Moazzam Ali Malik
Introduction to Research Methodology
Research Design
Introduction
Creswell (2003, p. 13) uses the term strategy to explain design. He also uses the terms tradition,
method, approach, procedure, and process. Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (1990) say a research
design is “a description of the procedures to be followed in testing the hypothesis” (p. 110). For
Babbie (2004), research design “involves a set of decisions regarding what topic is to be studied
among what populations with what research designs for what purpose” (p. 112) Gay and
Airasian (2000) define research design as “a general strategy for conducting a research study” (p.
107), which describes the basic structure of the study. They explain that research design tells the
researcher which strategy to select, and includes the hypotheses, variables, and real world
constraints.
A research design can be defined as an operating model or blueprint for a research project, which
accounts for internal reasoning (causality) and external reasoning (generalizability). If the
introduction in a research paper raises the question to be investigated, the research design
contains directions to determine the answer. As a blueprint is to building a house, a research
design is to conducting a research project. The research design stipulates the parts of the research
project, how they are arranged, and how they function. However, the research design does not
determine the type of data, how the data are collected, or how they are analyzed any more than a
blueprint tells a house builder the color of the walls or what furniture will occupy its various
rooms.
Nature of Research Designs:
Research Designs can be of two types by nature i.e., a) Qualitative & b) Quantitative. Qualitative
and Quantitative researches differ in their nature and paradigm. Here, I will highlight some major
differences between Qualitative and Quantitative research and then I will briefly discuss the
different types of Qualitative and Quantitative research types and designs.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is conducted to have
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative
research
involves
the
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Introduction to Research Methodology
a better understanding of not only about
collection of numerical data
the current situation is but also why it is
• It also involves the description of data,
so.
• It is much broader in scope than the
historical research
finding out the relationship among
quantifiable variables and inferring of
• It is more open and responsive to the
results.
research participants
• It uses a variety of designs and data
• It depends on the statistical data analysis
collection strategies
• It is characterized as multi-method
• It offers opportunities for descriptive and
exploratory studies
• Its overall purpose is to explain, predict,
or /and control phenomena through
focused collection of numerical data.
• Its overall purpose is to explain and gain
insight and understanding of phenomena
through intensive collection of narrative
• It is deductive, focussed and outcomeoriented
data
• It is inductive and process-oriented
The following part of the term-paper has been divided into three major sections. The first section
will introduce different types of research designs, whereas the second and the third sections have
been entitled as ‘Sampling’ and ‘Data Collection’ respectively. These last two sections are the
important components of many research designs.
Types of Research Designs
There are many research designs that are employed according to meet the needs of the research.
Some of the designs have been listed below according to their frequency use in SLA and Social
Sciences research.
1. Experimental
2. Survey
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Introduction to Research Methodology
3. Ethnographic
4. Correlational
5. Case Study
6. Action Research
7. Qualitative
8. Ex post facto
9. Descriptive
10. Introspection
11. Grounded Theory
12. Narrative
13. Historical
14. Evaluation
15. Causal-Comparative
16. Interactional analysis
17. Phenomenology
The following sections list Qualitative and Quantitative research designs; but one should be
mindful of the fact that these designs of research cannot be strictly compartmentalized as in quite
recently many researchers in social sciences have advocated the mixed-method approach.
Longitudinal and Cross-sectional research may involve both the Qualitative and Quantitative
approaches.
Qualitative Research Designs:
Following research designs, generally, involve Qualitative research paradigm to follow:
Naturalistic and Ethnographic Research Design:
In this type of research we highlight the focus of the study, identify the research problem and
conduct the data analysis to have an interpretation (Wolcott 1992:19). Ethnography is a style of
research rather than a single method and uses a variety of techniques to collect data. This style of
research can be defined as:
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Introduction to Research Methodology
the study of people in naturally occurring settings or ‘fields’ by means of methods
whichcapture their social meanings and ordinary activities, involving the
researcherparticipating directly in the setting, if not also the activities, in order to
collect data in asystematic manner but without meaning being imposed on them
externally (Brewer,2000: 10; for other explications of ethnography see: Atkinson
et al., 2001; Burgess,1984; Davies, 1999; Fetterman, 1998; Hammersley and
Atkinson, 1995).
The methods used must therefore permit access to people’s social meanings and activities and
involve close association and familiarity with the social setting. This does not necessarilymean
actual participation in the setting, so ethnography’s repertoire of techniques includes indepth
interviews, discourse analysis, personal documents and vignettes alongside participant
observation. Visual methods,like video, photography and film (see Pink, 2001) and the Internet
(Hine, 2000) are now alsojoining the list. These methods are also used in non-ethnographic
research and whatdistinguishes their application in ethnography is that they are employed to
meet the objectives that distinguish it as a style of research – the exploration of the social
meanings of people in the setting by close involvement in the field. One other feature of these
methods when usedin ethnographic research is that they are not employed in isolation from each
other.
Ethnography routinely builds in triangulation of method because it involves the use of multiple
methods of data collection
Historical Research Design:
Historical research is a systematic evaluation of the historical facts in order to establish new facts
regarding the past events (Borg 1963). The process of learning and understanding the
background and growth of a chosen field of study or profession can offer insight into
organizational culture, current trends, and future possibilities. The historical method of research
applies to all fields of study because it encompasses their: origins, growth, theories, personalities,
crisis, etc. Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical
information. Once the decision is made to conduct historical research, there are steps that should
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Introduction to Research Methodology
be followed to achieve a reliable result. Charles Busha and Stephen Harter detail six steps for
conducting historical research (91):

the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain
historical knowledge.

the gathering of as much relevant information about the problem or topic as
possible.

if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that tentatively explain relationships
between historical factors.

The rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the
authenticity and veracity of information and its sources.

The selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence,
and the drawing of conclusions; and

The recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.
In the field of library and information science, there is a vast array of topics that may be
considered for conducting historical research. For example, a researcher may choose to answer
questions about the development of school, academic or public libraries, the rise of technology
and the benefits/ problems it brings, the development of preservation methods, famous
personalities in the field, library statistics, or geographical demographics and how they affect
library distribution. Harter and Busha define library history as “the systematic recounting of past
events pertaining to the establishment, maintenance, and utilization of systematically arranged
collections of recorded information or knowledge….A biography of a person who has in some
way affected the development of libraries, library science, or librarianship is also considered to
be library history. (93)”
Exploratory Research Design:
Exploratory research aims at exploring the causes or factors of some phenomenon. In this type of
research one identifies the items, factors or variables needed to be explored and then usually
conducts qualitative techniques to unearth them.
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Introduction to Research Methodology
Exploratory research might involve a literature search or conducting focus group
interviews.
The exploration of new phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for better
understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods
to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and
rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables. For example,
one outcome might be a better system of measurement for a specific variable. If you define your
study as exploratory research, then you need to clearly define the objectives. Calling your report
“exploratory” is not an excuse for lack of definition.
Argumentative Research Design
An argumentative research revolves around the argument proposed by the researcher. In this type
of research, the researcher proposes a claim and then brings arguments to support his claim or
assertion. The researcher should not let any bias to emerge in his research and should remain as
objective in his discussions as possible.
Descriptive Research Design:
This type of research tries to describe the nature of the various types of subjects under study.
According to the nature of the study, these subjects may vary from a person or group of people to
organizations and institutions. Descriptive data includes a discussion on the percentages,
averages, mean scores of the units under study.
Descriptive research seeks to provide an accurate description of observations of a phenomena.
The object of the collection of census data is to accurately describe basic information about a
national population at a particular point in time. The objective of much descriptive research is to
map the terrain of a specific phenomenon. A study of this type could start with questions such as:
‘What similarities or contrasts exist between A and B?’, where A and B are different departments
in the same organisation, different regional operations of the same firm, or different companies
in the same industry. Such descriptive comparisons can produce useful insights and lead to
hypothesis-formation.
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Action Research Design:
This type of research is conducted by the participants involved in some social practice to bring
about the judicious change in the environment of the social practices. It is a self-reflective
research which aims at bringing about change in the status quo.
Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice
systematically and carefully, using the techniques of research. It is based on the
following assumptions:
• Teachers and principals work best on problems they have identified for themselves
• Teachers and principals become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess their
own work and then consider ways of working differently
• Teachers and principals help each other by working collaboratively
• Working with colleagues helps teachers and principals in their professional development
Although there are many types of research that may be undertaken, action research specifically
refers to a disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform and
change his or her practices in the future. This research is carried out within the context of the
teacher’s environment—that is, with the students and at the school in which the teacher works—
on questions that deal with educational matters at hand. While people who call for greater
professionalization say that teachers should be constantly researching and educating themselves
about their area of expertise, this is different from the study of more educational questions that
arise from the practice of teaching.
Implicit in the term action research is the idea that teachers will begin a cycle of posing
questions, gathering data, reflection, and deciding on a course of action. When these decisions
begin to change the school environment, a different set of circumstances appears with different
problems posed, which require a new look.
Case Studies Designs
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Introduction to Research Methodology
This is ‘the study of an instance in action’ (Andelman et at., 1980). It is a detailed and
comprehensive study of a ‘unit of analysis’ which is nothing but the whole of the population.
This unit can be a person, group of people, institution, organization, etc.
A case study is not easily summarized as a single, coherent form of research. Rather it is an
‘approach’ to research which has been fed by many different theoretical tributaries, some,
deriving from social science, stressing social interaction and the social construction of meaning
in situ; others, deriving from medical or even criminological models, giving far more emphasis
to the ‘objective’ observer, studying ‘the case’. What is common to all approaches is the
emphasis on study-in-depth; but what is not agreed is the extent to which the researcher can
produce a definitive account of ‘the case’, from the outside, so to speak, rather than a series of
possible readings of ‘the case’, from the inside. In this chapter we shall be discussing the claims
and problems of case study from the point of view of a broadly sociological perspective rather
than a medical perspective. Thus while case study can involve studying the pathologies of
individual patients, pupils, etc. we focus much more on the social construction of the case, the
site of the social/educational encounter and the nature of the case as realized in social action. Our
discussion of cases assumes a policy focus – a ‘case’ of curriculum development, a ‘case’ of
innovative training, and so on – combined with a physical location, i.e. teaching or training
carried out in a particular site. Where we include reference to the study of individuals in our
definition, we do so from the position of asking what does ‘the case’ look like for this teacher or
this student, i.e. from this participant’s point of view?
Survey Research
Survey Research can also be referred to as ‘Field Research’ conducted to get the opinion of
people about some issue. It is extended over a long period of time conducted on a large sample
and involves extensive data collection (both qualitative and quantitative). Most important designs
for data collection are the Questionnaires and the Interview.
Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings.Survey research can be
specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today, survey research is
used by a variety of different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey research to
analyzebehavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in
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evaluating political
Introduction to Research Methodology
candidates, public
health
officials, professional
organizations,
and advertising and marketing directors. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions
that is given to a sample.With a representative sample, that is, one that is representative of the
larger population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from which the
sample was drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as
look for changes in attitudes over time. A good sample selection is key as it allows one to
generalize the findings from the sample to the population, which is the whole purpose of survey
research."
Quantitative Research Designs:
Following research designs, generally, involve Qualitative research paradigm to follow:
Experimental Research
This method is used to check the cause and effect relationship between the independent and the
dependent variables. To conduct this research one variable is manipulated in determining its
effect. The researcher controls the research and can administer pre and post-tests.
Cook and Campbell (1979) offer a description of experimental design that can be taken as a
working definition: “All experiments involve at least a treatment, an outcome measure, units of
assignment, and some comparison from which change can be inferred and hopefully attributed to
the treatment” ( p. 5).

A treatment is something the researcher does. Often, language teachers want to
evaluate the results of an innovation they have done in their class. In that case,
theinnovation is the treatment.

A unit of assignment is the persons or things the researcher studies.

An outcome measure is typically a test that provides numerical data.

A true experiment requires random assignment of participants to a control group
as well as to another group, called either a treatment group or an experimental
group.

Random assignment, required to insure that both the control group and the
experimental group are equivalent, is often impossible in educational research at
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Introduction to Research Methodology
the classroom level because TREES seldom control the assignment of students to
classes and usually work with intact classes. Intact classes are classes assigned by
administrative procedures or classes selected by students.
When random assignment is not possible, the design is known as a quasi-experimental design.
The kind of data most closely associated with an experimental or quasi-experimental design are
scores from a data gathering instrument, usually a test, that typically but not exclusively uses an
interval or continuous scale. (For a discussion of scales, see Brown, 1988, p. 21). EXD is also
closely associated with statistical analysis.
Comparison is facilitated by various designs of ensuring that the groups being compared are the
same or similar; these designs include random assignment and sometimes stratified sampling.
Random assignment ensures that students have an equal chance of being assigned to the control
or treatment group. Stratified sampling, already discussed in Chapter Three, is a way to identify
parts or strata of groups to be sure they are balanced.
Another important concept is control. Control means the elimination, or at least reduction of
other factors except the ones under investigation. Control is important to insure that a
comparison is valid because the experimenter is comparing what he or she thinks they are
comparing.
Longitudinal studies:
In a Longitudinal study (chort) one collects data for a long period of time. This type of study can
extend over many years. It is different from Cross-sectional studies as the sample remains the
same over time. Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in
time.
Longitudinal studies may take the form of:
Trend study – looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organisational absenteeism rates
during the course of a year;
Cohort study – traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales department;
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Introduction to Research Methodology
Panel study – traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period 1990 2000 for the same starting cohort.
While longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and expensive than crosssectional
studies, they are more likely to identify causal relationships between variables.
Cross-sectional Studies
For cross-sectional studies (trend), one focuses on a set of factors from different respondents. At
any given time, Cross-sectional studies provide a snapshot of the population. In this method one
elicit responses from the subjects only one time.
Sampling
‘Population’ is a larger group of subjects under study; out of this larger group we select a
representative smaller group of subjects known as ‘sample’ of the research and the process of
such a selection of the ‘sample’ is known as ‘sampling’. There are many benefits attached with
sampling. It is cost-effective process that saves time and energy of the researcher. There are two
sampling designs i.e., a) Probability Sampling, and b) Non-probability Sampling.
Probability Sampling
In a probability sampling, each element of the population has an equal opportunity to get
selected to form a sample population. The probability sampling design has the following four
major types of sampling techniques:
•
Cluster sampling
•
Systematic sampling
•
Random sampling
•
Stratified sampling
Non-probability Sampling
In Non-probability sampling no element of the population is selected on the basis of
probability; rather some other means of selections are used. These means of sample selection
determine the following types of Non-probability sample:
•
Convenience sampling
•
Quota sampling
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•
Judgment sampling
•
Snowball sampling
Introduction to Research Methodology
Data Collection
The analysis of the collected data helps us to find the answer of the research question under
study. This is the reason that this component of research requires special attention Data is
collected through different tools of measurements. Qualitative and quantitative researches use
different data collection tools according to the purposes of respective researches. Some of the
most common data collection tools are:
•
Questionnaires
•
Interviews
•
Observations
•
Scales
•
Document Analysis
Questionnaire
It is based on different open and close-ended questions. It is used for multiple purposes
and has many formats. It is used to get required information from the sample population
and this is why it should be accurately administered.
Interviews
It is similar to Questionnaire but a less technical tool for the collection of data in the form
of formal conversation and is mostly used in survey researches. Interviews can be
conducted in the following three formats:
•
Structured
•
Unstructured
•
Semi-Structured
Observations
Observation is the recording of the behaviour of the sample. It relies on what the
researcher has witnessed not on what people say or think about issues. Observations can
be of two types:
•
Participant Observation
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Introduction to Research Methodology
Non-participant or Systematic Observation
Similarities between Participant Observations and Non-Participant Observations
•
Both rely on direct observation as an empirical method for data collection
•
Both involve field work
•
Both are based on the perception of the observer
•
Both are conducted in natural settings
•
Both need proper planning and schedules
Differences between Participant Observations and Non-Participant Observations
Participant Observations
•
Sample is aware during observation
Non-Participant Observations
•
Sometimes it becomes difficult for
so behaviour is affected
the researcher to find out the reason
•
Use indirect observation
for some specific behaviour
•
Requires to achieve the confidence of
•
Use direct observation
respondents to be observed
•
Researcher is supposed not to disturb
the settings or interact with people
Scales of Measurement
Measurement scales are used to collect the different forms of data and quantify the response
of the respondents to measure the variables. Type of the measurement scale will depend upon
the type of data i.e. nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
Different scales are:
•
Nominal Scales
•
Ordinal Scale
•
Interval Scale
•
Ratio Scale
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•
Likert Scale
•
Rating Scales
Introduction to Research Methodology
Document Analysis
Document analysis involves the interpretation and analysis of already recorded material. In
Document analysis data is interpreted in its original context. The sample of the
content/document analysis is “text”. The purpose of Document Analysis is to determine the
authenticity and validity of the recorded material and the data is interpreted according to a
pre-specified criterion.
References
Ary, D., Jacobs, L., &Razavieh, A. (1990).Introduction to research in education (4th ed.).
Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
Babbie, E. (2004). The practice of social research (10th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thompson.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Gay, L. R., &Airasian, P. (2000).Educational Research: Competencies for analysis and
application (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill, Prentice Hall.
L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory. (1923). The Romance of Research. p.10
The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX, MacMillan, 1930.
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1952, p. 1069.
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