I am who I am because of everyone: The development of musical talent, some views
from the field
The development of musical talent is a long process influenced by numerous people,
experiences and contexts. Cope and Smith (1997) deem there to be two approaches to
musical development, a ‘traditional’ formal route of technical expertise and proficiency
which is largely theory based, the other related a more ‘informal’ route which encourages
participation for all, regardless of ability. Both approaches have their advantages and
disadvantages, yet it would appear that the development of musical talent relies on a
combination of both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Stollery and McPhee (2002) believe that
everyone has the potential to display musical talent to some degree, therefore suggesting that
musical talent is a spectrum or continuum of ability. Their analysis of musical ability research
literature highlighted that there are two views present, one that only a few possess musical
talent and the other that is can be developed. If, as Stollery and McPhee suggest, we all
posses the potential for musical talent, there must be optimum circumstances or conditions
for musical excellence to realise this ability, the context(s) in which musical talent develops
can have enhancing and delimiting factors, or what Stollery and McPhee (2002) and McPhee
et al. (2005) term as crystallising and paralysing influences. The authors define crystallising
factors as influences “which have...served to enable growth in musical ability” (McPhee et
al., 2005:108), positive experiences which spark intrinsic interest for young people whereas
paralysing factors are “those that militate against the development of musical excellence”
(Stollery and McPhee, 2002:93). The research discussed within this paper therefore discusses
key influences (both crystallising and paralysing in nature) within the development of
established musicians / composers in both the formal and informal contexts.
Methodology
The participants within this research are a random sample of internationally acclaimed
musicians / composers who represent an array of musical genres (pop, rock, traditional folk,
musical theatre, jazz and avant-garde) from a variety of countries, with each offering a
diverse and interesting account of their own musical development. The views presented are
the factors which these musicians / composers consider as the greatest influences in their
musical development and the emerging themes from the collected data. The data for this
research was collected using semi-structured interviews and electronic questionnaire. The
questions for both forms of data collection were identical (see Appendix 1), and focussed
upon four themes representative of elements of the development process: Background,
Family and Group Involvement, Development and Identification. Although a face-to-face
interview would provide more room to explore the responses for various reasons this was not
feasible for some participants, therefore this deeper level of probing would be sacrificed in
order to meet the time schedules of the musicians / composers. The electronic respondents
were happy to expand upon further issues via email and almost all participants added
additional comment after approving the transcription of answers.
1
The responses support the research of Cope and Smith (1997), as the musicians / composers
viewed their musical development predominantly in two contexts, music at school (including
any instrumental provision). The participants largely recalled crystallising experiences within
both contexts, however this may be due to the interviewees being successful musicians
therefore paralysing features would be predictably low. Direct quotations from the data have
been included and the participants referred to by pseudonym.
Informal sources: Family, peers and the community
Family
Importance in musical development is placed by the participants in this research upon the
initial encounter which they described as any opportunity to ‘absorb’ music, for example, the
family environment, listening to CDs, encounters and events in the street, performance with
peers. It could be argued by developmental theorists such as Vygotsky, or from a musical
perspective by Swanwick (1988), that the child’s initial encounter with music is constructed
by the parents and is shaped by the values and perceptions held by the family towards music,
for example, the parent’s or sibling’s own musical experience and preference of genre or
instrument. Parental involvement can be seen to take a passive (appreciation) or an active role
(performance, instigator of practice) within the musical development of their child. The depth
and form of this involvement is often related to the parents own educational relationship with
their teachers and own musical experiences (Creech and Hallam, 2003). Where the family are
pro-music and involved in a variety of musical pursuits, they may be a wider interest in
creating a more musically enriching experience for their children (performance or
appreciation). It could be assumed that the reverse is true, however, not all musically talented
children come from musically rich backgrounds (Sloboda, 1990). The majority of the
participants in this paper are from active musical backgrounds in that their family performed,
knew of people within performance circles or for one or two of the sample, had parents who
were music teachers however this is a feature of what was a random sample.
Although parental involvement in the early years of musical learning is related to later
musical achievement and success (Creech and Hallam, 2003), there is a tendency to view this
involvement in relation to performance based activities such as practice. In his own research,
Paynter (1997) is of the opinion that there is a need for a practical based musical experience
in order to create interest for higher musical ability. He believes that if an early tactile
opportunity to play an instrument is missing, that the child is “unlikely to...respond to their
potential to reach for higher levels of musical actuality” instead the child will only gain a
“sense-experience” (Paynter, 1997:18). Paynter’s view would appear to overlook that
listening to or composing music can invoke an emotive response and consequently lead to
future musical success as illustrated in this research whereby for several participants family
appreciation of music was seen to foster interest. Davidson et al. (2000) support this in that
2
parents of musically able children did no more than listen to music at home, yet their levels of
participation increased as their child became more involved in musical learning. This
appeared to be true in this research, as Emma’s family had a great interest for music without
necessarily engaging in a formal performance:
My mother loves song and has a great passion for beautiful romantic songs. The 50's
were her era. She has a very sweet voice. My father was more of a Rock and Roll guy
and his passion was for the rock songs and the louder style of singing. He and she
were not professional musicians but by the passion they felt for music I was deeply
conditioned to enjoy what music did to me physically and emotionally. My brother
sings in a band professionally and my sister sings for fun. The other brother doesn’t
sing or play but he enjoys popular music... my other three sisters love singing but they
don’t have a drive to do it professionally. I was told my paternal grandfather’s uncle
wrote music and played dulcimer in the street in a band. This would be in the 1920's.
My mother’s older brother plays piano and mouth organ by ear. (Emma)
Emma’s response highlights a few points of interest. She repeats that her family had a
“passion” and “love” of music, a strong appreciation of the medium as listeners or audience
without necessarily engaging in practical pursuits. It is also interesting to see that she deems
her musical appreciation as a behaviour as she was “deeply conditioned” to have an
emotional response. Perhaps a more important question to ask of her response is what did
Emma take from these musical experiences that her siblings did not? Although sharing the
same environment as her siblings, the difference in response would be indicative of an nonshared experience (Plomin et al., 2001), in other words, while each child is based in the same
context, it is the individual’s reaction or assimilation of the experience which determines the
development of musical talent. Music as appreciation ‘rubbing off’ on a child rebukes the
view of Paynter (1997) and is perhaps best illustrated through research regarding adoptive
families (Davidson and Pitts, 2001), where the parents’ love of listening to music led to the
children being musically aware of a variety of mediums. Each of the three children from
Davidson and Pitts study had participated in instrumental lessons to some degree, believing
that the appreciation of music from their adoptive family created an interest to try an
instrument. The adoptive research would also illustrate an interesting aspect of the nature /
nurture debate as none of the children were biologically related therefore the relationships
(between people and the environment) are more ‘man-made’. As with one of the children in
Davidson and Pitts study and also from Emma’s response it would appear that although a
potentially crystallising environment may be provided, the nature of talent development is in
fact the individual’s own unique response to the experience. It is about what expectations the
individual brings to the context and what they take from it. This is indicative that at the root
of the development process lies intrinsic motivation.
3
Research on musical motivation by O’Neill and McPherson (2002) suggests that there are
four aspects which determine if a child will develop into a successful musician. These are
attainment value (student expectation of success); intrinsic motivation (enjoyment and
pleasure); extrinsic utility value (future career) and perceived cost of engagement (sacrifices
required to develop). O’Neill and McPherson’s research emphasises that even from a very
young age a child is aware of their preferences and can relate one (or more) of these four
motivational aspects depending on their age, for example, a child of four may not be as
driven when considering extrinsic utility value as opposed to the S5 student. Therefore,
although an individual may not utilise all four aspects simultaneously, each aspect holds
strong motivational potential for the individual depending on their present situation. It could
be seen that Emma’s siblings felt that there was no intrinsic value in pursuing a musical
career or that the ratio of sacrificing other activities (for example socialising with friends,
interests in other subjects) in order to develop their musical ability was too great. This
emphasises that the development of talent is a value-laden or needs based approach. Paynter
(1997) believes that musical learning is in alignment with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and
that the child takes from the context what s/he needs in order to satisfy their current need.
Where the individual can see relevance then they will be satisfied to progress. As the child
progresses, they develop an awareness of their own ability, or self-efficacy, therefore where
the individual can see relevance and value in their task, for example practice, self-efficacy is
higher and sustained (O'Neill and McPherson, 2002). It is the person and not the environment
which is the causal factor. This would echo the enrichment research of Joseph Renzulli
(1977) who is interested in the individual’s reaction as a result of their interaction with the
context.
Peers and the community
The questionnaire asked the participants to consider the ways in which their peers and
community contributed to their musical development. Responses for this question show that
peer and community involvement in the development process varied greatly, from active to
almost negligible. Peers could be seen as sources of encouragement and support, for example,
by listening to attempts at composition (a critical friend) or by attending concerts. Very little
comment (if any) was made towards these factors as paralysing in any way, but again, given
that all participants are successful this finding could be seen as predictable. In a similar vein
to the work of Vygotsky, Hargreaves and North (1999) highlight the power of music as a
social cognitive process which promotes enjoyment, entertainment and communication for
learning between groups. Music is seen as a form of social learning as opposed to music for a
social gathering. In the case of Kathleen, singing and sharing of music was seen as the norm
for her community. Everyone sang or participated in music making, therefore she considered
her ability as “unremarkable” and did not consider there to be any benchmark to compare her
own skills. Realisation of ability for Kathleen came later when she began to teach and could
reflect upon her own experiences and attributes in relation to her own students. Joe felt that
4
he was inspired by older peers but felt more challenge from his contemporaries. Similarly,
Alan used his peers as benchmarks to realise that he possessed musical talent:
I had no way of judging myself objectively...Winning competitions against my peers
was my only means. When I was accomplishing more than the other percussionists.
That is, they were expected to learn one mallet piece per semester, and I learned
eleven. I was absolutely concentrated and devoted to becoming the world's best at my
instrument. (Alan)
The responses from Alan and Joe would suggest that competition was an essential extrinsic
motivational drive that sparked an intrinsic need or want to do better in their field.
Competition in music, for example, audition and testing, is common. Musicians are aware
that to be musically successful requires competition and is indicative of the psychological
side of motivation, mental preparation to endure the crystallising experiences with the
paralysing. High motivation is a common theme within gifted and talented research literature,
for example, Renzulli compares this motivation to high energy, or what he terms as task
commitment (Renzulli, 1978). Task commitment relies on the individual’s determination to
carry out tasks related specifically to themselves throughout these good and bad times,
therefore this would support the response of Emma (see p3), who chose to pursue a musical
career unlike her siblings. It is this drive or higher motivation which is the definitive factor of
a talented individual. Musicians show a higher degree of commitment and motivation to
pursue their interests, often going over and above the mandatory curricular requirements {see
\Cope, 2002 #9}, for example, private tuition outwith school hours. Although going this extra
mile could be seen as predictable from motivated individuals, the variety of additional
activity from the participants in this research was interesting, with some crossing genres from
Classical to Jazz or improvisation, in other words, crossing the ‘divide’ between the formal to
the informal (and vice versa).
Whereas the majority of Classical development occurs in a structured and formal learning
environment, such as the music classroom or through expert instrumental tuition, research has
largely overlooked the development of the non-Classical musician
...non-classical musical development tends to occur without formal guidance and
instruction. It is, therefore, important to understand the setting, including outdoor
‘busking’ and ‘jamming’ with musical peers, in which this learning and development
occurs. Increasing the number of settings in which performances could take place may
provide non-classical musicians with additional opportunities for informal practice,
and contribute to their overall musical development. (Kamin et al., 2007:451)
5
Kamin et al. (2007) would appear to suggest that musicians should find the formal
experiences restrictive whereas experiences of an informal nature allow the musician to
flourish, however this may not necessarily be the case. Passow (1979) considered that
emphasis should be placed upon opportunities for learning rather than context for teaching. In
other words, providing the individual ‘freedom’ to learn rather than being entirely (or largely)
teacher led. He is of the opinion that a variety of activities should be encouraged and that
learning should take advantage of the resources offered by the community. In order to
achieve this, Passow suggests that alternative strategies of learning should be devised, ones
which fully utilise the expertise of the community and its learners, a partnership. This
learning partnership between the school, community and outside experts / resources (such as
the art galleries, freelance musicians and artists if necessary) should allow for the pupils to
participate and serve the interests of their communities whilst simultaneously developing
their own learning experiences. It is a broad and somewhat inaccurate generalisation that
informal musical learning experiences hold only socialising opportunities for musicians. The
views of both Kamin et al. and Passow reflect the need for freedom and flexibility required
for learning to occur and opportunity to absorb the musical experience.
As discussed earlier, a crystallising musical experience does not necessarily centre upon
performing, but can take the form of appreciation or an emotive response to a CD recording
or event. For traditional musicians such as Andy and Kathleen the community became a stage
to perform and to learn from others, therefore social events and experiences in musical
learning could be significant in talent development. Kathleen fondly recalled a visiting
shepherd who came and sang at local gatherings a few times a year. She reflected upon the
qualities which attracted her to his musical style and the impact of general music making
within her local community. The shepherd musician enchants his audience and delivers a
mesmerising performance, all of which clearly had a powerful effect on her. From this
experience, she listened and reflected upon his musical ability, becoming inspired with the
stories which were sung. However while this experience affected Kathleen’s musical
development it appears that the rest of her community did not internalise this in the same
way, as not all have become successful musicians. To Hargreaves and North (1999) these
social cognitive experiences of musical development are just as effective as the experiences
offered within the curricular context. This is echoed in the work of Swanwick and Tillman
(1986) who highlight that musical learning (more so in the early years) is best when it is of
relevance to the child’s own culture, for example nursery rhymes or local music. Both views
would suggest that musical learning is therefore context-less, but is more about relationships
between people and if the individual can sees the task as relevant to their present situation.
Formal sources: school provision and ‘expert’ tuition
For some children, school music provision is the first ‘real’ contact with a musical
experience. Through learning about various instruments, performing or composing, the
6
classroom acts as an introduction to the world of music and a means of encouraging the initial
spark of musical interest (Swanwick, 1988). This would also align with the traditional
approach of Cope and Smith (1997). The amount and quality of musical experiences
available to the participants of this study at school varied greatly, from compulsory 1:1
instrumental lessons to teachers with a passion for harmony and Classical forms of music.
For several of the musicians / composers it was the music teacher (classroom or private
instrumental tutor) who first recognised their ability and interest. Dan described his first
music teacher as encouraging and a definite crystallising influence upon his development. On
the other hand, one participant, Tom, began instrumental lessons in school, however he is of
the opinion that school instrumental provision led to him develop poor technique, a
paralysing factor which he still feels affects him to this day. The response reflects the view of
Subotnik (2005:344), “without opportunities to learn from skilled instructors, such abilities
(musical gift to talent) may develop too slowly or even counterproductively”, for Tom it
would appear that the latter portion would be true. He considers that the move to a more
skilled (expert) teacher assisted his development needs and musical performance, for
example, when playing for youth orchestras or concert bands.
Characteristic traits of warmth and care are important from the early music teacher (Sloboda
and Howe, 1991) however, as the level of ability increases, a higher degree of musical talent
requires the guidance and mentorship of an ‘expert’ teacher (Subotnik et al., 2003). ‘Expert’
music teachers hold a key role in the development of the child. They act as a guide,
responding to their students’ strengths and weaknesses, using appropriate strategies and
challenges to overcome the difficulties. The majority of expert tuition experiences often
occur outwith the school provision with active, professional musicians. This does not mean to
say that the classroom music teacher or initial instrumental music teacher (as described by
Dan above) does not possess a high degree of skill, it shows that the general music classroom
or school provision(s) may not be the optimum context in which to hone such advanced
attributes. Guidance for technical skill was also commented upon by two other musicians
who believed that there is a requirement for advice and support from a more experienced
other – not necessarily an expert teacher with formal training – during development, for
example to help interpret the music or for instrument / vocal care. This would again suggest
the social cognitive nature of musical development, the need for additional support in order to
enhance one’s own ability.
Although there is a view from the responses that there is a need for technical skills and
knowledge, to be a successful musician, one does not need to be technically proficient or
elite. While technique may be desirable by some teachers and performers, as Cope and Smith
(1997) suggest, musical learning does not have to be theoretically based. Lack of theoretical
knowledge may lessen the experience of being a virtuoso, however it will not lessen the
overall musical experience. It could be taken from this that musical ability and development
7
is not purely about performance or listening, but can be seen as an amalgamation of a number
of skills including artistry and communication.
Where the teacher was deemed negatively, this did not paralyse the development process or
the enjoyment of musical pursuits through other means. In the case of Mark, a paralysing
experience with his teacher did not deter his music making in more informal circles. For
some, the teacher’s negative perception and influence were used to form a crystallising
experience, almost creating a ‘double negative’ effect in that the individual creates their own
positive experience in spite of the negativity. The comments below illustrate how two
musicians used such experiences to their own advantage, channelling this negativity
productively to aid their development:
My early teachers were more socially motivated, that is, they were forced to lead
orchestras and bands, where percussion was often severely repressed. I rebelled, and
chose to be a soloist. The teachers weren't prepared to guide me to be a soloist, but
rather a cog in the orchestral machine. My creative ideas were repressed by them,
and I constantly found detours, to their chagrin, and to my success. (Alan)
Whereas Alan’s quotation would suggest that the musician found the established teaching and
learning context a paralysing factor in his development, he rebelled against this norm of
group performance to pursue his own interests. In relation to the two approaches of musical
development discussed by Cope and Smith (1997), it would appear that each context is seen
to have their own expectations and musical identities. Consequently, it is these perceptions
and values which may cause practitioners to overlook the contributions of some pupils. In the
case of Emma, her teacher appears focussed on the more apparent ability rather than
uncovering hidden attributes of others. For Alan, his context required him to conform to the
Classical method of learning. Emma’s recollection would suggest that the context in which
the ability is recognised is as of much importance as the development process itself, as for
some musicians / composers school and the music classroom are not suitable means for
recognition or expression of their ability. The classroom cannot suitably hold opportunities
for every possible form of musical ability therefore some can remain hidden. It required the
teacher to move from the context of the classroom to a more unconventional setting to realise
this participant possessed musical talent Teachers must learn to accept that musical
experiences and learning occurs outwith the school and classroom, therefore the classroom
teacher is required to think of creative ways to acknowledge this learning within the school
context (Pitts, 2000). There are several possible means of inviting the outside into the
classroom, through establishing strong home / school relations, chatting to the pupils about
their private instruction or asking about their own musical preferences. Simple group
performances of pop songs are another means of encouraging the pupils to explore their own
8
musical interests. Song arrangements are freely available on the internet, and can be adapted
through use of packages such as Sibelius to suit the instruments and needs of the pupils.
Summary
The fact that musical development occurs in more than the classroom and outwith the school
context is something which makes music different from other forms of academic learning
(Cope, 2002). Although there may be a perception that the two contexts are somewhat
misaligned or polarised (Cope and Smith, 1997), musical learning could be removed from the
school curriculum yet continue to thrive due to the development opportunities in informal
circles. From the responses of the participants in this study, an interesting picture of musical
development begins to emerge. From emotive response to behavioural expectations of the
contexts can impact on motivation and learning. For musical talent to develop, it appears that
there requires a ratio of both crystallising and paralysing factors in the overall process
(McPhee et al., 2005). However, for some participants in this research paralysing factors do
not appear to be as obvious or as negative for some participants, therefore the ratio in this
article is not evident within the individual but rather it appears across the cohort. Similarly,
there appears to be no definitive context for the development of musical talent, instead it is
more the individual’s response to the environment and relationships with the people within
these contexts which can act as a motivational drive. The two approaches to musical
development (as described by Cope and Smith (1997) illustrate that musical talent, or the
potential for musical talent is shaped by the values and expectations towards the learning
process by musician and learner respectively. This is indicative that crystallising and
paralysing influences are a highly personal experience, created by the individual’s
expectations and prior experiences during interaction with their environment.
Regardless of context or experience on offer, where the individual feels involved and
interested the opportunity to achieve is greater, therefore those who are interested in music
(such as the sample in this research) are more likely to have potential for musical talent. The
aim should be placed upon creating stimulating opportunities but to also encourage
development by allowing freedom for the pupil to respond in their own way. From a teaching
perspective, the responses have raised several points of interest for future research. If the
teacher offers an experience / opportunity, how can s/he tell if a pupil has had a crystallising
response? How can teachers tell what their students need, especially if their musical
development occurs in more informal contexts? It is by viewing musical development as a
partnership of multiple sources, across a multitude of contexts which can add a further
dimension to the learning experiences of all pupils.
9
Acknowledgements
I wish to express my thanks to ESCalate for providing a student grant to help me complete
my first PhD chapter. My appreciation also goes to my mentor and PhD supervisor Dr Fiona
Patrick and co-supervisor Dr Alastair McPhee for their continual support and encouragement.
References
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11
Appendix 1
Charity Number SC004401
E-INTERVIEW
FOR MUSICIAN / COMPOSER
Name of Interviewee:
Name of organisation:
12
THEME 1: BACKGROUND
What you do for a living / music career?
How was your ability recognised?
Was it formally identified?
Was it recognised by others?
At what age did people start to identify your ability?
When did you realise that you had ability?
In what context did you notice it?
13
THEME 2: FAMILY OR GROUP INVOLVEMENT?
Is anyone else in your family involved in music? If so, what types?
What about musical experiences when you were young?
How did you get started as a musician / composer?
14
THEME 3: DEVELOPMENT
From your involvement in music, how was your ability developed...

by family?

by peers?

by school?

by music teacher(s)?

by community?

Other?
Do you feel that anything was missing from your development? If so, what kind of
development would you have wanted?
15
THEME 4: IDENTIFICATION
How would you describe yourself in terms of your musical ability – would you say you are
talented or gifted?
How would you define musical ability or gift?
How do you recognise musical ability in other musicians?
What skills do you expect to see in a talented musician / composer?
What is it about performing or composing that appeals to you and would you have chosen
any other path?
END OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Please use the space below if there is anything else which you would like to contribute in
relation to your own musical experience and development.
16