Approaches (Revision sheet 11th December 09)
Biological Approach
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The biological approach believes behaviour can be explained through accounts of biological processes.
It focuses on 3 main areas:
1. Brain structure,
2. Biochemicals,
3. Genes
Biological approach also believes a knowledge of evolution can contribute to our understanding of behaviour.
Biochemicals
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Two main biochemicals are believed to effect behaviour:
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Hormones
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Neurotransmitters
Hormone and/or Neurotransmittter
Behavioural Effects
Serotonin
Low level  depression,
Melatonin
High levels  Sleep,
Adrenaline
High levels  Stress, emotion, arousal,
Endorphins
High levels  Happiness, Joy, sexual pleasure,
Testosterone/Oestrogen
High levels  Sex, Aggression
Drugs
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Marijuana: Affects emotions, memory, and judgment. Weakens problem solving ability.
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Alcohol: Alcohol impairs judgment and leads to memory lapses. It distorts vision, shortens coordination.
Genetics
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Behavioural characteristics are caused by our genes. These are found on chromosomes, which are made up of DNA, and they are
inherited from our parents.
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If a family member has a certain trait, you are more likely to have the same trait.
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People inherit a predisposition to do something / act in a certain way.
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Research has suggested that characteristics such as intelligence, personality, and mental illness can be inherited.
Brain Structure
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Different parts of the brain are believed to affect different behaviours.
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e.g.
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Left hemisphere (Broca’s area & Wernicke’s area): Language. Right hemisphere: Visuo-spatial information
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Frontal Lobe: Motor cortex (control of movement): Forward planning and working memory.
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Limbic system: The centre for emotions. Hypothalamus: Pleasure
AO2 Evaluation
Evidence
Brain Structure
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Brain scans. - Post mortems.
-Case studies – Phineas Gage
Biochemical
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Observation of people who take drugs.
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For example taking cannabis can affect emotions, memory, judgment, and it can weaken problem solving ability.
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Drugs such as SSRIs can relieve the symptoms of depression. They work by increasing the level of serotonin in the
synapse.
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Example – link between testosterone and aggression.
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Animal studies: rats injected with testosterone became more aggressive. Van de Poll et al. (1988)
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Dabbs et al. (1995) Violent prisoners had higher levels of testosterone.
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Cause or effect: sometimes it is unclear if levels of biochemical is a cause or affect of the behaviour.
Genetics
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Family studies
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Gene sequencing
Twin studies (MZ & DZ)
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The biological approach applies scientific methods to investigate human behaviour.
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Practical applications.
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A knowledge of biochemicals involved in behaviour drug therapy (e.g. SSRIs)
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Brain Surgery
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Ignores / minimises environmental factors. This is a weakness of the approach.
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For example low levels of serotonin may cause depression, but negative life events are probably also an important factor.
It is reductionist; An argument or theory that reduces complex factors to a set of simple principles.
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In this case trying to understand complex behaviour by reducing it to chemicals, genes, and brain structure.
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Inappropriate use of reductionism may limit our understanding of complex systems.
It is deterministic; it suggests that a person’s behaviour is determined by their biology and is therefore outside their control.
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It ignores free will, and this can be unhelpful. It also implies people are not responsible for their actions.
Cause or effect?
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Sometimes it is unclear if levels of biology is a cause or effect of the behaviour.
Treatment aetiology fallacy.
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The mistaken notion that the success of a treatment reveals the cause of the disorder.
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e.g. Just because increasing the level of a chemical solves a problem it doesn't necessarily follow that a lack of that chemical
caused the problem.
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Consider – you have a rash, put a cream on the rash, and the rash disappears. Was it a lack of the cream that caused the rash in
the first place?
The approach provides strong counter arguments to the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate thereby opposing behaviourism.
Much of the research into the biological approach has been carried out on animals.
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Can this be generalised to humans? Consider SDN research in rats.
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Also is it morally correct to conduct this research?
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Evolution
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Evolution refers to the change over successive generations of the characteristics/make-up of a population.
Evolution works by natural selection. Characteristics that help an organism adapt better to its environment are passed on to future
generations.
Evolutionary psychology: uses evolutionary mechanisms and explanations for human thought, behaviour, and culture.
According to evolutionary theory each aspect of human behaviour exists because at some point it would have benefited the survival of
individuals.
However some of these behaviours may have been beneficial to our hunter-gatherer ancestors, however they may not still be beneficial
now.
Natural selection – individuals who are best adapted to their environment are fittest. Individuals who are fittest are most likely to survive
and reproduce.
Adaptive characteristics are then passed on to future generations whilst maladaptive ones die out
Knowledge of evolution has contributed to our understanding of behaviour.
Examples of evolutionary psychology: sexual selection; mating strategies; parental investment; bonding; aggression;
Parental Investment
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One evolutionary psychology theory: men and women look for different things in a partner.
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Men and women look for different things in a partner.
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Men rate good looks, youth, chastity higher than women (believed to be good signs of female fertility)
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Women rate good financial prospects, and dependability higher than men (women are believed to look for qualities in
men that means they will provide for them)
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This is due to the difference in “parental investment”.
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Women invest more in their offspring so the qualities they need in a partner to successfully reproduce are different from what a
man needs.
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So during our evolution men who were more attracted to youthful looking women etc were more likely to reproduce and have
offspring.
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Women who were in more attracted to dependable men with lots of resources were more likely to successfully reproduce.
Evaluation
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This theory can not be tested.
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Humans are capable of conscious thought so it is unlikely we are entirely governed by evolutionary pressures.
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Criticisms of evolutionary research, eg much of the empirical evidence is from natural experiments.
Although the validity of the theory is demonstrated through observation, cause and effect cannot be established as there are no
manipulations of variables.
Lorenz (1958) argued that when individual members of the same species all exhibit the same behaviour, that behaviour must be largely
inherited.
Behavioural Approach
Behaviourism – key ideas
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An approach that believes behaviour is learnt.
We are born as a blank slate or tabula rasa, and experiences make us the way we are.
Any response can be conditioned to any stimulus.
All species of animals learn in a similar way.
It is only behaviour that can be observed that should be studied. (Internal mental processes can not be studied and should be ignored.)
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Considered a scientific approach.
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Two main parts to the theory:
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Classical conditioning
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Operant conditioning
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(Also Social Learning Theory… but here treated separately.)
Classical conditioning
Pavlov
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Russian scientist investigating digestion in dogs
Rang a bell every time he fed dogs
Discovered that after a period of time just ringing the bell would cause the dogs to salivate
The dogs had learnt to associate the bell with food
The food is the unconditioned stimulus
The bell is at first a neutral stimulus.
Once the bell has been associated with the food it becomes the conditioned stimulus
Reflex of salivation is the unconditioned response – which becomes the conditioned response (associated with the bell).
So in future when the bell is rung it leads to salivation.
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Association forms best when the two stimuli are presented at the same time.
If there is a long time gap the association is not learned.
If the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bell) is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. food), the conditioned response (e.g. salivation)
gradually disappears.
Stimulus generalisation – the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bell) can be changed (e.g. in tone and volume) and still elicit the conditioned
response.
Stimulus discrimination – the conditioned stimulus changes so much (e.g. in tone and volume) it does not elicit the conditioned
response.
Spontaneous recovery – when the conditioned response has been extinguished, the conditioned stimulus might still sometimes elicit
the conditioned response.
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Evidence
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Pavlov
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Watson (1920) Little Albert Experiment
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Conditioned to fear white fluffy objects.
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Shows how a phobia could develop
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Shows conditioning also happens in humans.
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Used to make rats ejaculate to the smell of lemon or almond (Kippin, 2000) (strange sexual fetishes are believed to develop in a similar
way).
Evaluation
Strengths
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Supported by scientific research (Pavlov & Little Albert).
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Approach is scientific. Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour so experiments can be conducted and hypotheses tested.
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Can explain cross-cultural differences in behaviour
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Has important applications.
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Education
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Behavioural therapy – aversion therapy, treatment of phobias, OCD, addiction,
Limitations
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Deterministic – it ignores free will.
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The environment is seen as the sole determinant of behaviour. So it underestimates role of biological factors such as genes.
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It is reductionist
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An argument or theory that reduces complex factors to a set of simple principles. In this case it explains all behaviour in terms
of stimulus and response.
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Inappropriate use of reductionism may limit our understanding of complex systems.
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CC may be true for simple learning but perhaps not complex behaviour (e.g. language acquisition)
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It ignores the importance of thinking and emotions.
Many of it’s studies are done on animals – may not be able to generalise these theories to humans
Operant Conditioning
Key idea: Learn by rewards and punishments
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Behaviour that is rewarded is more likely to be repeated (positive reinforcement).
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Behaviour that removes an unpleasant consequences is more likely to be repeated (negative reinforcement).
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Behaviour that is punished is less likely to be repeated
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positive punisher is an unpleasant stimulus,
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negative punisher is the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
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(When a positive consequence follows a behaviour we will tend to repeat that behaviour, even if it was not the cause of the reward.)
Reinforcement schedule.
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A reinforcer may not be applied in every instance that an individual exhibits the required behaviour.
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Continuous reinforcement schedule - Where every performance is rewarded. In real life this rarely occurs.
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Variable reinforcement schedule – the performance is rewarded some times but not others. This in fact leads to quicker learning and
behaviour that is more resistant to extinction.
Evaluation
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Huge amount of research supports the theories
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Skinner
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Animal experiments
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Approach is scientific. Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour so experiments can be conducted and hypotheses tested.
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It emphasises the role of learning. No doubt that learning plays a fundamental part in behaviour, and so it has contributed to our
understanding of psychological functioning.
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Can explain cross-cultural differences in behaviour
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Has important applications.
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Education
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Behavioural therapy – treatment of phobias, OCD, addiction. aversion therapy
Limitations
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It is only a partial explanation. The environment is seen as the sole determinant of behaviour. It ignores aspects such as: Biology,
(genetic, biochemical, brain structure,) Emotion, Expectations, Cognitive factors, Higher Level motivation
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Deterministic – it ignores free will and sees behaviour as merely a result of reinforcement and punishment.
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It is reductionist – explains all behaviour in terms of stimulus and response. This may be true for simple learning but perhaps not complex
behaviour (e.g. language acquisition)
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Many of it’s studies are done on animals – may not be able to generalise these theories to humans.
Evaluation
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Approach is scientific. Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour so experiments can be conducted and hypotheses tested.
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It emphasises the role of learning. No doubt that learning plays a fundamental part in behaviour, and so it has contributed to our
understanding of psychological functioning.
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Can explain cross-cultural differences in behaviour
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Has important applications.
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Education
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Behavioural therapy – treatment of phobias, OCD, addiction. Systematic desenitisation, aversion therapy
Limitations
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Deterministic – it ignores free will and sees behaviour as merely a result of reinforcement and punishment (Not true of SLT).
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Underestimates role of biological factors such as genes
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It is reductionist – explains all behaviour in terms of stimulus and response. This may be true for simple learning but perhaps not complex
behaviour (e.g. language acquisition)
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Many of it’s studies are done on animals – may not be able to generalise these to humans.
Method of study
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Experiments
Animal experiments
Approaches: Social Learning Theory
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Learn by watching others.
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In particular people will imitate behaviour they have seen rewarded in others, and not copy behaviour they have seen punished.
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Imitation
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Copying behaviour
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Reinforcement
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Observed behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is seen to be rewarding
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Direct reinforcement – rewarded for copying
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Vicarious reinforcement – see someone else rewarded for behaviour
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(Vicarious punishment – see someone punished)
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Modelling
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Behaving in the same way as the person who has been identified with.
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Identification
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We learn by observing the role models with whom we identify, e.g. high status, similar to ourselves, same gender, age, style of
dress, Likeable, attractive
Mediating cognitive factors
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Bandura referred to his theory as a “social–cognitive theory”
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(not just behavioural, but also considers cognitive factors)
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Mental representation
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Children form mental representations of events in their social environment, together with expectancies of the likely outcomes of
behaviour.
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Learn whether the behaviour is worth repeating if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.
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“Context-dependent learning”
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Self efficacy expectancies
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People vary in the degree to which they have the confidence in their ability to behave.
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e.g. If in the past aggression has been disastrous they will have less confidence, and a lower sense of self-efficacy (belief in their
own confidence).
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This will affect how likely it is for a person to use aggression.
Mediating cognitive factors: Also
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Attention
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memory
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Evidence
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SLT (Bandura, 1961) Bobo doll experiment.
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We learn the specifics of aggressive behaviour (the form it takes and the targets toward which it is directed) by observing
others.
Commentary on Bobo doll experiment
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Lacks ecological validity –
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laboratory experiment is not like real life.
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Children more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour towards a doll than towards another child.
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Bandura did not distinguish between aggression and play fighting
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Bobo doll had novelty value for the children. Those who had not played with one before were 5 x more likely to try and knock it
over.
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Demand characteristics (participants try and guess what they should be doing) – The experiment provided cues for children to
behave in particular ways.
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“Where else in life does a 5 year old find a powerful adult actually showing you how to knock hell out of a dummy and then
giving you the opportunity to try it out yourself” (Durkin, 1995)
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More evidence:
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Children who watch violent programmes on TV are more likely to behave aggressively.
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Gender Studies: Fagot, Masters et al. – social learning of gender specific behaviours.
Strengths
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Supported by large amount of evidence
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Can explain differences between individuals (ie cultural variations)
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Aronson (1999) identifies some societies as highly violent, such as America, whereas others live in cooperative friendliness,
e.g. Pygmies of Central Africa.
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Cross cultural studies of Margaret Mead, New Guinea tribes. Large differences in level of aggression
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Can explain differences within individuals
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why someone is aggressive sometimes and not others
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selective reinforcement
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aggression is rewarded in some situations but not others. Learn behaviours appropriate to particular contexts.
Negative – does not explain new social trends.
Alternative explanations
Contrast with biological (nature v nurture) – does not take into account that some behaviours such as aggression may be due to
biological factors (e.g. hormones, genes)
Contrast with behavioural – less mechanised view of behaviour as it takes cognitive factors into account.
Bridge between cognitive and behavioural explanations
Cognitive
AO1
Assumptions
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Only by studying mental processes can we understand why people behave the way they do.
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Focuses on mental processes such as:
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Language
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Attention
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Memory
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Reasoning
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Problem solving
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Decision making
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In particular thought processes.
Cognitive approach
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Cognitive psychologists extend this idea and say that our
behaviour is determined by the way we process
information taken in from our environment.
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Cognitive processes (information processing) mediate between stimulus and response.
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Cognitive psychologists say that our behaviour is determined by the way we process information taken in from our environment.
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Mental processes can be studied scientifically by conducting experiments.
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Examples of experiments e.g. Jacobs (1887) Capacity of short term memory
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Models can be used to explain processes.
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e.g. Multi-store model of memory
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Sees human information processing similar to a computer.
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information processing
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Inputs, storage, retrieval. Various programmes that determine the response.
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e.g. One way of explaining memory is to think of humans as information processors who can only process a limited amount of
information at a time without becoming overloaded.
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A person’s knowledge and beliefs influence their behaviour and experience
Develop schema – organised packages of information about how the world works
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Disorders can be caused by irrational thought processes
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Assumes that mental processes can be studied scientifically.
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So researcher conduct experiments to test their theories.
Method of Study
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Experiments
Introspection: Wundt, a cognitive psychologist, states that introspection is a valid method of studying human behaviour (A01).
Introspection is a method of investigating conscious thought and mental processes by asking people verbally to report on what they are
consciously thinking or feeling. Behaviourism criticise introspection for being too subjective and is not considered scientific even if the
methods used in introspection are (A02).
AO2
Strengths
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Scientific: it is possible to study the internal processes that lie between stimulus and response
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Use of models, such as the computer helps us understand mental processes.
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Practical applications
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It has been extremely useful and beneficial in the treatment of a number of disorders.
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Examples of cognitive therapy Depression (Beck’s cognitive triad), Eating disorders, Anger management, Self
esteem, Phobias, OCD
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Cognitive interview (police, eyewitness testimony)
Limitations
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Cognitive Psychology has been criticised as being too simplistic and ignoring the complex behaviour processes humans go through.
Studying humans by analysing cognitive functions means ignoring biological influences such as genetics, the unconscious mind (Freud)
and the environment (Behaviourism). It also takes no account of processes such as motivation or emotion (Humanists believe this is very
important) (A02).
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Does not take into sufficient account emotions
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Another assumption is that the mind works in a way similar to a computer: inputting, storing and retrieving data, i.e. the information
processing approach (A01). However, there is a problem with this view. There are many differences between the human mind and a
computer. The human mind has unlimited memory storage and a computer has a limited memory storage (called the hard drive). Also
humans have emotions and computers don’t (A02).
Compare with other approaches
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The cognitive approach has investigated many areas of interest in psychology that had been neglected by behaviourism.
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The cognitive approach places great emphasis on the use of more rigorous scientific methods unlike psychoanalysis.
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The humanistic approach disagrees and rejects scientific methodology, as Rogers believes that experiments create artificial
environments and have low ecological validity (AO2).
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Contrast it with the free-will approach of the humanists, arguing that the cognitive approach ignores the emotional life of humans and
their conscious experience
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The cognitive approach believes that mediational processes occur between stimulus and response, e.g. memory and perception (A01).
The behaviourist approach disagrees because they believe that mediational processes are internal behaviour, which cannot be seen or
objectively measured, and therefore do not exist (A02).
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The cognitive approach believes that people are born with schemas and cognitive functions like perception and memory stores. The
behaviourist approach disagrees with the idea of innate behaviour, as Skinner and Watson think that people are born a blank slate
(tabula rasa) and that all behaviour is learned from the environment (A02).
Psychodynamic
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(Literally looks at the “dynamics” of the “psyche” (mind).)
Focuses on unconscious motivations to behaviour.
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The theory includes
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Tripartite mind
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Psychosexual development
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Defence mechanisms
Tripartite mind
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THE ID — Instincts
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operates according to the pleasure principle
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instinctual drives present at birth
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strive to satisfy desires and reduce inner tension
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THE EGO — Reality
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Seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways (reality principle)
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develops out of the id in infancy
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understands reality and logic
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solves problems by planning & acting
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THE SUPEREGO — Morality
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Ruled by the moral principle
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pressing on and constraining individual action
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responsible for guilt
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voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave
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Conflict between different parts of mind can lead to anxiety
Defense mechanisms
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Unconscious mental processes employed by the ego to reduce anxiety
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Repression - banishes certain thoughts/feelings from consciousness (underlies all other defense mechanisms)
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Regression - retreating to earlier stage of fixated development
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Reaction Formation - ego makes unacceptable impulses appear as their opposites
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Projection - attributes threatening impulses to others
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Displacement - divert impulses toward a more acceptable object
Psychosexual Stages
Oral (0-18 mos) - centered on the mouth
Anal (18-36 mos) - focus on bowel/bladder elim.
Phallic (3-6 yrs) - focus on genitals/“Oedipus Complex”
(Identification & Gender Identity)
Latency (6-puberty) - sexuality is dormant
Genital (puberty on) - sexual feelings toward others
Can become fixated at any stage (If too much pleasure or alternatively if too much punishment)  certain personality types
Evaluation
Negative
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Not supported by much scientific evidence
Is not falsifiable (can not be proved right or wrong)
Childhood experiences overemphasised
Importance of sex overemphasised
Sexist – negative view of women “femininity merely failed masculinity”
Culturally and historically biased
Deterministic – no free will to change pre-determined behaviour.
Subjective – based on therapist’s opinions.
Development does not stop in childhood
Current research contradicts many of Freud’s specific ideas
Positive
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Role of unconscious addressed.
Just because it can not be proved does not mean it is not true.
Complexities of human behaviour explained.
Theories have been very influential
Is supported by case studies
Method of study / Evidence
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Dream analysis
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Word association
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Case studies
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Anna O
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Little Hans
Humanistic Approach
Note: Humanism consists of many components rather than one unifying theory..
Basic assumptions
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Free Assumes that people have free will to make their own decisions in life.
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Behaviour is not constrained by either past experience of the individual or current circumstances. (determinism). Instead,
people can make choices (free will).
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Presumes a nonmechanistic view of man,
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Does not accept the principle of determinism,
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Holism:
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Humanism believes psychology should study the whole person.
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Idiographic approach.
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Humanism believes psychology should study the individual case as each person is unique
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Emphasis is on understanding the uniqueness of a person
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Self-actualisation
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People are motivated by the wish to grow and fulfil their potential.
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The aim of humanistic psychology is to help people choose what they want and help them fulfil their potential.
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Assumes reductionism is not helpful as breaking behaviour into small elements results in the whole person being lost.
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Humanism believes that humans are unique and cannot be compared other people or animals.
The most important founders of humanism are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970).
Rogers
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Developed ’client-centred psychotherapy’ in the 1940s and used it with soldiers returning from WW2
Humans have one basic motive – to actualise – to fulfil potential, to find personal fulfilment.
The potential of each human is unique
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Self-actualisation needs
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Self esteem needs
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Belonging and love needs
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Safety needs
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Physiological needs
Method of Study
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Ideas derived from patients in therapy (much like Freud)
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It is unscientific
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The humanist is interested in a person’s everyday life behaviour as it occurs in the natural environment, not in constricted pieces of
artificial behaviour as they occur in the laboratory:
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Humanism believes that experiments do not give genuine insights into human behaviour as they have low ecological validity.
Evaluation
Positive
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Recognises that people are responsible for their own behaviour.
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Not controlled by environmental forces (behaviourism) or inner unconscious conflicts (psychodynamics)
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Positive about people
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Good counter to psychodynamic emphasis on everything that could go wrong with development.
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(Humanistic approach was developed partially because Maslow and Rogers were fed up with negative view of psychodynamic
and behaviourist approaches)
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Client-centred therapy has been shown to be effective in the treatment of mild disorders.
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Does influence counselling (although many counsellors are not considered “psychologists”)
Negative
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Not scientific – so hard to investigate. Therefore, the humanistic approach does not have any empirical evidence to support its
assumptions.
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Culturally biased – more relevant to individualist cultures (not collectivist)
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Is it really an “approach” at all – Minimum theory, just a few rules to understand people.
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Little influence on academic psychology (not covered on many university courses, or researched at university)
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Little influence on applied psychology.
Contrast with other theories
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Behaviourist approach which views humans as passively responding to stimuli in the environment.
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Humanistic psychologists state that humans are active agents able to change and determine their own development.
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Contrast the concept of free-will with the deterministic features of both the biological and psychoanalytic approaches.
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Humanism believes that experiments do not give genuine insights into human behaviour as they have low ecological validity (A01).
Behaviourism disagrees and states that experiment are good as they can be used to objectively measure behaviour while controlling
variables, and establish a cause and effect relationship (A02).
Humanism believes psychology should study the whole person. This is called holism (A01). The Behaviourist approach disagrees
because they believe that all types of behaviour can be reduced to simple units of stimulus and response (A02).
Humanism believes psychology should study the individual case (idiographic approach) as people are unique (A01). Behaviourism
disagrees and believes that psychology should study the group and everyone is the same. This is called a nomothetic approach (A02).
Humanism believes that humans are unique and cannot be compared other people or animals (A01). The biological approach disagrees
and states that humans are not unique and can be compared with other animals, as both humans and animals have instincts.
Behaviourism also believes that humans can be compared with animal as they can both be conditioned (A02).
Humanism believes people are motivated by the wish to grow and fulfil their potential; this is called self actualisation (you cannot get any
more A01 marks – the maximum is 4 AO1 marks). The biological approach disagrees and states that humans are motivated to reproduce
and pass on their genes (A02). Behaviourism also criticises that idea of self actualisation as it cannot be physically observed and
scientifically measured (A02).
Humanism believes people have free will to make their own decisions in life (you cannot get any more A01 marks – the maximum is 4
AO1 marks). The behaviourist approach disagrees and states that the environment determines a person’s behaviour. Freud and believes
that people have no free will and the unconscious mind determines a person’s behaviour (you cannot get any more A02 marks – the
maximum is 6 AO2 marks).