MENTAL TRAINING MANUAL FOR COLLEGIATE CHEERLEADING COACHES
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Department of Kinesiology
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Kinesiology
(Movement Studies)
by
James T. Grimaud
SUMMER
2012
© 2012
James T. Grimaud
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
MENTAL TRAINING MANUAL FOR COLLEGIATE CHEERLEADING COACHES
A Project
by
James T. Grimaud
Approved by:
______________________________, Committee Chair
Michael Wright, Ph.D.
______________________________, Second Reader
Cindy Long-Nicholson, MBA, MS
Date:________________
iii
Student: James T. Grimaud
I certify that this student has met the requirement for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded to this project.
____________________________, Graduate Coordinator _____________
Michael Wright, Ph.D
Date
Department of Kinesiology
iv
Abstract
of
MENTAL TRAINING MANUAL FOR COLLEGIATE CHEERLEADING COACHES
by
James T. Grimaud
The purpose of this project was to develop a manual for collegiate cheerleading
coaches to implement psychological skills training into a season in which a team would
be competing at college nationals. The integration of the manual into a season can help to
improve athletes’ self-confidence, arousal control, goal setting, concentration, and
imagery. When all skills are mastered athletes are able to feel more confident in their
performance.
The research for this project was collected from college textbooks, journal articles,
scientific research and other mental skills training guides. The content of chapter four
was the product of the author’s own personal experiences and discoveries synthesized
with the current research and theories.
The project addresses common issues that cheerleaders face throughout a
competition season and provides coaches with psychological skills exercises to easily
blend into practice to help the athletes deal with those issues. The manual provides
specific exercises and self-assessments for the coach to implement psychological training
skills without a sport psychology consultant. With the implementation of this manual,
v
coaches are able to provide the opportunity for athletes to perform at the best of their
ability mentally.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Michael Wright, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
vi
DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to my loving mother Donna and my late father Robert for
installing me with the drive to learn and to succeed. Their constant push to learn and
become the best and well educated helped me strive to the completion of this project. I
also dedicate this project to my late grandmother Jeannette and my grandfather Fredrick.
Their constant support and love for me has aided me through my schooling and this
project.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was not completed because of one person but with the support of an
abundant staff of individuals. This graduate program has taught me more about life by
changing the way I think about coaching and interactions with other life situation. It was
more than classes on what you want to do and more about who “YOU” want to be.
Without the sport psychology class taught by Dr. Gloria Solomon and her enthusiasm in
the subject, my interest would not have initiated. The aid of Dr. Michael Wright in
several classes and his willingness to take on another project is the only reason this
project was possible. Yet the person who has made this project succeed was the selfless
time of my reader Cindy Long-Nicholson. Her dedication to excellence and knowledge
led me down a path of only presenting the best. The countless hours she committed made
this project a success. My siblings Todd, Michael, and Shannon were there to constantly
remind me of my ending goal when I lost sight. My friend Alli’s random texts would
keep me honest with myself. The belief of my family and friends were with me
throughout the whole project. The combination of everyone was the motivational force,
and for that I am grateful to have you all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………..vii
Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………viii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………...........xiv
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION……………………...……………………...………………………1
Statement of Purpose……………………………………………………………...3
Significance of Project……..……………………………………………………...3
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..5
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..………………………………………………………...7
Psychological Skills……………………………………………………………….7
Self-Confidence…………………………………………………………………...7
Goal Setting……………………………………………………………………….9
Imagery…………………………………………………………………………..11
Arousal Control…………………………………………………………………..14
Concentration…………………………………………………………………….16
Summary…………………………………………………………………………18
3. METHODOLOGY………..………………………………………………………… 20
Manual Format…………………………………………………………………...20
Introduction………………………………………………………………20
Self-Confidence………………………………………….………………20
ix
Arousal Control.………………………………………….………………21
Goal Setting……………………………………................................…...22
Concentration…………..………………………………………………...22
Imagery…...……………………………………………………………...23
4. MENTAL TRAINING MANUAL FOR COLLEGIATE CHEERLEADING
COACHES………………………..…………...………………………………………24
Introduction………………………………………………………………………24
Self-Confidence………………………………………….………………………26
Practice # 1…...…………………………………………………………..28
Exercise # 1……………………………………………………....28
Exercise # 2…………….………………………….……..............28
Practice # 2…...…………………………………………………………..31
Exercise # 3……………………………………………................31
Exercise # 4…………………………............................................32
Practice # 3…...…………………………………………………………..34
Exercise # 5………………………………………………...….....34
Exercise # 6………………………………………..…..................36
Arousal Control………………………………………….……………………….38
Practice # 1…...…………………………………………………………..39
Exercise # 1………………………………………...….................39
Exercise # 2……………………………………...…….................40
Practice # 2…...…………………………………………………………..42
x
Exercise # 3………………………………………........................42
Exercise # 4………………………………………..…..................43
Exercise # 5………………………………………........................43
Practice # 3…...…………………………………………………………..43
Exercise # 6…………………………………………..………......44
Exercise # 7……………………………………………...….........44
Practice # 4…...…………………………………………………………..45
Exercise # 8…………………………………...….........................45
Exercise # 9………………………………………………............47
Practice # 5…...…………………………………………………………..49
Exercise # 10……………..............................................................50
Practice # 6…...………………………………………….……………….51
Exercise # 11……………..............................................................51
Goal Setting………………………………………….…………………………..53
Practice # 1…...…………………………………………………………..54
Exercise # 1………………………………………...….................54
Practice # 2…...…………………………………………………………..56
Exercise # 2………………………………………...…….............56
Exercise # 3……………………………………………...…….....58
Practice # 3…...…………………………………………………………..61
Exercise # 4………………………….……………….……..........61
Exercise # 5……………….……………………………….…......61
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Exercise # 6…………………………...….....................................62
Concentration………………………………………….…………………………63
Practice # 1…...…………………………………………………………..64
Exercise # 1……………………………………………..…..........64
Exercise # 2………………………………………...….................65
Practice # 2…...…………………………………………………………..67
Exercise # 3……………………………………...……….............67
Practice # 3…...…………………………………………………………..69
Exercise # 4………………………………………………….…...69
Exercise # 5……………………………………………..……......70
Mental Imagery………………………………….……………………………….72
Practice # 1…...…………………………………………………………..74
Exercise # 1………………………………………..…..................74
Exercise # 2……………………………………………..…..........75
Practice # 2…...…………………………………………………………..75
Exercise # 3……………………………………..………..............75
Exercise # 4………………………………………………...…….76
Practice # 3…...…………………………………………………………..76
Exercise # 5…………………………………….……...................77
Exercise # 6………………………………………………………77
Exercise # 7……………................................................................78
5. DISCUSSION…………………………….………………………………..………….80
xii
References………………………………….………………….………………………....83
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures
Page
Figure 1. Types of Attentional Focus……………………………………………………17
xiv
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Mental skills training has been known to be a crucial part of sport performance.
These psychological skills are taught by sport psychology consultants. The study of Sport
Psychology began in the late 1890’s and has just recently received prominent notoriety.
Normal Triplett introduced and conducted the first sport psychology experiment in 1897
(Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Over the next 70 years, the information was expanded, and
the North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity was created
acknowledging the profession. Since the field has grown, there is increasing support of
research; it is now accepted across a wide array of sports (Weinberg & Gould, 2007).
Understanding mental processes may allow athletes to push themselves further than they
had previously experienced. Research has been done in many different sports on the
value of mental skills, but not at the competitive level of collegiate cheerleading.
Bright lights shimmering on your face cause a bead of sweat to drip down your
brow, as the jeers of over 5,000 spectators scream in the Milk House at Disney World.
You wonder if you have done enough the last four months to perform the best two
minutes and thirty seconds routine of your life. The time has come, the music starts, no
more time for contemplation.
Cheerleading is an activity that began over 100 years ago. The first appearance
was in 1898 by University of Minnesota student Jonny Campbell; he is known as the first
“yell leader” (Neil & Heart, 1986). Cheerleading was a male activity until 1923 when
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females were included due to the limited amounts of sports in which they could
participate (Walker, 2005). In 1948, former cheerleader Laurence Herkimer started the
National Cheerleading Association (NCA) in order to hold cheer clinics (Balthaser,
2005). In the 1960’s, the Baltimore Colts of the National Football League (NFL) had the
first professional cheerleading team. It was the début of the Dallas Cowboys cheerleaders
in the 1972-73 season that changed the appearance and expectancy of the NFL
cheerleaders. Jeff Webb, the VIP/ General Manager of National Cheerleaders Association
(NCA), broke apart in 1974 and started the Universal Cheerleaders Association (UCA).
By the 1980’s, cheerleading was growing more rapidly and the American Association of
Cheerleading Coaches and Advisers (AACCA) was formed to regulate stunts, tumbling,
baskets, and pyramids to enhance safety policies (George, 2006). Each year, more rules
and regulations are put in place to prevent injuries.
The currently manuals published on cheerleading focus on the physical aspect of
cheer. There is one academic author that has addressed the mental training of
cheerleading. Pamela Enders (Harvard Medical School) created The Mental Game of
Cheerleading: Training for Competitions (Enders, 2009), which is a 2 disc CD and
workbook that looks at the psychological aspect of repetitive competitive cheerleading.
It is ideal that a team has a sport psychology consultant specializing in the mental
preparation and techniques of a sport. Sport psychology consultants present many
psychological skills that can benefit the athlete on an individual basis and the team as a
whole. Most collegiate cheerleading teams are either unaware of the field of sport
psychology, unable to get in contact with a certified member, or unable to fiscally hire a
3
sport psychology consultant. When a professional is not present, it is the responsibility of
the coach to encourage optimal psychological conditions and provide mental skills
training (Weinberg & Williams, 2001). Without exposure to mental skills training, most
coaches will not spend adequate time preparing the athletes mentally. With
supplementary knowledge, the coach is able to incorporate mental skills daily through
each physical skills training session.
Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this project is to create a manual for Collegiate Cheerleading
Coaches instructing them how to implement mental training strategies within everyday
practices. This manual will address the positive affects that concentration, arousal
control, imagery, and goal setting can have on improving an athlete’s self confidence,
enabling him/her to consistently perform at the top of their ability. Vealey (1988)
performed a study in which she reviewed the books and articles written in the previous
decade to compare the topics used in sport psychology and found that 100% discussed
imagery. Thought control and relaxation were covered in 93% of the articles and books,
and 70% had goal setting. Throughout the recent decades, textbooks are still using
imagery, goal setting, self-talk, relaxation, and concentration. The topics covered in this
project are in alignment with these five topics.
Significance of Project
Athletes are only able to reach their full potential if they spend adequate time on
both the physical and mental aspects of any athletic activity. There are several manuals
looking at the physical and technical facets of cheerleading but none that teach coaches
4
how to mentally train collegiate athletes to be prepared for competition. The one audio
CD and workbook done by Pamela Enders is not solely focused on collegiate
cheerleaders. Most mental training schedules allow an athlete to practice their
psychological skills throughout the season and progress though each game and/or
competition. In college cheerleading, there is only one opportunity per season to
compete. When college cheerleaders perform at games and other events, they are
performing for enjoyment and crowd support, but when they make the trip to either NCA
or UCA College National Championships, they are being formally judged on the
execution and difficulty of their skills. The level of stress and the fear of failure can be
extremely high, but when confidence is increased an optimal outcome may be reached.
The importance of having a mental training manual specific to collegiate cheerleading
provides sport specific examples of how to execute mental skills in a competitive
cheerleading practice. Using the author’s first hand expertise in mental training and cheer
will provide a more thorough understanding of the athletic activity of cheerleading. This
manual will be in coach and athlete friendly language to encourage coaches to use the
skills presented as part of their daily practice.
5
Definition of Terms
Anxiety – A negative emotional state characterized by worry, nervousness, and
Apprehension (Vealey, 1988).
Arousal – Describes a physiological and psychological activation of a person which
falls on a continuum from a comatose state to complete excitement Weinberg &
Gould, 2007).
Basket Toss - A stunt usually using three or more base cheerleaders, whom toss the
flyer into the air. Two of the base cheerleaders have interlocked their hands. In the
air the flyer may do any skill before returning to the cradle (George, 2006).
Cheerleading – A club that uses organized routines that are made from elements of
tumbling, dance, jumps, cheers, and stunting to direct spectators of events to cheer
on sports teams at games and matches and/or compete at cheerleading
competitions (George, 2006).
Concentration – The four parts of concentration are: a) focusing on the relevant cues
in the environment, b) maintaining that attentional focus over time, c) having
awareness of the situation, and d) shifting attentional focus when necessary
(Nidefer & Segal, 2001).
Goal Setting– Planning out intent or an attainable standard to be reached
(Locke & Latham, 1990).
Imagery – The cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical
movement. (Gullot, Nadrowska, & Collet, 2009).
Intensity – A term used for arousal (Taylor & Wilson, 2002).
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Jumps – The act of hitting a motion with legs and arms while in the air (George, 2006).
Psychological Skills Training – mental training system implemented to develop
psychological techniques in sport and exercise context.
Pyramid – Combination of partner stunts (George, 2006).
Self-Confidence – Reflects the degree of certainty that an athlete has about their
ability to successfully perform sport skills (Weinberg & Could, 2007).
Stunt - Any skill or feat involving climbing, mounting, a pyramid, or toss, where one or
more athletes are put into the air for a given amount of time (George, 2006).
Tumbling – Gymnastics, such as handsprings, tucks, layouts and fulls, that are done
without the use of a apparatus (George, 2006).
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Psychological Skills
Psychological skills are learned skills. The cognitive development of athletes may
occur when communicating with coaches, interacting with other athletes, or when reading
on the subject of mental skills. The lack of adequate training in psychological skills may
be due to the unconstructive models that coaches use. Most coaches understand the
importance of mental skills, yet feel inept at instructing athletes how to implement the
process (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Expanding the education of coaches and athletes in
psychological skills can better allow athletes to perform at their maximal potential.
Psychological skills that may help improvement in individual athlete performance are
related to developing self-confidence. Self-confidence can be developed through goal
setting, imagery, arousal control, and concentration.
Self-Confidence
Confidence is the most common characteristic that distinguishes more and less
successful athletes (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Self-confidence reflects the degree of
certainty that an athlete has about their ability to successfully perform sport skills (Feltz
& Chase, 1998; Vealey, 1986). Research has demonstrated self-confidence to be one of
the most influential cognitive determinants of athletic performance (Craft, Magyar,
Becker, & Feltz, 2003; Moritz, Feltz, Kyle, & Mack, 2000; Woodman & Hardy, 2003).
Self-confidence has been broken up into two different categories: state self- confidence
8
and trait self-confidence. Trait self-confidence is part of an individual’s general
personality, which is stable. State self-confidence is the individual’s feeling at a specific
point in time, which may change depending on the situation. Vealey’s (1986) model of
sport confidence (sport specific confidence) predicts that trait sport confidence is one of
the major contributing factors in state sport confidence, which in turn influences
performance (Beattie, Hardy, Savage, Woodman, & Callow, 2011). Demonstrating selfconfidence in sport enables the athlete to be more successful.
Self-efficacy is the perception of one’s ability to perform a task successfully, which
is a specific form of self-confidence (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Bandura’s (1977) theory
of self-efficacy, which is rooted in social cognitive theory, predicts a positive relationship
between self-efficacy and performance by drawing on four key sources: performance
accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological signs. The
greatest predictor of self-efficacy is the athlete’s past performance accomplishments.
Their ability to experience success allows them to be more optimistic about repeating the
achievement. Vicarious experience involves watching another athlete perform the task
successfully. This is most advantageous when the athlete has similar characteristics to the
demonstrator. Verbal persuasion must come from a viable source, such as coach or fellow
athlete, and can be used as feedback or motivation. Physiological signs include muscle
tension, heart rate, and respiration, which allow athletes to better understand what their
body is doing. Expectations of efficacy allow performers to protect themselves against
debilitating anxiety interpretation and further enhance levels of self-confidence (Hanton,
Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004).
9
Given the positive correlation between self-confidence and performance,
optimizing the level of confidence is crucial for athletic success. Self-confidence can be
developed through several different skills. One skill is imagery; allowing the mind to
practice without physical implementation will better aid performance. A second skill is
concentration, which is the ability to focus on the important factors while performing,
allowing everything else to fade out. Another skill that can impact confidence is arousal
control; understanding the stimulation of an athlete will permit the athlete to have more
control in his/her reactions. Lastly, confidence can be developed through goal setting;
being able to set goals enables athletes to focus on the future to determine the appropriate
actions needed to be successful. These four different skills can improve self-confidence
and will be further examined.
Goal Setting
Goal setting has been implemented in the workplace for the last five decades in
order to improve productivity (Locke & Latham, 1990). After the success in the business
world, Locke and Latham (1985) incorporated goal setting into sports as a tool to
improve the outcome for athletes. A meta-analysis of 25 studies recognized goal setting
as a moderately effective strategy for increasing motivation, confidence, and performance
(Burton et al., 2010). The study found goal setting to be a very effective method of
obtaining commitment, increasing effort and enhancing perseverance needed for longterm motivation and increasing self-confidence. There are two general types of goals:
objective goals - completing a specific standard within a specific amount of time, and
10
subjective goals - general statements of intent that are not measurable (Weinberg &
Gould, 2007).
Within the objective category of goals, the three types of goals commonly used by
athletes are: outcome goals, performance goals, and process goals. Outcome goals deal
with competitive results, such as scoring more points than the opponent and winning.
Performance goals deal with personal performance, such as setting a personal record.
Accomplishing the goal does not depend on the opponent but the progression of the
individual. Process goals take place throughout an event or practice and have a specific
beginning and end, such as extending an athlete’s arms in a basket toss all the way
through the top. In many competitive activities, it is the outcome goal that is the focus.
The problem with focusing solely on outcomes is that it also depends on the opponent
and how well they perform. This can be detrimental for the athletes if they fail even when
they feel they gave it their all. The flexibility and controllability of process and
performance goals increases motivation by fostering optimal levels of challenge and
consistent success (Vidic & Burton, 2010). The use of performance goals helps promote
success by reviewing the individual’s outcomes after a performance. Setting process
goals throughout the routine gives the athlete benchmarks to reach throughout. Setting
performance and process goals that support team goals can improve the chances of
completing the teams’ outcome goals, thus being successful.
Goal attainment was found to be positively linked to the psychological need for
satisfaction, which, in turn, was a positive predictor of an athlete’s psychological wellbeing (Smith, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2007). The tops three goals of junior athletes,
11
collegiate athletes and Olympic athletes were: improving performance, winning, and
having fun (Weinberg, Burke, & Jackson 1997; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, &
Weinberg, 1993, 2000). This can be seen through different levels of competition and
shows that as athletes mature they still hold on to the same general goals.
Using goal setting in an appropriate manner can be very productive to all levels of
athletes. Goal setting can be incorporated into a team atmosphere to further expand
effectivness. Incorporating individual’s performance and process goals along with team
outcome goals will help unify the team and guide them in the same direction. Allowing
all athletes to identify team expectations gives each athlete a sense of purpose improving
not just themselves, but also the team.
Imagery
Imagery is the cognitive rehearsal of a task in the absence of overt physical
movement (Gullot, Nadrowska, & Collet, 2009). Imagery should be done utilizing all the
senses including visual, kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, and olfactory (Weinberg & Gould,
2007). Athletes who believe that outside factors such as coaches, the field conditions,
equipment or other physical props limit practice may be unaware of mental imagery.
Imagery allows athletes to practice in any setting without any physical stipulations.
Mental imagery is something that can be learned at an early age, yet in most cases
it is elite athletes that acknowledge the importance of imagery. One athlete that is known
for his use of imagery is Jack Nicklaus:
Before every shot I go to the movies inside my head. Here is what I see. First, I
see the ball where I want it to finish, nice and white and sitting up high on the
12
bright green grass. Then, I see the ball going there; its path and trajectory and
even its behavior on landing. The next scene shows me making the kind of swing
that will turn the previous image into a reality. These home movies are a key to
my concentration and to my positive approach to every shot (Nicklaus, 1976, p.
40).
Research suggests that individuals who imagine positive scenarios and positive
outcomes are lead to positive expectancies (i.e., enhanced self-confidence), while
negative scenarios are reported to lead to reduced expectancies and levels of selfconfidence in the ability to reach goal attainment (Hanton, Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004).
Imagery is a valuable tool used to facilitate excellent performance within one’s mind, and
when done appropriately can lead to success. In a study of 180 competitive female
volleyball players, the increase in negative thoughts led to a reduction in focus and
concentration by 50% (Hanton, Mellalieu, & Hall, 2004). Mental imagery can improve
perception of performance by the athlete, thus limiting those negative thoughts. When
concentration is not hindered, the athlete is able to staying focused on the task.
In a study of 32 skydivers, 95 % of the participants said they used mental imagery
to correct a jump (Fournier et al., 2007). The skydivers visualized the moves before the
jump and again after the jump to correct their errors. This allowed them to converge prior
to the experience and then gave them the opportunity to change the future jump. It was
also found that novice and expert skydivers do not use mental imagery in the same way.
The differences in the use of characteristics may come from the divers’ level of expertise
in imagery and in skydiving, or a deliberate choice on the athlete’s (Fournier et al., 2007).
13
Athletes are limited by the amount of physical practices, thus indicating that
engaging in mental practice can increases their chance to excel over an athlete who only
uses physical practice. As seen in a cross sport study with 150 athletes, 73% - 88% of the
athletes used imagery as reported in a modified Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ),
(Nordin et al., 2006). This study looked at the different uses of imagery among three
different levels of athletes: recreational, intermediate, and elite. Researchers found that
elite and intermediate athletes used imagery more frequently perceiving it to be more
important, thus using it more consciously than recreational athletes. Athletes who imaged
more frequently did so deliberately, finding imagery to be more relevant to performance,
more enjoyable, and requiring less concentration to perform (Nordin et al., 2006).
Other studies have highlighted how mental imaging is different among elite and
novice athletes. Similar to the correlation in the physical aspect from novice to elite
athletes, the more practice an athlete has at imagery, the better they are at the skill. A
study of 443 college basketball coaches revealed that most perceived that imagery is
beneficial for athletes, but that they do not coach athletes to use it very often (Kelling,
Short, & Stewart, 2007). The authors suggest that if the coaches are not knowledgeable
about teaching mental imagery, players are not learning and practicing the skill, which
prevent them from becoming successful imagers.
In recent brain imaging studies, advanced techniques are used to determine where
stimulation is generated during imagery (Murphy, 2005). These images show that similar
areas of the brain are used during the visual perception as well as in visual imagery,
showing that imagery utilizes the same pathways with actual vision (Weinberg & Gould,
14
2007). Understanding the comparison between visualization and actualization can help
encourage athletes to become more skillful at applying imagery, allowing them to
practice their abilities anytime or anywhere.
Arousal Control
Every performance in an athlete’s career, he/she faces a variety of circumstances
that may cause him/her to experience variances in his/her physiological arousal level.
These fluctuations may be due to a negative or a positive situation, but how an athlete
deals with the incident depends on the controllability of arousal. Arousal is a mix of
physiological and psychological activation in a person, referring to the intensity at a
particular moment (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). The continuum for arousal varies from
deep sleep to intense excitement.
Many studies have been conducted to determine what the appropriate level of
arousal is for the most successful performance. Landers and Arent (2001) explain that the
arousal state and performance outcome may be related by the inverted-U hypothesis. This
hypothesis states that an increase in performance and physiological arousal are positively
related to a certain point before additional arousal becomes detrimental to an athlete’s
performance. Due to other aspects of performance, it does not fully explain the arousal
performance relationship.
In a recent study, 37 male physical education students were randomly split into
high-arousal and low-arousal groups to determine if there was an optimal arousal level
for performance (Movahedi, Sheikh, Bagherzadeh, Hemayattalab, & Hashayeri, 2007).
One group was instructed at a low arousal level, while the other group was instructed at a
15
high arousal level. The results demonstrated that each group was able to excel in their
respected arousal level, but failed when participating in the opposite arousal level. This
better explains the theory that athletes are more likely to succeed in a situation similar to
their learning environment and that finding the moderate level of arousal in accordance to
the inverted-U is not always appropriate. This also demonstrates that the level of optimal
functioning is determinant on the individual and not an expected average. No athlete is
identical, having their own set of strengths and weaknesses, so expecting arousal levels to
be consistent for all athletes may lead to a compromised performance. A low arousal
level or a high arousal level alone did not determine whether the student became a
successful performer.
It is crucial to know what arousal level is optimal for an athlete, yet understanding
what leads the individual off the ideological path of arousal is important. Athletes must
be able to determine what stressors cause their arousal level to negatively effect
performance (Williams, 2006). Understanding those stressors allows the athlete to
determine when arousal may need to be addressed. It is suggested that an athlete beyond
his or her optimal arousal level is likely to suffer from poor decision making, impaired
memory and rushed thinking (Zaichkowsky and Naylor, 2004). When athletes are
incapable of regulating their arousal, uncontrolled and unpracticed execution may result.
Nideffer and Sagal (2001) stated that when optimal arousal is achieved and
maintained, effective attention is also achieved. Optimal arousal is individualized to the
athlete and to the task at hand (Nideffer & Sagal 2001). Certain tasks require different
levels of arousal and understanding what is necessary for each task is crucial to success.
16
Concentration
One of the most common phrases heard in athletics is “focus” or “pay attention”.
Aiding athletes in controlling their concentration skills can better allow them to stay
present. Concentration is separated into four categories: focusing on relevant
environmental cues, maintaining focus over time, staying aware of the ever changing
situation, and shifting focus when needed (Weinberg & Gould, 2007). Former Olympic
gold medalist Michael Johnson explains concentration:
I have learned to cut all unnecessary thought on the track. I simply concentrate. I
concentrate on the tangible – on the track, on the race, on the blocks, on the things
I have to do. The crowd fades away and other athletes disappear and now it’s just
me and this one lane (p. 365).
Being able to determine where focus should be projected throughout performance
can be better highlighted with an understanding of the two continuums: broad verses
narrow focus, and internal versus external focus (Nidefer & Segal, 2001). Broad focusing
is being able to focus on several tasks concurrently, such as when athletes are putting
together different parts of a pyramid and being able to get to the appropriate position to
make it connect. Narrow focusing deals only on the particular task taking place, such as
keeping a good body line in a full up. The visual perspective of an athlete without
adequate arousal is too broad and may miss critical detailed information. The athlete with
excessive arousal may need to broaden his/her attention so that crucial information may
not be missed outside his/her narrow field. External focusing involves concentration on
props that are being used, such as signs, pom poms or megaphones. Internal focus is the
17
personal thoughts and feelings of the athlete. This can be seen in figure 1. Aiding athletes
in understanding how these four quadrants apply to their sport allow them to identify
various focus requirements throughout performance. Being able to switch between
different quadrants allows the athlete to better prepare for the demands of any situation.
BROAD

|
|
EXTERNAL               INTERNAL
|
|

NARROW
Figure 1. Types of Attentional Focus
Weinberg & Gould, 2007
An athlete unable to perform under pressure is often referred to as choking.
“Choking is a critical deterioration in skill execution leading to substandard performance
and is caused by an elevation in anxiety levels under perceived pressure at a time when
accompanied by a narrow, unlearned focus of attention” (Mesagno & Mullane-Grant,
2010). The environmental and personal factors are too much for the individual to handle.
Self-focus proposes that pressure makes people pay too much attention to the mechanics
of movement instead of overall flow (Nein & Duda, 2008). Instead of being able to
bounce back to the athletic potential, the performance may turn catastrophic and the
performance is categorized as a failure. Mesagno et al. (2008) provided qualitative
support for the notion that the distraction and self-focus models may co-exist. An
inability to focus on the specific task when external or internal distractions are present
18
leads the athlete to lose their center and can be detrimental to an individual’s
performance.
Being able to perform successfully under pressure is a crucial aspect of sport
performance (Mesagno & Mullane-Grant, 2010). Intentional use of self-talk can elicit an
increase of focus for athletes. Self-talk is defined as a phenomenon that can be enacted
either out loud or in the head of an athlete (Torvares, 2010; Cashmore, 2002; Hardy, Hall,
& Hardy, 2005). Self-talk can be portrayed as positive or negative, which may lead to
either success or failure. Utilizing positive self-talk can defer negative thought patterns
affecting the athlete. A more specialized form of self-talk is the use of cue words. They
are used to trigger a specific response; examples are: instructional (“Flick through the
top”), motivational (“Just one more basket”), or emotional (“relax”) (Weinberg & Gould,
2007). Short words or phrases can be used throughout the athletic event, particularly
when a lack of focus arises. Directing attention to one key thought may prevent the
athlete from focusing on an inappropriate aspect that can further distract them.
Summary
Psychological skills are an important component of successful performance.
Instructing athletes with appropriate techniques to deal with less than optimal situation
may result in enhanced performance. Advancing these psychological skills encourages
the athlete to push past the breaking point and to become a more complete athlete.
Athletes that recognize changes in psychological situations within themselves may have
an advantage over athletes that do not.
19
The four main psychological skills used to increase performance through optimal
self-confidence are: imagery, goal setting, arousal control, and concentration. Elite level
athletes use imagery more often to acquire additional practice to better develop their
skills. Adapting appropriate goal setting strategies allows the athlete to have a personal
schedule to achievement success. Using arousal control to determine what factors over, or
under, stimulate an athlete through competition can permit the athlete to adjust to those
situations. Finally, concentration is the ability to sustain focus utilizing self talk and cue
words. Incorporating an appropriate mixture between the techniques can lead to success.
Recognizing the significant impact self-confidence has on performance is
fundamental to outcome. Increasing an athlete’s self-confidence can be difficult,
especially when there are strong feelings of doubt. Utilizing the techniques in the manual
will help determine which psychological skills are necessary for each individual athlete to
feel more confident. Having a broader understanding of the multitude of strategies allows
the athlete to find their own unique ingredients for success.
20
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
This manual is designed as a guide for collegiate cheerleading coaches to
implement psychological skills training into a cheerleading season in order to aid athletes
in preparation for competition. Integrating these skills into practice allows the coach to
teach athletes to become more aware of psychological skills. This will enable athletes to
have a better understanding of how important the mental aspect is to performance. The
more mental skills are refined by practice, the easier it will be for athletes to use the
psychological skills at performances and a competition. The manual will include specific
drills for five psychological skills including: self-confidence, arousal control, goal
achievement, concentration, and imagery.
Manual Format
+ Introduction
1) Self-Confidence
- Practice # 1
• Exercise # 1: Confidence Self-Assessment
• Exercise # 2: Confidence Reflection
- Practice # 2
• Exercise # 3: Performance Review
• Exercise # 4: Control
21
- Practice # 3
• Exercise # 5: Self Affirmation Statements
• Exercise # 6: Routine confidence
2) Arousal Control
- Practice # 1
• Exercise # 1: Arousal Assessment
• Exercise # 2: Tension Assessment
- Practice # 2
• Exercise # 3: Deep Breathing
• Exercise # 4: Rhythmic breathing
• Exercise # 5: Ratio Breathing
- Practice # 3
• Exercise # 6: Breathing While Tumbling
• Exercise # 7: Breathing While Stunting
- Practice # 4
• Exercise # 8: Relaxation Log
• Exercise # 9: Progressive Relaxation
- Practice # 5
• Exercise # 10: Release Relaxation
- Practice # 6
• Exercise # 11: Direct Relaxation
22
3) Goal Setting
- Practice # 1
• Exercise # 1: Camp Goal Worksheet
- Practice # 2
• Exercise # 2: Team Goal Worksheet
• Exercise # 3: Individuals Goal Worksheet
- Practice # 3
• Exercise # 4: Goal Worksheet Review
• Exercise # 5: Goal Worksheet Check Up
• Exercise # 6: Closure
4) Concentration
- Practice # 1
• Exercise # 1: Thought Transformation
• Exercise # 2: Thought Interjection
- Practice # 2
• Exercise # 3: Identifying Cue Words
- Practice # 3
• Exercise # 4: Routine Concentration Evaluation
• Exercise # 5: Self Monitoring Worksheet
23
5) Imagery
- Practice # 1
• Exercise # 1: Learning Vividness
• Exercise # 2: Implementing Vividness
- Practice # 2
• Exercise # 3: Controllability Simple
• Exercise # 4: Controllability More Complex
- Practice # 3
• Exercise # 5: Simple Task Script
• Exercise # 6: More Advanced Task Script
• Exercise # 7: Imagery Prompt
24
Chapter 4
MENTAL TRAINING MANUAL FOR COLLEGIATE CHEERLEADING COACHES
Introduction
The purpose of this manual is to aid coaches in understanding and implementing
Psychological Skills Training with their athletes. Psychological Skills are learned skills
that help train the mind of the athlete. By the time most athletes have made a collegiate
cheerleading team, they have proven themselves physically capable of doing the skills.
Being able to deal with the strenuous demands on the body in both stunting and tumbling
is a feat within itself. College cheerleading is the most elite level of cheerleading in the
nation, only now being surpassed by the International Cheer Union. When the word elite
is placed upon the level of competition, the standards are being raised to the highest level.
Every team wants to be the first to exhibit the newest skill at nationals. As the physical
boundaries of cheerleading continue to expand, the importance of the mental component
becomes more critical.
There is no other physical activity or competition similar to college cheerleading
that has such high demands. It is one of the only physical activities where males and
females are working together at the same time. Every other sport or team competes
multiple times a year, while many sports teams perform several times a week. When
competing frequently, there are opportunities to make mistakes, make changes, and move
on. In college cheerleading, each team has one chance to show all the hard work they
have done all year, and only two minutes and thirty seconds to do it in. This can cause an
25
athlete to feel an enormous amount of stress. Being able to deal with the stress can make
the competition less intimidating, allowing the performances to be more successful.
Being able to implement psychological skills to aid athletes to feel more confident
with their performance can ultimately be the difference between winning a National
Championship and getting seventh place. Every athlete is different, and understanding
what they need for success will not just help the team, but allow the athlete to use these
skills both in cheer and throughout their life. The coach position is one of authority and
respect, and if a coach believes in the importance of Mental Training, the athletes will
also. Many times the thought of using practice time to train the mind is considered a
waste; however, getting the mental competitive edge over the other teams can be the “IT”
factor your team needs.
This manual is broken up into five sections: Self-Confidence, Arousal Control,
Goal Setting, Concentration, and Imagery. Every topic begins with an introduction,
giving general information about the topic and explaining where to implement the skill
into practice. Every practice and exercise has directions regarding how and what to do,
making this manual easy to integrate into your coaching strategies. Each section has
material for several practices, and contains several exercises. In every section, practice #
1 starts out with an introduction exercise or an assessment exercise for the mental skill
being learned. It is important to implement each topic at the appropriate time in the
season some of the topics will be overlapped. The more comfortable you become with the
topics, the easier it will be to use these exercises in everyday practices.
26
SELF-CONFIDENCE
Self-confidence is the belief in ability by an athlete to perform at high standards.
Professional athletes show confidence in many different ways. If an athlete who is
unproven attempts to act the same way, they may be considered overconfident. Athletes
who performed great in college and fail in the professionals may be suffering from lack
of confidence. Confidence is not something we are born with, but can be developed with
practice. The belief in oneself to be successful leads to the athlete actually being
successful. Confidence is like a riot, it starts with a person or two and when others get
involved it can grow and becomes something unstoppable. If athletes are able to perform
as a team and maintain confidence, they are able to defy the odds and be successful.
Having the mentality that “I can do this, and nothing you do can stop me” is what it takes
to succeed.
Coaches play a crucial role in the development of an athlete’s confidence.
Providing equal feedback to all athletes develops a team, not just an individual. When
athletes feel they have the support of the coach and are being treated fairly, they feel
more confident and tend to perform successfully. If athletes feel that they are not
provided with equivalent feedback compared to other athletes, it can cause self-doubt.
They are then more hesitant and more susceptible to making mistakes. In the end, athletes
who feel they received enough of the coaches energy tend to succeed, while athletes who
feel neglected tend to fail. It is important for coaches to treat each athlete equal so they all
maximize self-confidence.
27
By the time that athletes get to the college level of cheerleading they should have
some confidence in their ability. As they have more successful performances at games
and other community outreach events, they should have the ability to perform with
confidence. Through this section, athletes are going to be able to determine their current
confidence level and enhance confidence.
28
Practice # 1
Practice # 1 provides the athletes with two self-assessment forms to determine
their current level of self-confidence: Form 1 is fairly general, while Form 2 is more
specific. The forms will require the athletes to take an actual look inside their thought
processes. Exercise # 1 and exercise # 2 should be distributed two or three times
throughout the season to provide the athletes with the opportunity to evaluate a change.
Exercise #1
Exercise #1 is a general self-confidence assessment with the goal of allowing
athletes to understand where they lack confidence. Results from the assessment are to be
kept by the individual to ensure truthful and accurate responses. The assessment is on a
scale from 1-10, where 1 is no confidence and 10 is complete confidence.
Exercise # 2
Exercise # 2 is used to help athletes become more aware of their specific issues
with confidence. This exercise has more in-depth questions requiring the athletes to write
short answers. Admitting to reactions, both good and bad, enables the athletes the
opportunity to make changes to be more successful. Bringing an athlete’s awareness to
what types of situations cause self-confidence to drop will then allow the athlete to begin
practicing specific mental strategies to address the fluctuations in confidence.
29
Exercise # 1
Confidence Self-Assessment
No
Confidence
Extreme
Confidence
Do I feel confident in everyday life?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when I am alone?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when I am in a group of friends?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when I am around my family?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when I am learning a new skill?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when performing a mastered skill?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident in running tumbling?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident in standing tumbling?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident in stunting?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident when the coach is watching me?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident performing a routine at practice?
1------------5------------10
Do I feel confident in front of a crowd when performing?
1------------5------------10
30
Exercise # 2
Confidence Reflection
How do I display confidence?
How do I react when I save a stunt?
How do I react when I bobble a stunt?
How do I react when I hit a new stunt?
How do I react when I drop a stunt when it is my fault?
How do I react when I drop a stunt and it’s my partner’s fault?
How do I react when I throw a new tumbling pass?
How do I react when I touch down on tumbling?
How do I react when my coach compliments me?
How do I react when my coach yells at me?
How do I react when a teammate compliments me?
31
Practice # 2
Practice # 2 is designed to increase self-confidence by bringing the athletes
attention to some of their current thought patterns. Keeping thoughts positive and on what
can be controlled has been found to increase self-confidence. If the athletes are able to
focus on the successful aspects of the competition, it should lead to more positive
outcomes in future performances. Exercise # 3 provides athletes with a performance
review sheet. Exercise # 4 can contribute to the athletes understanding of what is
controllable within their performance, allowing them to limit their focus and increase
self-confidence.
Exercise # 3
Exercise # 3 will allow the athletes to review their performances so they are able
to make changes for the next performance. After this form has been filled out and the
athletes realize their errors, they are to rip the paper off at the line, keep the good points,
use imagery to correct the bad points, and then dispose of them. By continually reviewing
the good points, the athletes are able to see positive performances, thus building a greater
sense of confidence.
Example # 3
Date 11/13
Performance Review List
GOOD POINTS
BAD POINTS
I stuck my standing tuck
I flipped right off the ground in running
The pyramid hit perfectly
I bobble the second part of the elite
I didn’t take a step in the IME
______________________________
.
32
Exercise # 4
Exercise # 4 requires the athletes to understand what is in their control and what is
not. When athletes feel they have a sense of control, they tend to feel more confident.
Many times when athletes worry about other athletes, they lose focus on their own
responsibilities leading to possible bobbles or drops. Part of being a team is doing your
skills and trusting your teammates will do what is required. Being able to trust each team
member will also provide confidence in each athlete. By recognizing what they have no
control over, athletes can then focus on what they do have control over.
Example # 4
Things I Can Control
Things I Cannot Control
Setting in my full
Nina’s touching on her tuck
.
Waiting to the top to flick the full up
Davy hitting his elite
.
My attitude during the whole routine
______________________________
Cheering on Lindsay in tumbling
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
33
Exercise # 3
Date
Performance Review List
GOOD POINTS
BAD POINTS
.
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
Exercise # 4
Things I Can Control
Things I Cannot Control
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
______________________________
34
Practice # 3
Knowing that positive thoughts are associated with an increase in confidence,
practice # 3 provides athletes with two exercises that allow them to interject positive
thoughts and actions into the routine. Exercise # 5 encourages athletes to create positive
affirmations and use them at practice. Exercise # 6 helps athletes choreograph words or
actions within the routine to keep up their confidence levels.
Exercise # 5
In exercise # 5, the athletes write down a list of positive affirming statements.
These can be statements that athletes have created or found online. The statements should
be read before practice or at any time the athletes feel that they are losing confidence.
The constant reminder will help keep athletes confident throughout the season.
Example # 5
Self-Affirmation Statements
1) Everyday my thoughts and emotions are the only thing stopping me, so I am
stopping them
.
2) Today I am going to give into the temptation to succeed
.
3) Have you done anything lately worth remembering?
.
4) Impossible is another word for lack of encouragement
.
35
Exercise # 5
Self-Affirmation Statements
1) _____________________________________________________________
2) _____________________________________________________________
3) _____________________________________________________________
4) _____________________________________________________________
5) _____________________________________________________________
6) _____________________________________________________________
7) _____________________________________________________________
8) _____________________________________________________________
36
Exercise # 6
Exercise # 6 is used to choreograph verbal or physical signs into the routine,
allowing athletes to show their confidence. This is not to be displayed as cocky, but more
of a reminder of how confident the athlete is. Using these motions can also help
encourage a team member at a challenging point in the routine to stay confident. These
types of interjections do not always happen spontaneously but need to be consciously
thought out. Once they are incorporated, they will create an atmosphere where every
athlete feels more confident, hopefully leading to a superior performance. The signs
should be shared among team members so each athlete understands their importance.
Example # 6
Routine Confidence
Walking Out:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
Give a hug to Brittany and give Jenna a love tap
Walking to Elites:
Verbally
.
Physically
Partner
Lets go hun we got this, just like every time
Walking to Baskets:
Verbally
.
Physically
Partner
Pound knuckles before we grab to through
Walking to tumbling:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
_________________________________________________________________
Walking to IME:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to Pyramid:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
.
37
Exercise # 6
Routine Confidence
Walking Out:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to Elites:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to Baskets:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to tumbling:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to IME:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to Pyramid:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
Walking to Cheer:
Verbally
Physically
Partner
___________________________________________________________________
38
AROUSAL CONTROL
In everyday life, situations come up that cause tension, stress, anger, extreme
excitement, or anxiety. How well an individual is able to cope with these situations
explains the ability to control his/her physiological arousal state. In cheerleading, one
second can change the outcome of a whole season worth of work. Enabling the athlete to
stay at the appropriate level of arousal during the competition will optimize his/her
chance of being more confident and hitting the routine without mistakes. Every athlete is
different, and the way they react to stressors is different as well. These next exercises will
enable athletes to identify what physiological arousal level they need for optimal
performance and demonstrate how to use breathing and relaxation techniques to better
cope with arousal levels that are too high.
39
Practice # 1
Practice # 1 allows the athletes to self-assess their arousal levels. Exercise # 1 is
an optimal arousal assessment and exercise # 2 is used to find what factors affect each
athlete’s arousal rate.
Exercise # 1
Exercise # 1 will be used to help athletes find their optimal arousal level by
utilizing an analysis of past performances. By selecting the athlete’s best and worst
performances, he/she will be able to describe what happened and what feelings and
emotions he/she was experiencing. Using a scale from 1-10, 1 being sleepy with no
arousal and 10 being over the top aroused, athletes will complete the form.
Example # 1
Best Performance
Worst Performance
Description:
Description:
My team and I won first place at UCA
I dropped in partner stunts two times and
nationals.
got 19th place.
Feelings:
Feelings:
Focused, control, pumped, energetic
Out of control, over pumped amped
Arousal #: 7
Arousal #: 10
40
Exercise # 2
This exercise can help athletes identify situations when relaxation drills may help
calm them down. Athletes will circle the number or area that represents how they feel in
each situation; rating of 1 shows there is no tension, and 10 represents extreme tension.
Example # 2
Tension Assessment
None
Tension
Extreme
When learning a new stunt
1--------------------5--------------------10
When doing a full run through
1--------------------5--------------------10
The night before a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you do good at a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you drop or touch at a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you stick your part of the routine
1--------------------5--------------------10
41
Exercise # 1
Best Performance
Worst Performance
Description:
Description:
Feelings:
Feelings:
Arousal #:
Arousal #:
Exercise # 2
Tension Assessment
None
Tension
Extreme
When learning a new stunt
1--------------------5--------------------10
When doing a full run through
1--------------------5--------------------10
The night before a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you do good at a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you drop or touch at a performance
1--------------------5--------------------10
When you stick your part of the routine
1--------------------5--------------------10
42
Practice # 2
Practice # 2 introduces breathing techniques that can help to control arousal
levels. When arousal levels are not controlled, it can lead to muscle tension, a sense of
fatigue, trembling and twitching muscles, confusion, the inability to concentrate, and
forgetting details. In cheerleading, regulating an athlete’s arousal level is crucial in order
to perform a optimal routine; any combination of issues can cause the athlete to perform
poorly.
Exercise # 3
Basics of Deep Breathing
Understanding how to take deep breaths using the diaphragm will instantly help
athletes to feel in control of their arousal level. The athletes should either sit or lie down
before starting this exercise. Start by having them place one of their hands on their chest
and the other hand on the their stomach. Have the athletes take a big breath in. At this
point they should feel their chest expanding when breathing. On the next inhale, have the
athletes try to expand their stomach along with their chest when inhaling. When doing
this, the athletes should feel like they are able to get a deeper breath by utilizing their
diaphragm. This technique should be practiced several times to become familiar with
taking a deep breath.
43
Exercise # 4
Rhythmic Breathing
Rhythmic breathing uses recurring counts to create a calming experience for
athletes. Start with instructing the athletes to breathe in for 4-counts through their nose,
followed by 4-counts of holding the air in their lungs, and exhaling for a 4-count,
completely blowing all their air out through their mouth, not leaving any extra air. The
counts should be a smooth and controlled speed - not too fast. This technique can be
used whenever the athlete feels they are becoming over aroused.
Exercise # 5
Ratio Breathing
Ratio breathing is when the athletes breathe in for a 4-count and exhale for an 8count. This exercise allows athletes to regulate the amount of air they are using. Many
athletes tend to hold their breath throughout stunts and tumbling passes, but with the
incorporation of ratio breathing, athletes learn the importance of exhaling. Increasing the
efficiency by which oxygen is being inhaled and exhaled can be very beneficial for
athletes with poor breathing techniques. This can also be done with a ratio of 5:10 or
6:12.
Practice # 3
Practice # 3 will integrate breathing strategies into cheerleading practice. Exercise
# 6 will include appropriate times where breathing should be used in tumbling, while
exercise # 7 highlights times when breathing techniques are critical to stunting.
44
Exercise # 6
Breathing While Tumbling
Most athletes are too busy worrying about the skill being performed in tumbling
to have time to think about breathing while in the middle of the skill. Utilizing the ratio
breathing technique should help slow the breath, allowing the athlete to remain calm.
Encourage athletes to take a deep breath before they do their tumbling pass and only
release a small amount before they go. This should provide athletes with enough oxygen
to get through a round off backhandspring. At the point when athletes are setting for a
tuck, layout, or full they should also take another short breath. This short breath allows
time to set adequately and slow down the momentum enough so they are using good
technique. This should be incorporated into practice when warming up tumbling.
Exercise # 7
Breathing When Stunting
The rule of thumb for stunting is that every time the base dips with their legs or
shrugs their shoulders, they should take a breath. Practice this by having the athletes do a
toss to hands; have a spectator watch the athlete for exhales. Then dip to bring down the
top girl to hands to see if the teammate is still exhaling. This can be continued with pump
and go lib’s and QP’s as well. The top girl should stand on the ground in a lib position
and have a friend of the same sex place their hand on her chest. As the top girl breathe in,
make sure that they are continually lifting up, breathing in through their nose and keeping
the chest up when they lightly exhale through their mouth. Once the top girl feels more
comfortable by not causing any extra weight for the base(s), they should feel better about
45
breathing. It is not a bad idea for partners to remind each other to breathe while stunting
throughout the routine.
Practice # 4
Practice # 4 is the basic outline to the progressive relaxation drills, which will
evolve in practice # 5 and in practice # 6. Practice # 4 is used to teach athletes a
relaxation drill that they can implement to calm down when they are feeling anxious or
nervous about a stunt, tumbling pass, or performance. Besides the basic breathing
exercises introduced in practice # 2, it is not uncommon for athletes to need a more
comprehensive relaxation technique . This technique, called progressive muscle
relaxation, is introduced in this practice. This progressive muscle relaxation script,
however is preceded by exercise # 8, which is a relaxation log used to keep track of an
athlete’s relaxation levels before and after each drill. Exercise # 9 is a progressive
relaxation drill to be read to athletes.
Exercise # 8
The relaxation log should be used every time that the athletes performs any
relaxation drill. The log will work for exercises # 9, # 10, and # 11. The log is on a scale
from 1-10, where 1 is no tension and 10 is extreme tension.
Example # 8
Relaxation Log
Date
Location
Level Before Relaxing
Level After Relaxing
10/21
Practice
5
4__________
10/22
Home
7
3__________
46
Exercise # 8
Relaxation Log
Date
Location
Level Before Relaxing
Level After Relaxing
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
_____
___________
__________________
_________________
47
Exercise # 9
Progressive Relaxation
Progressive relaxation is a technique for athletes to learn to recognize tension in
their body and diminish it. The exercise should take between 15-20 minutes and should
not be rushed. Instruct the athletes to lie down on the ground flat, closing their eyes
without crossing any arms or legs and take two deep breaths nice and slow. Talk in a nice
smooth comforting voice, gradually getting slower and more relaxed. There should be a
20-30 second pause between each step to provide the athletes with adequate time to feel
the relaxation in each set of muscles.
1) Curl your toes in and squeeze them as tight as you can for 5 seconds. Allow
your feet to start relaxing half way and hold it for an additional 5 seconds. As
you release the tension, fully feel how loose your feet are; think and focus
only on your feet.
2) Flex your calf and the shin tightening them up as hard as you can. Hold it
tight for 5 second, release the tension half way, and hold it for another 5
seconds. As the tension is released, feel how heavy your lower legs feel and
how relaxed they are.
3) Squeeze your upper leg as tight as you can, flexing all the quadriceps and
hamstring muscles and hold it for 5 seconds. Release the tension half way,
and hold it for an addition five seconds. As you relax, feel all the stiffness go
away in your upper leg.
48
4) Now notice how your legs feel and if there is any tension left. Tighten them
up completely from the toes, to the foot, up the calf and shin all the way to
the quads and hamstrings. Hold that for 7 seconds, and as you release it, let
your legs melt into the floor. All tension is gone, and your legs are so relaxed
they cannot move.
5) Push your gluts together and squeeze as tight as you can for 5 seconds.
Loosen up half way, and hold them for another 5 seconds. Let all the built up
stress fade into the floor, as you feel more comfortable.
6) Press your back against the floor and flex your stomach so both your lower
back and stomach are completely engaged. Hold that position for 5 seconds;
release it half way and hold it for an additional 5 seconds before you let it go.
Notice there is no tension from abdomen down. Feel the sense of relaxation
from not holding up your back.
7) Lift your hand and forearm off the ground resting your weight on your elbow.
Clench your fists as tight as possible, flexing your forearm. Hold it for 5
seconds; let half the tension release, holding it for 5 more seconds before you
release completely.
8) Keeping your elbow on the ground flex your biceps and triceps holding it for
5 seconds. Release half the tension and hold it for an additional 5 seconds,
not thinking about anything else. As you release the rest of the tension, allow
your arm to come down flat along the ground at a complete resting manner.
Think about how nice it is not have all that extra stress on your arms.
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9) Push your shoulder blades against the ground as you tighten up your
shoulders, emphasizing where any stress could be stored and hold that for
position for 5 seconds. Release the tension half way and hold it for another 5
seconds, and as you let go, let everything go. There should be no worry, no
pain, no stress, anywhere below your shoulders.
10)Clench your jaw tightly, pushing your molars against one another, flexing
your neck and hold it for 5 seconds. Release half the tension and hold it for an
additional 5 seconds before allowing all tightness to leave.
11)Wrinkle your face and pucker your lips and hold that for 5 seconds before
you release it half way, and hold it for another 5 seconds. Now let everything
out, lying there completely content.
12)Take a deep breath in nice and slowly, and as you exhale allow your full body
to melt into the ground. Continue with 3 more slow breaths allowing a few
extra minutes to relax.
13)The exercise is now over, it is time to come back to the room and gradually
open your eyes. Take your time getting up to your feet.
Practice # 5
Practice # 5 is an abbreviated version of progressive relaxation so athletes can use
the technique before a run through or at breaks during practice. This exercise should not
be done until the athletes feel very comfortable with exercise # 9.
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Exercise # 10
Release Relaxation
This exercise is the second step in progressive relaxation and should take between
5 – 7 minutes to complete. Allow 15 seconds between instructions. This step is focusing
on just the relaxation phase without the contraction of the muscles. Athletes should do
this exercise lying down with their eyes closed.
1) Feel the weight of your feet and think about relaxing them for 15 seconds.
Focus on your feet the whole time until you feel the tension release.
2) Let the pressure in your calf caused from tumbling just melt away and focus
on those muscles for 15 seconds until they relax.
3) Release all the muscle fibers within your quads and your hamstrings. Think
about your tight muscles turning into a putty for 15 seconds until they
actually do.
4) Allow the stress and anxiety held in your gluts to subside and smooth out.
Relax more with each count, for 15 seconds, until the muscle loosens up
feeling as comfortable cushion.
5) Let the core of your posture just relax and fall into the ground. These 15
seconds are to let your abdomen and lower back take a break and let the
ground support your body.
6) Your hand and forearms should now become limp and have no control. For
the next 15 seconds allow them to get the rest they need.
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7) Allow your biceps and triceps to uncoil and lay flat with no pressure on them
at all. See each muscle fiber in your arm loosen in 15 seconds until everything
is relaxed and happy.
8) Release all the tension in your shoulders, neck, and back. Don’t leave any
tension in the muscles. Allow your body to mold into the ground for the next
15 seconds.
9) Your head is now free to rest with no tension in your face or your neck. For
15 seconds there is nothing to worry about, no cares or troubles.
10)Finish this exercise with 3 deep breaths, to find yourself relaxed. This
exercise should allow you to pay more attention to each specific part of your
body.
Practice # 6
Practice # 6 is progressive relaxation that can be used any time an athlete feels
overwhelmed or stress building up in their body. This should not be done until athletes
are comfortable with exercise # 10.
Exercise # 11
Direct Relaxation
Now that athletes are able to control relaxation and determine what part of their
body is being affected by stress, they should be able to utilize relaxation drills without
having to lay down in a quiet place and close their eyes. This exercise should take no
more than one or two minutes. Use the word relax or another similar word to allow the
body to unwind, releasing the tension.
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1) Slowly scan the body from the top of your head to your feet to find any place
where the tension is built up and causing your body discomfort or tightness.
If the whole body is tense, separate the muscle groups experiencing tension.
2) Once the body part(s) that are stressed have been discovered, simply look at
that body part, close your eyes and take a full breath in, seeing the body part
you want to relax in your head, focusing only on that. Before you exhale say
“RELAX”, and slowly exhale still thinking about that body part. As you are
blowing the air out, you should feel like you are blowing out the tension and
anxiety, and as you release that last amount of air open your eyes (if you
chose to close them) and that body part should be completely relaxed.
3) Continue using this on other body parts where you feel tension or anxiety.
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GOAL SETTING
Goal setting is one of the most successful and widely used techniques in sport and
everyday life. Unfortunately, most people do not use goal setting to maximize the
benefits of the process. Setting goals will help determine where the team and individual
athlete are projected to be at the end of the season. Developing both long-term and shortterm goals is critical. Short-term goals are put into place to provide stepping blocks
toward reaching the long-term goal. Two crucial parts of goals setting are: setting specific
goals (ex. I want to get my rewind this season to compete) and setting realistic goals. A
few terms that should be recognized and understood are outcome, performance, and
process goals; here is an examples for each.
A) Outcome goals involve the end result: Example: Beat State and win a National
Championship.
B) Performance goals pertain to the individual or team, and do not involve an
opponent. Example: Making it though the routine without a touch down or a drop.
C) Process goals involve individuals setting a specific skill to be performed,
which can happen at practice. Example: Set in my tumbling or grab for the correct
grip in a stunt.
These next exercises will encourage athletes to set appropriate goals throughout
the season and coaches to utilize formal reviews of goals to record the athletes
progression throughout the season.
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Practice # 1
Practice # 1 will provide a worksheet for athletes to set goals early in the season.
Exercise # 1 is a goal sheet for athletes to complete at cheerleading camp.
Exercise # 1
Camp Goal Worksheet
Exercise # 1 should be completed at summer cheerleading camp. At the
completion of the opening demonstration, have the team meet up and fill out the
worksheet for goals to be completed at camp. Encouraging them to set realistic goals will
provide the athletes with the opportunity to successfully complete their goals. Be sure to
encourage athletes to write positive statements instead of negative statements. Once the
athletes have completed the worksheet, collect it and use it as a guideline of what should
be observed throughout camp. Remind the athletes of their goals every morning at camp
before they start the day. If athletes complete their goal before the end of camp, have
them set another goal.
Example # 1
Name: Courtney Smith
Physical Goal: I want to get a double full basket.
Mental Goal: When I mess up during camp I want to move forward and encourage
myself to hit the skill the next time.
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Exercise # 1
Camp Goal Sheet
Name:
Physical Goal:
Mental Goal:
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Practice # 2
Practice # 2 will provide team and individual worksheets to create goals for the
season. This should be done at the first practice so athletes know what direction they are
heading for the rest of the season. Exercise # 2 is the team goal worksheet. Exercise # 3 is
the individual goal worksheet.
Exercise # 2
Team Goal Setting Session
Bring the team together to determine what team goals should be instituted for the
season to be a success. These should be written down on a poster board or vibrant paper
and placed in an area where all athletes are able to see the goals at daily practices.
Obviously, there are different levels of athletes on each team, and all will not be able to
reach all the goals set, but these should be goals the majority of the team should be able
to achieve. As a coach, it is your responsibility to be involved in directing the team
towards hard but attainable goals.
Example # 2
Team Goal Worksheet
Steps To Completion
Outcome Goal: Win a Nation Championship
Full team backhandspring tucks and
standing tucks
Rewind QP’s and stretch to stretch
tic toc
Process Goal: Create a caring atmosphere
Resolve all individual issues with
team when discovered
Hang out bi-monthly and do multiple
team activities
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Exercise # 2
Team Goal Worksheet
Steps To Completion
Outcome Goal:_____________________
___________________________
______________________________
______________________________
_____________________
Process Goal: ______________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
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Exercise # 3
At the beginning of the first practice have each athlete spread out, informing them
this is an individual assignment. Explain to the athletes they will be reevaluated on their
goals throughout the season. Hand out two Individual Goal Worksheets to each athlete
and provide adequate time for the athletes to complete the forms.
Describe the form to the athletes so they have a better understanding of what is
expected of them. The long-term goal should be something that is the focal point of the
other goals. Setting meaningful goals encourages athlete to be persistent thought the
season. It is also important that the athlete knows how to measure their success to enforce
that the goal is achievable. Setting a specific date to complete the long-term goal is
important for setting an accurate timeline to follow throughout the season. The short-term
goals can be set toward reaching the long-term goal or separate. The strategies for shortterm goals should be implemented at each practice to enable the athlete to complete their
goal in the appropriate time frame.
Once the athletes have completed the forms, have them meet with their partner(s)
to talk about their goals. This will explain to the partner(s) the goals and expectations for
the season. Collect the papers once they are completed.
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Example # 3
Individual Goal Worksheet
Long-term Goal: Get within top 5 at College nationals in partner stunting_________
Reason for selecting goal: I feel that showing the ability to put together a routine and rank
shows how talented of a stunter I am, which may allow me to get onto team USA.
How will this goal achievement be measured? At the award ceremony for partner stunts if
my name is called below 5th place I have reached my goal.
Target Date to accomplish goal
January 16
.
Short-term Goals
Implementation Strategies to
complete short-term goals
1. Get one to full
1)Throw my full 15 times at every practice
2)Throw 15 backhandspring layouts
3)Attempt 5 one to fulls
2. Get one arm rewind
.
1)Do three sets of ten on single arm
shoulder presses, two times a week
2)Throw 15 one are rewinds at each practice
3. Use appropriate grips always
1)Due five perfect toss lib’s, QP’s, & full
up’s at each practice without taking a step in
2)Progress to front handsprings, rewinds,
and backhand springs
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Exercise # 3
Individual Goal Worksheet
Long-Term Goal_______________________________________________________
Reason for selecting goal _______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
How will this goal achievement be measured? _______________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Target Date to accomplish goal
____________________________
Short-term Goals
Implementation Strategies to
complete short-term goals
1.______________________
___________________________
___________________________
2.______________________
___________________________
___________________________
3.______________________
___________________________
___________________________
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Practice # 3
Practice # 3 puts a timeline together for what should be done with the worksheets
from practice # 2 and what must be done to make goal setting be a full season process.
Incorporating goal setting at the beginning of the season and entrusting athletes to
complete those goals without consultation can sometimes be unrealistic.
Exercise # 4
Review
Within two weeks of the athlete setting his/her goals, review the goal setting
sheets for each of the athletes and make a copy so you can provide the athlete with one.
Set an appointment with the individual athletes either before or after practice to meet and
discuss the goals. Explain the importance of accountability to the athletes and encourage
them to provide support for their partner(s) in accomplishing their goals.
Exercise # 5
Monthly Check Up
Once a month, set appointment times with each athlete to talk about the athlete’s
progress toward his/her goals. If the athletes have not been working on the goals, help
them find some strategies to make goal setting a higher priority. If goals have been met,
then provide the athlete with another worksheet to progress even further. It is also
important that goals are revised for athletes that have had injuries, or other hardships
throughout the year. Explain to them that the goal sheets are a contract and a requirement
of the team, not allowing some athletes to opt out.
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Exercise # 6
Closure
After Nationals, meet with each athlete and discuss with them the goals they have
been able to complete and not complete. Here is an opportunity to ask the athletes about
expectations for the following year and if they are planning on coming back for another
season. Provide them with another individual goal setting worksheet so they are able to
complete it on their own and do work in the offseason. Many times athletes are
regenerated after going to nationals, and this is a great time for them to develop new
skills. The form will be a contract with themselves to keep up the accountability and
drive when there is not a coach pushing them.
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CONCENTRATION
“Focus” is one of the most commonly used words by coaches. By the time
athletes are at the collegiate level, they probably know what focus is but not necessarily
how to attain it. Helping the team know how to use concentration skills throughout
performance will solidify the definition. One of the key concepts behind developing
concentration is self-talk. While some athletes talk to themselves out loud throughout a
performance, others talk to themselves inside their head to receive the same type of
concentration. Maintaining positive self-talk has been foud to help an athlete stay
focused. An example of using positive self-talk is: “Come on Chuck! You can do this!
Just a little longer”; phrases like this can be used to bring the attention back to the skill at
hand. The following exercises will help athletes become more aware of how they use
self-talk. In addition, learning to use cue words will be discussed, as well as some review
techniques for increasing focus.
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Practice # 1
Practice # 1 should be used at the beginning of a season to help athletes became
aware of and understand how to change negative thoughts to positive thoughts and how
to place them within the routine. Exercise # 1 will deal with changing negative thoughts
to positive thoughts. Exercise # 2 intertwines the positive thoughts and places them
throughout the routine.
Exercise # 1
Transformation of Thoughts
Have athletes think of common negative thoughts that may be repeated
throughout the routine. Once athletes have identified the negative thoughts, have the
athletes replace it with a positive affirmation or instructional phrase.
Example # 1
List common negative thoughts
the routine:
thought:
1. I didn’t set on my tuck
2. I suck for taking a step on the elite
3.
List a positive alternative for that throughout
1. I can really flip in my tuck no matter
how high I am.
2. The stunt didn’t come down lets keep
my feet planted during the IME
3.
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Exercise # 2
Thought Interjection
Exercise # 2 will help the athletes take the positive thoughts and phrases executed
in exercise # 1 and integrate them into their routine. This will help the athletes stay
focused on the routine when they find themselves losing concentration.
Example # 2
Positive thought or phrase:
1. I can do this
2. This is going to be perfect
3.
Interjections throughout the routine:
1. Walking to pyramid
2. Setting for the elite
3.
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Exercise # 1
Transformation of Thoughts
List common negative thoughts
throughout the routine:
List a positive alternative for that
thought:
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
7.
Exercise # 2
Thought Interjection
Positive thought or phrase:
Interjections throughout the routine:
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5.
6.
6.
7.
7.
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Practice # 2
Practice # 2 provides athletes with the opportunity to turn common phrases they
use into key words. These words will enable athletes to continue to focus on the skill they
are performing.
Exercise # 3
Identifying Cue Words
Cue words are single words or phrases that implement a response toward a given
action and take the place of a full sentence. Cue words are quick interjections that can be
used at any time throughout the routine to emphasize a specific motion or movement.
Cue words should be either instructional or motivational to help focus on the task. An
example of an instructional word is using the word “up” while the athlete is tumbling to
enforce the fact they need to set keeping their head looking forward and arms straight up
in the air. Another example is when a coed partner stunt does a toss hands, instead of a
thinking “drive my fingers as high I can, then flick my wrist, then open up my hand, then
shrug through my shoulders, jus use “top, flick, open, push”. Simple words can have a lot
of meaning to help athletes focus.
Example # 3
Cue Word Identifier
Phrases used for instruction/ motivation:
Word to capture essence of
thought:
Push for the stunt, don’t let it come down
Jump as high as you can in the tuck and set
.
.
______________________________________
Fight
.
Up
.
.
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Exercise # 3
Cue Word Identifier
Phrases used for instruction/ motivation:
Word to capture essence of
thought:
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
______________________________________
_______________
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Practice # 3
Practice # 3 should start at the beginning of competition season when run
throughs begin until the trip to college nationals. This section incorporates the use of
thought transformation, interjection, and cue words to increase concentration. This should
allow athletes to reflect on and record their concentration in order to implement changes
for the next practice. Exercise # 4 is a concentration evaluation, and exercise # 5 is a selfmonitoring scale.
Exercise # 4
Routine Concentration Evaluation
After running the routine full out, have the athletes evaluate their concentration
throughout the routine on a scale between 1-10, where 1 is considered a failure, and 10 is
extremely successful. Have the athletes specify what contributed to their own personal
assessment of concentration.
Example # 4
Date: 12/18
Routine
.
Success Number 1-10
Help/Hinder toward concentration
1
.
8
.
One and done mentality
.
2
.
4
.
I was too worried about everyone else
.
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
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Exercise # 5
Self-Monitoring in Cheerleading
Exercise # 5 is being used to discover concentration ratings though an entire
practice, with the goal of improving the score each day of practice. This is on a scale of
1-5, 1 being poor and 5 being excellent. Rating each part of the routine independently
will help the athlete to determine where more effort in concentration is required. Writing
the overall score on each sheet will help keep track of the athlete’s performance as they
get closer to nationals.
Example # 5
Date: 12/18/2012
Score:
17
.
1 = Bad …. 5 = Excellent
Elite
Baskets
Standing
Running
IME
Pyramid
3
4
3
1
3
3
= 17
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Exercise # 4
Routine Concentration Evaluation
Date: __________
Routine
Success Number 1-10
Help/Hinder toward concentration
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
_______
_____
___________________________________
Exercise # 5
Self Monitoring Chart
Date: ____________
Score: ___________
1 = Bad …. 5 = Excellent
Elite
Baskets
Standing
Running
IME
Pyramid
= _____
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MENTAL IMAGERY
Mental imagery is the rehearsal of skills without any physical movement and is
used by 90% of Olympic athletes. Being able to better understand and utilize mental
imagery can help optimize an athlete’s performance. Imagery can be done prior to
performing a skill, during a skill, or after completion of a skill. In cheerleading, there are
only so many times stunts, baskets, pyramids, or tumbling passes can be thrown before
the physicality to perform those tasks is inhibited. Instead of risking injury, using
imagery can further allow the athlete to practice. Going through the skills mentally can
stimulate the same neurological processes as if the skill was being done physically.
Utilizing physical and mental techniques can allow twice as much practice with the same
amount of physical work.
Imagery is best done when as many senses (touch, smell, auditory, and visual) as
possible are utilized to make the situation as real as possible. The more vivid and realistic
the imagery is, the more beneficial it will be for the athlete. This means mentally setting
up a complete situation including fans, music, lighting and teammates while performing
the task. It is also important to be able to control the images to have the desired outcome.
If a negative execution of a skill is repetitively imaged, it will not improve the athlete’s
performance. Being able to mentally make your body do what it needs to do to be
successful is required. A common phrase that is used is, “Practice does not make
perfection, but perfect practice elicits perfect performance”; this is not just true
physically, but mentally as well.
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There are many settings where imagery can take place. Imagery can be done in a
group setting, where the whole team can relax on the floor. Once skilled in the process,
athletes can also practice imagery in the privacy of their homes or between drills and
routines. Some relaxation drills introduced in the arousal control section can be utilized at
the beginning of an imagery session to help calm down the athlete’s mind. When the
athletes are situated and prepared, a coach can either inform the athletes what part of the
routine he/she wants them to think about or the athlete can imagine the entire routine
making any necessary corrections. The more imagery is practiced during the early part of
the season, the easier imagery can be integrated into national practices, making runthroughs go smoothly. As the athletes become more skillful at imagery, they are able to
use these strategies in more chaotic atmospheres like college nationals. Using imagery
after an attempt at a stunt, pyramid, basket, or tumbling pass will better allow the athlete
to see what they did wrong and fix the mistakes, viewing what a perfect execution would
look and feel like. Athletes can then go back and attempt to execute the skill successfully
feeling more comfortable with performance. Imagery can also take place at nationals
between practice mats. The more skillful an athlete is at imagery, the more confident they
feel about executing the skill. The next exercises will help athletes understand vividness
and controllability though imagery, as well as examples of imagery scripts and a prompt
to write their own personal scripts.
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Practice # 1
The goal of practice # 1 is to provide athletes with the opportunity to understand
the skills behind imagery. The first skill to focus on is vividness, which is creating an
extremely detailed image. Exercise # 1 will start with a non-cheerleading related
example. Exercise #2 will be a cheerleading example that will build upon exercise # 1.
Each exercise should be practiced multiple times by athletes to improve their skills before
moving to the next exercise. When conducting imagery sessions with your athletes, talk
with a calm and gentle demeanor. It would also be beneficial to experience the drills
yourself prior to teaching so you are able to understand the process the athletes are
experiencing.
Exercise #1
After the athletes close their eyes and relax, have them select any color. After 15 20 seconds, tell the athletes to change the color to red or keep the color red if that was the
athlete’s original color. Associate the color red with words that are represented by the
color red. Allow the athletes to take some time on this part. Transition to blue. Use the
word “calming” as you express the color. Say the word “ocean”. This will allow the
athlete’s mind to expand further. Transform the color to yellow. This should not take
long. Change the color yellow into a spherical shape. Express that, “the sphere is warm
like the sun, you can feel the warmth on you heating you up, make things nice and
comfortable.” Let them stay with that for a short before they open their eyes. Have the
athletes discuss which parts of the exercise were successful and which they struggled
with. This will give you insight for the next imagery session.
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Exercise # 2
Again, have the team close their eyes and clear their mind using relaxation
techniques presented in the arousal control section. Ask the athletes to mentally perform a
toss or a straight up extension. Because this is a basic skill, it should not require much
time to image. In addition to visualizing, also encourage them to hear the sounds that take
place throughout the stunt. Ask the athletes to notice what color and style shorts and shirt
they are wearing. This might take a little longer. Have the athletes determine what color
their partner or group is wearing. After allowing some time to pass, suggest the athletes
see the color of the hair and the shoes of some athletes. For the last task, encourage the
athletes to notice the faces of the athletes while performing the toss extension. Have the
athletes open their eyes. Now process the imagery session.
Practice # 2
The goal of practice # 2 is to provide athletes with the second major concept of
imagery, which is controllability. Being able to make changes and control their
techniques in images will help produce more positive performance outcomes. Continue to
enforce the use of vividness in the exercises.
Exercise # 3
Invite the athletes to close their eyes and relax using techniques from the arousal
control section. Instruct the athletes to do a toss to extension or a straight up extension a
few times, similar to exercise # 2. This time encourage the athletes not to use their legs to
complete the stunt just the upper body; do this two or three times. See how difficult is and
how much of a struggle it was to stunt without using their legs. Now emphasize the
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athlete standing up using their legs and over tossing the stunt. At the top it hits hard
because gravity causes it to come down fast; complete this two or three times. Finally,
have the athlete image the appropriate technique and strength to hit the extension at that
top without taking a step and arms completely locked out. Now let them open their eyes
and process the session.
Exercise # 4
Instruct the athlete to close their eyes, relax, and clear their mind using techniques
from arousal control section. Using imagery, complete a round off backhandspring. Make
the backhandspring shorter for a few times. (This can be done by either arching their back
or by reaching for the ground right after the round off.) Lengthen the backhandspring to
an uncomfortable length and do that a few times. (This can be done by stopping the snap
of your feet early.) Try a round off rebound that forces the athletes to go straight up in the
air. Repeat this step a few times. Encourage the athletes to do a few round off rebounds
that cause them to go forward due to undercutting. Do a few round off rebounds bouncing
backwards. Perform a perfect backhandspring feeling the fluidity of the movement and
how easy it can be. Open your eyes and process, remembering what changes took place
in their backhandspring from the first one to the last one and incorporate that in their
tumbling for the day.
Practice # 3
The goal of practice # 3 is to provide a simple task and more complex task as
examples of how imagery scripts should progress. Imaging what could go wrong can
allow many athletes to make the appropriate changes when needed. In exercise # 5, it is
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obvious there is much more one can say about a standing tuck, but reading through a
script and having the athletes think about simple skills will allow their minds to get into
the idea of what they are doing. In exercise # 6, the more difficult task explains what
needs to be incorporated in more complicated skills. These two imagery exercises should
be done with eyes closed in a relaxed position. Scripts should not be universal but
differentiate for each individual athlete. The examples are used as outlines to get a
general idea of what should take place and not as an absolute. Exercise # 7 is a prompt
that will aid the athletes in creating their own scripts, making it personal.
Exercise # 5
Simple Task Script
Standing tuck: As your body is relaxed, feeling light like a feather, squat down,
slightly swing your weightless arms behind you. Standing up as fast as possible, swing
your arms straight up to the sky, driving your hips with your bent knees over your head.
As gravity starts to bring you down to earth you gently land on your toes, then flattening
your feet standing up with your chest forward.
Exercise # 6
More Advanced Task Script
A coed male full up: Press your hands around your partner’s waist feeling the
protrusion of her hipbone with just the appropriate tension. As she feels the presence of
your hands she dips down, follow her hips as she stands up. Use your legs; which now
feel like springs. This will force the momentum through your shoulders causing them to
shrug, lifting your arms up. Arms are now fully extended where there is the sense of
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weightlessness, and then the wrists flick so fast as the opposing thumb and pointer finger
go in opposite ways. Once the top girl is released, the wrists quickly twist the hands back
clockwise as if they had been wound up too much. The right pointer finger is now
pointed toward the left side of your body with the thumb and the pointer making an L.
The left hand is open placing the space between the pointer finger and thumb below the
palm of the right hand following it around. Keeping the hands open until the feet are
inside then squeezing the hands together like a clamp. Shrug through the shoulders as if
you are holding up the roof.
Exercise # 7
Exercise # 7 will help athletes to take skills that they are working on and turn
them into a script that will help them. After completing the prompt, go over the steps and
think about them. Are the appropriate changes made? Are you able to use this script? If a
few things are distracting, go back to that step and make appropriate corrections to get the
response you want. Adjust the script until you feel comfortable about the skill being
performed.
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Exercise # 7
Imagery Prompt
Skill:____________________________________
Issues facing when completing skill:
__________________________
___________________________
__________________________
___________________________
What you are trying to change: ______________________________________
Beginning position: _____________________________________________
First step: _____________________________________________________
Feel: _________
Hear:_________
See:________
Smell:______
Second step: _____________________________________________________
Feel: _________
Hear:_________
See:________
Smell:______
Third step: _____________________________________________________
Feel: _________
Hear:_________
See:________
Smell:______
Fourth step: _____________________________________________________
Feel: _________
Hear:_________
See:________
Smell:______
Completion:_________________________________________________
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Chapter 5
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this project was to design a psychological skills manual for
collegiate cheerleading coaches to implement into their practice. It was the intent to
present a hands on manual for coaches specifically working with cheerleading athletes.
The manual provides services for college cheerleading teams that do not have a sport
psychology consultant on a regular basis. There is currently no manual that specializes
with elite cheerleaders on mental training. The manual suggests that the combination of
arousal control, concentration, imagery and goal setting will provide athletes with
additional confidence for their annual competition.
The implementation of the manual into a collegiate cheerleading season would be
a simple transfer due to abundant exercises and assessments for athletes. The coach is not
just provided worksheets to be completed by the athletes, but is taught about the different
concepts behind psychological skills in order to use in all settings. This manual was made
user-friendly with appropriate language and examples, with steps for implementing each
skill kept simple.
The emphasis was to create a manual with only the essential information. The
manual was developed integrating the author’s personal coaching experience with
experimental discovery and the formal research-based graduate education in sport
psychology.
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Recommendations
Several recommendations have been made as a result from this project. Using
distinctive titles in place of the term “practice” would allow coaches to understanding
what should be incorporated into a single practice. Finding the appropriate titles would
make the manual easier to use. One suggestion was to have other collegiate cheerleading
coaches read the manual and provide feedback on functionality of the manual. The
addition of a video or audio of specific drills could provide additional support for coaches
who still do not feel comfortable with certain exercises. Once the coach has listened to
the recording, he could imitate the drill and provide the appropriate execution to the
athletes. The author recognizes that there may be other important topics in mental
training, and that could require additional research to determine what other key factors
could benefit college cheerleading athletes.
Conclusions
Mental skills are crucial for athletes at all level of competition. Knowing the
greater effects they have on elite athletes enforces the need to have a manual for
collegiate cheerleaders. The author acknowledges that all athletes do not need to utilize
every drill and determining what exercises will benefit the athlete will provide an
individualized performance plan. The implementation of psychological skills training
could help decrease the injury rate in athletes by providing them with additional
confidence, focus techniques, and imagery. When athletes are more confident, they make
fewer major mistakes and are able to relive positive experiences and focus on the
important goals in front of them. The manual will not immediately transform the minds
82
of cheerleading coaches, but over time with additional information, more coaches could
be willing to use mental training.
83
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