Chapter 1 - Summary
As a subfield of International Studies, intercultural or international
communication is a symbolic process by which people who have different cultural
perspectives create shared meanings. We live in an increasingly global society where
technological advances have made possible communication among individuals, groups,
governmental institutions, non-governmental organizations, and businesses all over the
world. With the increased ease of communication comes an increased need for effective
intercultural and international communication. At the beginning of the 21st Century, we
face many international challenges like political instability, economic crisis,
overpopulation, world health issues, natural resource depletion, and terrorism. We can
effectively address such challenges through the study of intercultural and international
communication, which often covers the more practical aspects of international studies.
There are many reasons why the study of international and intercultural
communication is important. They are the growth of international business, the recent
revolution in technology and telecommunications, the changing demographics of many
countries (like the US), the role such a study can play in peace initiatives, the role it can
play in addressing global issues like the political conflicts and financial crisis,
environment and world health, and the role it can play in developing an individual’s selfknowledge and personal growth.
The study of intercultural communication is inherently interdisciplinary, drawing
originally on the fields of linguistics, psychology, and anthropology, and recently from
disciplines of political science and international studies. All intercultural and
international communication scholarship can be divided into two broad categories: etic
scholarship which is based on a researcher-imposed structure and emic scholarship which
involves studying a culture from the inside, or from the perspective of members of the
culture. There are four primary approaches to the study of intercultural and international
communication; they are the social science approach, the critical approach, the
interpretive approach, and the dialectical approach.
The concept of mindfulness is applied to our study of intercultural and
international communication in this book. A mindful intercultural communicator strives
to understand the cultural values, beliefs, and norms of members of other cultures and to
use that understanding to adapt his/her communication style to achieve a meaningful
exchange and win-win results. Mindfulness is a question of awareness both cultural and
political. If we are aware of the need to be sensitive to and respectful of differences
among cultures we will be more likely to carry out the necessary steps to gain the
knowledge and skills necessary for effective communication. In turn, such efforts reduce
unintentional conflicts, which are usually a waste of precious scare resources. Moreover,
a mindful behavior enhances cooperation in a domestic group with cultural diversity as
well as among members of different cultures within an international setting.
From a pedagogical perspective, it is important to highlight that we have
employed Kenneth Waltz’s methodology in our interdisciplinary approach to examining
behavior of different actors at both domestic and international levels. In his pioneering
work titled “Man, the State, & War,” Waltz explained human behavior at three different
levels: the behavior of a single individual, the behavior of a country consisting of
collective behavior of its people and decision makers, and the aggregated behavior of
nations and other international players in the world systems. In short, we discuss the
behavior of individuals and groups in addition to that of nations and international system.
Chapter 2 - Summary
Most definitions of culture agree on these key characteristics of culture; culture is
learned; it involves the shared perceptions and values of large groups of people; it is
expressed as behavior; and it is dynamic and adaptive. The Iceberg Model of culture is
useful to help us understand the relationship between superficial aspects of culture and
deeply held cultural values. Etic approaches to the study of intercultural communication
are approaches based on constructs developed by researchers to compare cultures with
respect to a particular quality or predetermined category. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s
Value Orientations reveal how different cultures answer universal questions related to
their beliefs about human nature and about the relationship of humans to nature, to time,
and to one another. Hofstede’s Cultural Value Dimensions focus on the core value
dimension of individualism/collectivism. The other dimensions he studied are the Power
Distance Dimension, the Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension, the Masculinity/Femininity
Dimension, and the Confucian Dynamism Dimension. Edward T. Hall’s Theory of
Contexting categorizes cultures based on how much meaning in any communication is
derived from the context of the encounter. In high context cultures, most of the meaning
is derived from the context of the encounter; in low context cultures, most of the meaning
is derived from explicit communication rather than from the context. While these
taxonomies are useful to the study of broad cultural patterns, they have limitations. We
should bear in mind that not all members of a particular culture will share all of its
values.
A person’s perception of the world and of himself is determined in large part by
his cultural background. Each of us has cultural, social, and personal identities. Our
personal and social identities are developed in conjunction with one another, and both are
acquired within the larger structure of culture. We all have multiple group identities, and
just because we are members of a particular group, we may not share all of the beliefs
and values of that group. Since culture determines perception, diverse cultures see the
world quite differently from one another and have divergent views about right and wrong.
These different worldviews can sometimes present obstacles to effective intercultural
communication. Ideological and religious differences have led to many conflicts in the
world. In this textbook, we draw on concepts from the field of international relations in
order to understand issues of power and conflict/cooperation in our global community.
We put forward the concept of the citizen diplomat, that is, an average citizen who can
make a positive impact on cooperation within the global community through mindful
intercultural communication in his/her daily life. Mindful communication can be
challenging since intercultural encounters are complex interactions shaped by the
expectations of those involved and their perceptions of what is at stake. Throughout this
textbook we will examine the impact of technology and the media on intercultural
communication in our global community. We will also examine ethical issues that arise
in relation to communication across cultures.
Chapter 3 - Summary
The social science approach to the study of intercultural communication is based
on the assumption that the communication behavior of people can be predicted by their
cultural backgrounds. Scholars using this approach seek to understand communication
patterns across cultures by studying isolated instances of communication behavior. They
typically conduct cross-cultural comparisons of communication patterns, and their work
has led to the identification of broad cultural differences in linguistic and nonverbal
behavior across cultural groups. This approach has also helped identify the influence of
variables like national culture, ethnicity, and gender on intercultural communication.
Scholars using this approach seek to understand communication from outside the cultures
being studied and impose their own structure on the research by studying predetermined
variables. Social science research often uses experimental methods derived from
psychology and sociology, and relies on quantitative methods to analyze findings and
establish causal relationships.
The interpretive approach focuses on the social construction of reality, and
interpretive research describes human behavior. Interpretive research methods include
field studies, ethnographies, and rhetorical analysis. Interpretive scholars are often
interested in describing communication patterns within one cultural community rather
than making comparisons across cultures. The ethnographic tradition used in
intercultural communication scholarship is based on the qualitative research methods
used by anthropologists. Scholars using the interpretive approach seek to describe the
communication patterns that represent the subjective experience of various groups.
Speech codes are the unwritten guidelines for how to communicate within a particular
culture. Cultural groups all have codes that dictate how members are to communicate
within the group, what constitutes effective communication, and what behaviors are
necessary to achieve “membering” within the group. Interpretive scholars may also study
the public discourse of a particular cultural group by analyzing speeches and other oral
discourse in the context in which they occur.
Chapter 4 - Summary
The critical approach focuses on the role of power relationships in communication
and on the unequal distribution of power in society. Scholars using the critical approach
seek to improve the conditions for those individuals and groups who are disadvantaged
through their analysis of the role of power in cultural encounters. Critical scholars are
interested in the social, political and historical contexts in which intercultural
communication occurs. Frequently, critical scholars use textual analyses to study the
forces that shape cultures; they study films, television, newspapers, and other “texts”
produced by a culture. These cultural products reflect the political and social structures
of a culture and reveal how the majority culture dictates communication, often leaving
members of co-cultural groups with no voice in society. Critical scholars challenge
stereotypical depictions of co-cultural groups and seek to bring about change in society.
Martin, Nakayama, and Flores developed the dialectical approach to provide a
framework for reconciling the many different approaches to the study of intercultural
communication. The dialectical approach stresses the processual, relational, and
contradictory nature of intercultural communication. There are six dialectics: culturalindividual, personal-contextual, differences-similarities, static-dynamic, history/pastpresent/future, and privilege-disadvantage. These dialectics are related to four building
blocks of intercultural communication: culture, communication, context, and power. The
dialectical approach brings together the strengths of the social science, critical, and
interpretive approaches and makes it possible to study the many contradictory aspects of
intercultural communication. While not a specific theory in the way that the other
approaches are, the dialectical approach is a perspective from which to study intercultural
communication encounters.
Chapter 5 - Summary
Verbal communication is both the written and the spoken use of a language. All
languages have five basic components that govern their structure and use: phonology,
morphology, syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. Language does not determine our
experience of reality; however, it is a valuable tool for organizing our perceptions of the
world. Language reveals a great deal about the values and beliefs of cultures. Individuals
who do translation and interpretation must be fluent not only in languages, but also in
cultures, to translate and interpret successfully. The preference for one language or one
linguistic variation of a language over another within a nation is often related to political
power. Languages that are chosen as official languages are generally the languages
spoken by individuals and groups in positions of power with the nation. Similar issues
can be observed with the privileging of certain accents and dialects over others and with
prejudice directed toward individuals who speak with these accents and dialects. In both
cases, it is a question of power rather than the fact that one language or linguistic
variation is superior to another.
Communication styles vary from one culture to another and preferences for
different styles are related to the individualism/collectivism cultural value dimension.
The four different verbal communication styles are: Direct/Indirect,
Elaborate/Exact/Succinct, Personal/Contextual, and Instrumental/Affective. The
communication styles used to resolve conflicts also vary from one culture to another.
Intercultural conflict can arise for many reasons; some conflicts are caused by differences
in communication styles. However, even conflicts that have other initial causes can be
escalated by incompatible styles of conflict resolution. Five styles of conflict
management are commonly used: dominating, integrating, compromising, obliging, and
avoiding. All of these styles are used by members of both individualistic and
collectivistic cultures; however, different cultures do tend to favor certain styles over
others. As mindful intercultural communicators, we must strive to understand the
different styles and adapt our communication styles to ensure the resolution of conflicts
and increased intercultural understanding.
Chapter 6 - Summary
Nonverbal communication accounts for between 60 and 65 percent of the
information we receive in any communication encounter. There are numerous differences
in nonverbal communication norms across cultures. Nonverbal communication includes
body language, gestures, eye contact, touch, clothing, physical adornments, facial
expression, voice, space, and time. Many of the differences in the use of these various
aspects of nonverbal communication across cultures can be related to the cultural value
dimensions, particularly the cultural value dimension of individualism/collectivism. It is
important to be mindful of the gestures that we use when engaging in intercultural
communication as their meanings vary widely across cultures. Cultural norms regarding
eye contact are also quite different across cultures; we cannot assume that failure to make
eye contact makes an individual untrustworthy.
Some cultures are high-contact cultures, meaning that they enjoy close interaction
with others. They touch frequently, stand closer, and are generally warmer
interpersonally than members of low-contact cultures. There are also moderate-contact
cultures that fall somewhere between the extremes of the other two. In general, highcontact cultures tend to be located in warmer climates, closer to the equator, while lowcontact cultures are found in colder climates. Within all cultures, clothing and other
physical adornments may have deeper meanings related to the culture’s values, such as
modesty, conformity, or the right to free expression. We need to be mindful
communicators and avoid stereotyping individuals because of their clothing. While there
are some universal facial expressions, the cultural display rules for them are not
universal. Similarly, we need to keep in mind that the pace, pitch, volume, and other
aspects of speech vary from one culture to another and that we cannot make assumptions
about an individual merely on the basis of these vocal cues.
Finally, concepts of space and time are not universal across cultures. Around the
world, some cultures place a high value on private space while others emphasize
communal spaces. Similarly, some cultures are monochronic and view time as a
commodity and value schedules and punctuality over relationships while other cultures
are polychronic and are more concerned about people than they are about staying on
schedule. In order to appreciate all these nonverbal cultural differences we must be
mindful and bring our own largely unconscious nonverbal communication norms into our
conscious awareness.
Chapter 7 - Summary
Visual communication is distinct from nonverbal communication in that it is
focused on the use of visual images to convey information while nonverbal
communication is focused on the use of the body, physical adornments to the body, and
one’s environment to convey information. In fact, visual communication is more allied
with verbal communication in that both consistent of intentionally crafted messages
created using symbols that have been invested with meaning. Research studies have
shown that culture influences our visual perception of the world and our interpretations of
what we perceive. Culture also plays a role in our creation of visual images.
Semiotics, the study of signs, focuses on the way the brain stores information
symbolically to help us classify what we perceive as either helpful or harmful. Charles
Sanders Peirce said that a sign may be iconic, indexical, or symbolic. Iconic signs closely
resemble what they represent, like a drawing of a person; indexical signs have a logical
relation to what they represent, like a map used to represent a city; symbolic signs are
typically abstract and their meaning must be learned, like a flag used to represent a
nation. Stereotypical visual representations of co-cultural groups may be used to
maintain the status quo and perpetuate prejudice and discrimination. However,
oppositional readings of these signs challenge the stereotypes and seek to bring about
social change.
The use of signs across cultures requires mindfulness because there are few signs
that are universally understood. Despite attempts to create a universal language of visual
symbols, most visual images have culture-specific meanings. For this reason, the
depiction of people, animals, and even everyday objects across cultures presents
challenges. Some generic figures like those found on international road signage and in
public facilities work across cultures, but even they may have limitations in the
developing world. The perception and interpretation of color is also highly divergent
across cultures. The mindful intercultural communicator faces many challenges when
communicating visually across cultures.
Chapter 8 - Summary
Mass media impacts culture and communication, and influences the public’s political
perceptions and opinions. Due to advancements in technology, mass media is able to
spread information and news globally faster than ever before. The mass media has the
ability to communicate messages to the public via television news, newspapers, books,
films, television, Internet, periodicals, and radio. With the ability to reach a global
audience, the role of the media in intercultural communication has never been more
important.
The media uses its powers of priming, agenda setting, selective processing, digital
delivery, public diplomacy, and political mobilization in order to influence culture and
communication, as well as political perceptions and opinions. In addition, the media
uses the power of persuasion to influence a person’s thoughts and behaviors. With this
long list of powers, the media is a more influential actor in the world than many people
realize. In fact, based on IR literature, the growing power of media and MNCs
overshadow weak states’ sovereignty.
Through the use of its powers, the mass media more or less directs how we all see
our cultural values and norms as well as how we view other cultures. In the age of digital
delivery, the media has the ability to instantly connect people from different nations
around the world to one another. It can easily transfer information about the lifestyles
and cultures of one particular nation to another. As a result, cultural assimilation is now a
global phenomenon and is seen as a threat to many nations. With the spread of cultural
assimilation, group conflict is on the rise as the cultural values of nations are threatened.
The mass media also has the ability to influence the formation of the public’s
political perception and opinions. Political perception is often developed during crucial
periods in adolescence and adulthood through cultural and social experiences. Since
most people get their news from television news programs, the media has the ability to
influence the public’s thoughts and behaviors on both domestic and international issues.
With the increased ability of the media to spread news, influence cultures, and
form political perceptions, the media can play an important role in intercultural
communication. Since the mass media determines who is communicated to and what is
communicated, it has the ability to effectively change and influence the outcome of group
conflicts. The media can play a positive role in influencing public opinion and
highlighting the benefits of intercultural communication in order to emphasize the need
for peace and overall understanding.
Chapter 9 - Summary
Ethics is a system of principles used to guide the behavior of individuals and
groups; these guidelines are based on beliefs about what is “good” and “bad” in human
behavior. Each culture has a unique set of standards for ethical behavior based on its
values. The universal approach to ethical behavior minimizes cultural differences and
applies the same ethical standards to all members of the global community. In contrast,
the relative approach to ethical behavior argues that there are no universal standards and
“right” and “wrong” actions can only be determined within the context of a particular
culture. Cultural relativism argues that only members of a given culture can evaluate the
behavior of individuals in that culture.
There is considerable tension between the universal and relative approaches to
ethics. The universal approach may fail to respect and allow for cultural differences,
while the relative approach may allow acts of genocide and violent oppression to take
place because they are not condemned by members of the culture in which they occur.
As mindful communicators, we will need to develop our own ethical standards that take
into account both the universal and the relative perspectives. Whatever our approach, we
should always respect diverse others, seek common ground with them, and respect the
significance of cultural differences.
Chapter 10 - Summary
In this final chapter, we explore examples of citizen diplomats in action and the
role mindfulness and global citizenship play in intercultural communication. We look at
the real life examples of Bill and Melinda Gates, Bono, Mother Teresa and the
accomplishments they have achieved in their efforts as citizen diplomats. By looking at
these real life examples, we discover what mindfulness and citizen diplomacy can
achieve. We continue our exploration by discussing other examples of global citizenship
in action.
We also discuss the role of business and the global economy while examining
globalization and its effects on the environment and the world. Globalization has
changed the way conflicts emerge and its role in global politics. We address the issue of
terrorism and the importance of cultural awareness. We also take a closer look at the role
mindfulness and global citizenship play in managing terrorism. In this new global
village, it is more important than ever for people to understand the culture of others.
Finally, we conclude the chapter by examining individuals influencing cultures
and practicing mindfulness in their own local areas. In addition to be being a member of
our own ethnic, national, and religious groups, it is also important for everyone to
become a member of the international community. In this modern world, everyone must
recognize that it is nearly impossible to separate many domestic and international
problems and that managing international challenges will take the efforts of all nations.
As a result, each and every person must think like a global citizen and practice
mindfulness in their daily lives.