croatian language
Serbia
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18th c., Serb-inhabited Ottoman regions – battlegrounds
Formation of predominantly Serb province of Belgrade
1718-39, Habsburg occupation, self-government
Selim III, initially permitted self-government to fight the ayans (Pazvanoglu)
Napoleonic wars, reversal – 1798, many Serb leaders executed, the Janissaries
reinstalled in Belgrade
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
• 1802, Karageorge joins sipahi uprising against the Janissaries
• 1804, Serbian uprising – janissaries confined to Belgrade
– Goal – to overthrow oppressive Janissary regime and restore stable provincial administration
– Habsburg border Serbs transformed it into a struggle for independence, asked Russia for help
- refused
Bulgarians
• Same sociopolitical fate as the Serbs – membership in the Orthodox millet, controlled by Greeks
• Lack of traditional native leadership class
• Additional challenges
– At the very heart of the Ottoman Balkans – far from borders
– on the way of all important military, administrative and communication lines, Proximity to Ottoman
capital
– Cut off from the world outside the Ottoman Empire
• Patriarchate of Ohrid preserves the title “Bulgarian”
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– However, all high clerics Greeks – anti-Greek sentiment
Thus, grassroots of Bulgarian ethnic self-awareness
17th c. - new Bulgarian literary language
1762, the monk Paisii - modern Bulgarian history
Sofronii Vratchanski – conducting literary and nationalist activities
The impact of Tanzimat on the Balkans
• Hatti Humayun of 1856 – beginning of direct impact
• Millet reorganization – only the original three
– 1857, Abdulmecid ordered general council of the Orthodox church – took place in 1860-62
• Rapid emergence of Bulgarian national movement
– 1860, Bulgarian merchants declared that they would not recognize the authority of the Greek
patriarch-name substitution
– Effectively the Bulgarian middle class demanded that the sultan recognize a new millet – on
ethnic basis
– Otherwise the middle class satisfied with new found prosperity
The “Bulgarian Church question”
•Nationalist dispute – no doctrinal positions involved
–Bulgarians - a church which would define, in millet terms, the geographical extend of Bulgarian
ethno-national territory
–Greeks – threat to Hellenism and the future of enlarged Greece
•Bulgarians involved French Catholic and American Protestant missionaries
–To play on Russia’s Orthodox and imperialist fears
•1870, count Ignatiev convinced the sultan – Abdulaziz to recognize independent
Bulgarian church over Bulgaria, Thrace, Macedonia (option to enlarge)
•Greek Patriarchate declared schism within Orthodoxy
•1872, first Bulgarian bishop elected
The Balkan crisis of 1875-76
• The Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion
– Non-Muslim peasants against Muslim landowner beys
– Aided by Russian and Habsburgs but avoided intervention
• 1876, Serbia declares war and invades Bosnia, Montenegro invades Herzegovina
• Serbs defeated, Ottoman forces invade Serbia
• Russian ultimatum for ceasefire
– Agreement between Russia and Austria to divide the Balkans
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
• Ottoman massacres in Bulgarian uprising
– Britain succumbs to popular pressure, withdraws Ottoman support
• The Istanbul Conference of 1876
– United autonomous Bosnia-Herzegovina
– Two autonomous Bulgarian provinces
– Montenegro keeps war gains, Serbia regains its prewar borders
Bulgarian independence
• March 1877, London convention– rejected by Abdulhamid
• April 1877, Russia declares war, signs treaty with Romania
– Free passage through Romania for recognition of independence
• Russians stopped at the strategic fortress of Pleven
• Advance resumed in January 1878
– Russian troops, Bulgarian volunteers decimate Muslim population
– 260,000 Muslims perished, 500,000 fled
• February, Russians in sight of Istanbul, Britain demonstration of power
• The Treaty of San Stefano
– Serbia, Montenegro, Romania granted complete independence
– Russia receives territories in eastern Anatolia
– Creation of autonomous Bulgarian principality – the single largest Balkan state so far
(intended as a Russian puppet)
The Berlin Treaty
• All Great Powers and Balkan states rejected San Stefano’s terms
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Western European powers - virtual Russian control of the Straits
Romania – Russian annexation of Bessarabia
Serbia and Montenegro–not all territories occupied during the war
Greece – left out, Bulgaria received Macedonia
• June 1878, Berlin Treaty
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only Great Powers’ interests considered, Balkan states, Ottomans ignored
Independence of Sebia, Montenegro, Romania recognized
Russia retains Eastern Anatolia and Bessarabia
Greece actually lost territory (Cyprus handed to Britain)
Bosnia-Herzegovina + sanjak of Novi Pazar to Austria
Bulgaria sliced into four peaces
Effects of the Berlin Treaty
• “Old diplomacy" - ill-suited for dealing with crises in the Balkans
– Unable to deal with mass movements and secret activities
– expected small states to obey orders, but the new Balkan governments often refused
– even if they agreed, state apparatus too weak to overcome popular nationalism and secret
conspiracies
• Western European imposed terms at Berlin – the fundamental motivation for the
Balkans subsequent divisive events
– Bulgaria- stubborn resolution to win back what was lost
– Serbia – saw Bulgaria as rival in respect to Macedonia
– Greece – national ambitions neglected, resolved every effort to win their “rightful” borders in
the north
• Radicalized Balkan nationalism
• Berlin Treaty – the first step to the World War I
The nature of Balkan nationalism
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
• Large multiethnic empire
– Ethnically foreign masters
– Cultural traditions did not include democracy
– Western European political culture meant national liberation
• Millet traditions
– Religious affiliation—crucial component of ethnic identity
– The Ottoman empire perceived as completely alien
• Ottoman Islamic society—the enemy par excellence
– Dealings no between parties with common civilizational values, atrocities
• Berlin - nation-state status but no national unification
– Emotionally charged atmosphere – radicalization of nationalism
– Militant ethnonational nation-state unification approach
• Political structure, economy, education – to enhance military capabilities
The “Macedonian Question”
• Includes the districts of Thessaloniki, Bitola, Kossovo
• Ethnic composition – “ethnological salad”
“The Christian population of this Pashalic is composed of four different races who all profess the
Greek Orthodox faith;... the Bulgarians... the Wallachs... the Albanians... and the Greeks”
Charles Calvert, British Consul in Monastir, 1867
– periphery– Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Vlachs, Jews
– Core regions – Slavic speaking, illiterate, no ethnic identification
• Balkan nationalism- ignored the difference between a nation, an ethnic group, and
race
– Macedonia – not a melting pot, it is only one group to form the majority of the population
– tracing the national identity of the Slavic-speaking group –the issue of paramount importance
– definition of that identity would justify irredentist claims
The Claims
• Bulgaria
– Medieval Slavs in Macedonia were absorbed by the Bulgarians
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Integral part of medieval Bulgaria
Strong linguistic affinity
The seat of the first independent Bulgarian Patriarchate
The birthplace of Bulgarian Cyrillic literary language
– Despite allegiance to the Greek dominated Patriarchate, Slav-speaking Macedonians were a
separate Bulgarian ethnic group
• Greece
– Ancient Macedonians were ethnic Greeks
– Medieval Slavs and Bulgarians were culturally converted to Byzantine Hellenism and were
ethnically assimilated
– Considering Slavic-speaking Macedonians loyalty to the Patriarch, they were ethnically Greeks
beyond doubt
• Serbia
– Some common folk-culture traditions, language affinity
– Serbs dominated Macedonia after the Bulgarians in the 14th century; thus, they could not have
been assimilated by the latter
– Macedonian Slavs were not identified as Bulgarians until the mid 19th century
• Romania
– Claimed Latin-speaking seminomadic Vlachs as Romanians
– Goal - to leverage claim in other territorial disputes - Dobrudja
• Albania
– Albanian-speaking population
– Joined the clashes in Macedonia opposing both the Ottomans and the other nationalist groups
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
The Bulgarian Exarchate and escalation of Balkan nationalism
• Right to expand religious jurisdiction by vote of population
– Bulgarian national revival extends to Macedonia
– Macedonian intellectuals join Bulgarian national movement
– Orthodox Macedonians express desire to join the Exarchate
• Clashes between pro-Exarchates and pro-Patriarchates
• Victory for the Exarchate
• 1885-6, Bulgarian unification, Serbs defeated, enter into nationalist propaganda
in Macedonia
– Increase terror on Macedonian Slavs, who immigrate to Bulgaria
– Émigrés become powerful political factor in Bulgarian politics, demand state intervention in
Macedonia
• 1893, beginning of Macedonian national movement
– IMRO – first European political terrorist organization
The Illinden Uprising
• The fundamental factor of the “Macedonian question” – Ottoman possession still
continued
• 1903, IMRO stages uprising
– Ill prepared, Bulgaria not ready for war
– Crushed with usual violence by the Ottomans for three months
• Great Power enact reform program
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Foreign inspectors attached to Ottoman administration
Ottoman Macedonian gendarmerie placed under foreign command
Judicial reorganization, financial assistance for refugees
Future administrative reform along ethnic lines
• Failure of Ottoman reforms
– For too many players, reform required too much work. As a result, revolution remained the
driving force in Balkan affairs
Rise of Albanian nationalism
• Last to adopt national ideas
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Religious diversity – 70% Muslim, 20% Orthodox, 10% Catholic
Religious tolerance – the Bektashi order
Extensive local autonomy, positions open for all faiths
the backbone of Ottoman European forces
Linguistic split between North and South
Schools – Turkish in Muslim and Greek in Orthodox
Traditional clan and tribal identities – difficult ground for nationalism
Nationalist activities of Albanians in Italy of little impact
• 1878, Albanian-populated land given to new Balkan states
– the Albanian League – Abdul Frasheri
– 1908, Latin based Albanian alphabet, secular schools
The effects of the Young Turks’ Revolution
• Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina
– Blow to Serbian nationalism (Yugoslavism)
• Bulgaria declares complete independence
• Ottoman Crete declares unification with Greece
• Young Turks –centralization and Turkish hegemony
– counter the spirit of the constitution
University of Ottawa
Anton Minkov
HIST7330 Defining Identities: Conversion, Nationalism and Foreign Intervention in the Ottoman EmpireClass 4
– Albanian national development intensifies
– National awakening among Armenians and Arabs
• Young Turks’ repressive nationalist policies permitted to overcome Balkan states’
mutual national animosities and form an anti-ottoman military alliance
• Resulted of loss of most of ottoman Balkan processions
The Balkan wars 1912-13
• 1911, Ottomans in war with Italy over Tripoli
• 1912, treaty between Bulgaria and Serbia
– Sanjak of Novi Pazar, Kossovo, northern Macedonia to Serbia
– Western Trace to Bulgaria, bulk of Macedonia to be autonomous
• 1912, Greek-Bulgarian military alliance – no territorial issues defined
• Balkan League formation - strategy on the part of the underdogs – Greece and
Serbia- in the Macedonian question to eliminate the advantages of Bulgaria
• May 1912, Albanians rebel against Young Turks policies
• Montenegro joins the alliance – first declares war
• Great Powers alliance system
– difficult to take effective action without first consulting allies and enemies and agree on the
acceptable action
First Balkan war
• Fought to decide Macedonia’s faith
• Bulgarians face the main Ottoman army in Thrace
– Take Edirne after a long siege, stopped before Istanbul
• Greeks and Serbians face weak Ottoman troops in Macedonia
– Greece occupies Thessaloniki and southern Macedonia
– Serbia takes Kossovo and 2/3 of Macedonia
– Montenegro invades Albania
• May 1913, Treaty of London
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Autonomous Albania- includes parts originally promised to Serbia
Serbia takes more of Macedonia in compensation
Bulgaria and Greece quarrel over Thessaloniki
Romania demands Bulgarian piece of Dobrudja
Second Balkan war
• June 1913, Serbia and Greece sign anti-Bulgarian alliance to defend their newly
acquired territories
• Bulgarian nationalist emotions result in assault on Serbian and Greek positions in
Macedonia
• Romania, Montenegro and Ottomans join Serbia and Greece
• Bulgaria striped from all war gains
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Ottomans retake eastern Thrace and Edirne
Romania takes Dobrudja
Western Thrace and Kavala given to Greece
Macedonia divided between Greece and Serbia
• Serbians gain overconfident sense of nationalism
– Intensify nationalist activities in Bosnia-Herzegovina leading to WWI