Chapter 5
Dyadic Relations, Attributions, and Followership
2. Notion of in-groups
Group assignment based on perceived, and mainly subjective, qualities:
 In-group status
 Out-group status
In-group (Favored Status)
Selection Criteria and Role Obligations:
 Perceived as dependable, competent, and likeable
 Expected to perform well and support the leader

Characteristics of In-group membership:
 Frequent/close interactions with leader
 Challenging tasks, greater access to resources
 Emotional and decision-making support
 Greater visibility in the organization
 Afforded greater opportunities
2. Notion of out-groups
Out-group
Selection Criteria and Role Obligations:
 Not perceived as dependable, competent, or likeable
 Expected to comply with formal requirements of the job position

Characteristics of Out-group membership:
 Minimal access to leader or resources
 Routine and/or non-challenging tasks
 Little to no emotional or decision-making support
 Excluded from many activities, not privy to high exchange discourse
1. Leader-member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
 It describes the role-making processes between a leader and an individual
subordinate.
 In addition, the theory describes how leaders develop different exchange
relationships over time with various subordinates.
 Initial Version of LMX Theory
o Leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each subordinate
as the two parties mutually define the subordinate’s role. (compatibility,
competence, and dependability)
2. characteristics of group membership
o The exchange relationship usually takes one of two different forms:
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
Most leaders establish a special exchange relationship with a small
number of trusted subordinates who function as assistants,
lieutenants, or advisors
 The exchange relationship with the remaining subordinates is
substantially different
o Overtime leader establish either high-exchange or low-exchange
relationship
2. what is mean by high and low quality LMX exchanges
2. benefits and consequences of being in each group
 Basis=> the leader’s control over outcomes that are desirable to a
subordinate
 Examples:
 Outcomes for subordinate (benefits):
o interesting and desirable tasks,
o greater responsibility and authority,
o more information sharing,
o decision making,
o pay increase, special benefits
o facilitation of the subordinate’s career
 Expectations of subordinate (consequences):
o Work harder
o More committed to task objectives
o Loyal to leader
o Share some of leader’s duties
 a high-exchange relationship – a high degree of mutual
dependence, loyalty and support
 a high-exchange relationship occurs gradually over time, through
reciprocal reinforcement of behavior as the exchange cycle is
repeated over and over again
 high-exchange relationships create benefits and obligations and
constraints for the leader:
 Outcomes for leader (benefits):
o Subordinate commitment to tasks
 Expectations of leader (consequences):
o Provide attention to subordinates
o Responsive to their needs and feelings
o Rely more on time consuming influence methods –
persuasion/consultation
 a low-exchange relationship – low level of mutual influence
 “out-group”
 To satisfy the terms of low exchange relationship, the
subordinates need only comply with formal role
requirements:
o Duties
o Roles
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
o Standard procedures
o Legitimate directions from the leader
As long as such compliance is forthcoming, the subordinate
receives the standard benefits for the job (salary)

Role-Making Stages
o Testing phase – evaluation of motives, attitudes, and potential resources,
and mutual expectations (TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP)
o Second stage – mutual trust, loyalty, and respect are developed
o Third stage (mature) – mutual commitment to the mission and objectives
of the work unit (TRANFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP)

Measurement of LMX
o Quality of exchange relationship is usually assumed to involve such things
as:
 Mutual trust
 Respect
 Affection
 Support
 Loyalty
o Sometimes, LMX is defined to include:
 Negotiating latitude
 Incremental influence
 Shared values
 Individual attributes of leader and subordinate

Research on correlates of LMX
 A favorable relationship is more likely when the subordinate is perceived to
be competent and dependable and the subordinate’s values and attitudes
are similar to those of the leader
 When the exchange relationship is favorable, there will be:
o More supportive behavior by the leader
o More consultation and delegation
o More mentoring
o Less close monitoring
o Less domination of conversations

For the subordinate:
o More organizational citizenship behavior
o More support for the leader
o More open communication with the leader
o Less use of pressure tactics (threats/demands) to influence the leader

The early research found that a leader’s upward dyadic relationship affects
downward dyadic relationships
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

Evaluation of LMX Theory and research
 Early versions of the theory did not adequately explain:
o How dyadic relationships develop over time
o How the leader’s different relationships affect each other
o How differentiated relationships affect overall performance by the
leader
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A manager who has favorable exchange with the boss is more likely to
establish favorable exchange relationships with subordinates
A favorable upward relationship enables a manager to obtain more benefits
for subordinates and to facilitate their performance by:
o Obtaining necessary resources
o Cutting red tape
o Gaining approval of changes desired by subordinates
LMX theory has been almost exclusively about vertical dyadic relationships
Leader-Member exchange is a universal theory with little concern for
situational variables that may affect the exchange process
Some aspects of the situation that are likely to be relevant include:
o Demographic attributes of the work unit members
o Job characteristics
o Work unit characteristics
o Type of organization
Ambiguity about the nature of the exchange relationship
More elaboration about how exchange relationships evolve over time
Incorporation of attributional processes
Incorporation of situational variables
Need for more longitudinal research
3. How managers attribute good and poor performance
Leader Attribution About Subordinates
 Attribution theory describes the cognitive processes used by leaders to determine
the reasons for effective or ineffective performance and appropriate reaction

Two-Stage Attribution Model
 The manager tries to determine the cause of the poor performance
 The manager tries to select an appropriate response to correct the problem



Stage One – The manager attempts to determine the cause of poor performance
Stage Two – The manager tries to select an appropriate response to correct the
problem
Managers attribute the major cause of poor performance either internally or
externally to the subordinate
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Internal and external attributions
 Types of Attributions
 Internal
o Effort (Lack of effort)
o Ability (Lack of ability)
 External – Beyond control of subordinate
 Inherent obstacles
 Inadequate resources
 Insufficient info
 Other people provided inadequate support
 Reasons for an External Attribution
o The subordinate has no prior history of poor performance on similar tasks
o The subordinate performs other tasks effectively
o The subordinate is doing as well as other people who are in a similar situation
o The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious or harmful
o The manager is dependent on the subordinate for his or her own success
o The subordinate is perceived to have other redeeming qualities
o Evidence indicates external causes
 An external attribution is more likely when:
1. The subordinate has no prior history of poor performance
2. The subordinate performs other tasks effectively
3. The subordinate is doing as well as other people who are in a similar situation
4. The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious or harmful
5. The manager is dependent on the subordinate for his or her own success
6. The subordinate is perceived to have other redeeming qualities
(popularity/leadership skills)
7. The subordinate has offered excuses or apology
8. There is evidence indicating external causes
 The type of attribution made by a manager influences the response to the problem
 When an external attribution is made the manager is more likely to respond by trying
to change the situation by :
o Providing more resources
o Providing assistance in removing obstacles
o Providing better info
o Changing the task to reduce inherent difficulties
o By showing sympathy
 When an internal attribution is made and the manager determines that the problem
is insufficient ability the likely response is:
o To provide detailed instruction
o Monitor the subordinate’s work more closely
o Provide coaching when needed
o Set easier deadlines
o Assign the subordinate an easier job
Attributions and LMX
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Leaders appear to be less critical in evaluating the performance of subordinates with
whom they have established a high exchange relationship
Effective performance is more likely to be attributed to internal causes for a highexchange members and to external causes for a low-exchange member
In contrast, poor performance is attributed to external causes for high exchange
member and to internal causes for a low exchange member
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Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution and the three factors we consider when making an
internal or external attribution
Kelley's Model of Attribution Theory: Kelley's theory is not limited to interpersonal
perception. His theory concerns the subjective experience of attributional validity. He
asks the question: "How do individuals establish the validity of their own or of another
person's impression of an object?"
Kelley suggested that perceivers examine three different kinds of information in their
efforts to establish validity (Ross and Fletcher, 1985):
1. Consensus information - do all or only a few people respond to the stimulus in
the same way as the target person?
2. Distinctiveness information - does the target person respond in the same way to
other stimuli as well?
3. Consistency information - does the target person always respond in the same
way to this stimulus?
Three combinations of this information:
 High consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency: The target person's
judgment of the restaurant (it is a good restaurant) should be perceived as valid
if the perceiver knows that
1) other people like the restaurant,
2) the target person seldom likes restaurants, and
3) the target person enjoys the restaurant every time he or she goes there.
The restaurant is good.
 Low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency: If a perceiver knows that
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
1) most people do not like the target person's restaurant,
2) the target person likes most restaurants and
3) the target person enjoys the restaurant each time s/he goes there. Target
person's enjoyment at restaurant attributable to something about him/her
(likes to eat out) not something unique about the restaurant.
Low consensus, high distinctiveness, low consistency: If a perceiver knows
1) few other people like the restaurant,
2) the target person seldom likes the restaurant, and
3) the target person disliked this restaurant in the past. More than likely the
target person's liking this restaurant is attributable to the person liking the
company or wine rather than the food.
Leader Attribution About Subordinates
 Research on the Model
 Attributions and LMX
 Type of exchange relationship influences manager’s attribution
 Less critical when there is a high-exchange relationship
 Effective performance more likely to be attributed to internal factors where there
is a high-exchange relationship
 Ineffective performance more likely to be attributed to external factors when
there is a high-exchange relationship
 Opposite is true for low-exchange relationships
Follower Contribution to Effective Leadership
 Follower Identities and Behavior
 Need to implement decisions made by a leader and challenge misguided or
unethical decisions
 Willing to risk leader’s displeasure
 Take time and effort to help a leader grow and succeed
 Strong commitment to the organization and its mission
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Applications: Correcting Performance Deficiencies

Corrective feedback may be necessary to help a subordinate improve, but it should
be done in a way that will preserve a favorable relationship or improve a relationship
that is already strained
Correcting Performance Deficiencies
1. Gather information about the performance problem
a. Timing – when did the problem occur; how many times
b. Magnitude – what were the negative consequences; how serious were
they
c. Antecedents – What led up to the problem; what was the subordinate’s
involvement
d. Scope – Did the problems occur only the subordinate or did others have
the same problems?
2. Try to avoid attributional biases
a.
Internal causes for poor performance usually involve low motivation or
deficiencies in subordinate skill and examples include:
i. Failure to carry out a major action step on schedule
ii. Failure to monitor progress to detect a problem before it becomes
serious
iii. Showing poor judgment in dealing with a problem
iv. Procrastinating in dealing with a problem until it gets worse
v. Failure to notify superiors about a problem that requires their
attention
vi. Making an avoidable error in the performance of a task
vii. Failure to follow standard procedures
viii. Acting in an unprofessional or improper manner
3. Provide corrective feedback promptly
4. Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms
5. Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior
6. Stay calm and professional
7. Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate performance
a.
Personal causes of inadequate performance are harder to detect than
situational causes, because a subordinate is usually reluctant to admit
mistakes
8. Ask the person to suggest remedies
9. Express confidence in the person
10. Express a sincere desire to help the person
a.
Examples:
i.
Help the person identify and express concerns and feelings
ii.
Help the person understand the reasons for a personal problem
iii.
Provide new perspectives on the problem
iv.
Help the person identify alternatives
v.
Offer advice on how to deal with the problem
vi.
Refer the person to professionals who can provide assistance
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11. Reach agreement on specific action steps
12. Summarize the discussion and verify agreement
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Chapter 9
Early Theories
Charismatic and Transformational Leadership
5. Attributions of charisma
Attribution Theory of Charismatic Leadership
Leader Traits and Behaviors
 Advocate a vision highly discrepant from status quo
o Use of metaphors, analogies, symbols
 Act in unconventional ways-counterintuitive gestures
 Make self-sacrifices, take personal risks
 Express confidence in their proposals
 Inspire through emotional appeals
 See opportunities that others fail to recognize
 Build identification with the group or organization
 Innovative visioning
 Impressive management
 Role-model exemplary behavior
 Share power for key decisions
 Scan and analyze environment
5. when do we attribute charisma to a leader (Conger and Kanungo’s research)
According the (Conger and Kanungo’s research), follower attribution of charismatic
qualities to a leader is jointly determined by the leader’s behavior, expertise, and
aspects of the situation.
11. Charismatic leadership influences
Influence Processes:
o Personal identification – a follower’s desire to please and imitate the
leader.
o Internalization – followers adopt the leader’s attitudes and beliefs (more
than imitate)
o Social identification
o Social contagion
o Enhanced self-efficacy
14. Facilitating conditions for the emergence of a charismatic leader
 Facilitating Conditions (i.e., context)
o Follower disenchantment – leader has the ability to create dissatisfaction
with current conditions and simultaneously provide a vision of a more
promising future.
o Crisis situation – leader may precipitate a crisis.
5. Charisma attributions: transference, projection, regression
Other Conceptions of Charisma
 Psychodynamic Processes
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
o Transference – occurs when feelings toward an important figure from the
past (i.e. a parent) are shifted to someone in the present.
o Regression – involves a return to feelings and behaviors that were typical
of a younger age.
o Projection – involves a process of attributing undesirable feelings and
motives to someone else, thereby shifting the blame for things about
which one feels guilty. (shifting the blame)
o *followers suffering from fear, guilt, or alienation may experience a feeling
of euphoric empowerment and… by submerging their identity in that of a
seemingly superhuman leader.
Social Contagion and Charisma – involves the spontaneous spread of
emotional and behavioral reactions among a group of people.
Followers influence other followers
6. close and distant charisma
 Close Charisma – described in terms of their effect on follower motivation, task
behavior, and identification with the leader. Greatness is affected more by
leader behavior and interpersonal skills.
 Distant Charisma – described in terms of their substantive achievements and
effects on follower political attitudes. Greatness is affected more by
performance cues and shared stereotypes.
6. routinizing charisma
 Routinization of Charisma – 3 approaches
o Transfer charisma to a designated successor through rites and
ceremonies
o Create an administrative structure – can reduce effectiveness of the
organization.
o Perpetuate the leader’s vision is to embed it in the culture of the
organization by influencing followers to internalize it and empowering them
to implement it.
Romance of leadership
The Dark Side of Charisma
 Being in awe of the leader reduces good suggestions by followers
 Desire for leader acceptance inhibits criticism by followers
 Adoration by followers creates delusions of leader infallibility
 Excessive confidence and optimism blind the leader to real dangers
 Denial of problems and failures reduces organizational learning
 Risky, grandiose projects more likely to fail
 Taking complete credit for successes alienates some key followers
 Impulsive, nontraditional behavior creates enemies as well as believers
 Dependence on the leader inhibits development of competent successors
 Failure to develop successors creates an eventual leadership crisis
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Charisma leaders:
 Make more risky decisions
 Make more enemies
 Use optimism and self-confidence to influence others
 Unconventional behavior = charismatic to some, disruptive and inappropriate
to others
 Extreme admiration to some and extreme hatred by others
Effect of Positive Charismatic
 Followers experience psychological growth and development
 Organization environment is dynamic, hostile, and competitive
 Create “achievement-oriented” culture, “high-performing system”, “hands-on,
value-driven” organization
 Communication is open and information shared, and organization structures
and systems support the mission.
Practical Implications for Organizations
 Charismatic leadership is risky – too much power to leader
 Charismatic leadership implies radical change – may not be necessary
 Many charismatic leaders = disruptive conflict
8. Transformational/transforming leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transforming leadership appeals to the moral values of followers to raise their
consciousness and mobilize their energies
Leader motivated followers by:
1. making them more aware of the importance of task outcomes
2. inducing them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the organization
or team
3. activating their higher-order needs
–Transformational Behaviors
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Idealized influence – behavior that rouses strong follower emotions and
identification with the leader. (i.e. Setting an example of courage and
dedication, and making self-sacrifices to benefit leader.)
Individualized consideration – providing support, encouragement, and coaching
to followers.
Inspirational motivation – communicating an appealing vision, and using
symbols to focus subordinate effort.
Intellectual stimulation – behavior that increases follower awareness of
problems and influences followers to view problems from a new perspective.
Followers feel trust, admiration, loyalty, and respect toward leader
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Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership motivates followers by appealing to their self-interest and
exchanging benefits
Leader motivated followers by:
1. making them compliance with leader requests but not likely to generate
enthusiasm and commitment to task objectives
–Transactional Behaviors
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Contingent reward – clarification of the work required to obtain rewards and the
use of incentives and contingent rewards to influence motivation.
Active management by exception – looking for mistakes and enforcing rules to
avoid mistakes.
Passive management by exception – use of contingent punishments and other
corrective action in response to obvious deviations from acceptable
performance standards.
10. Commonalities of charismatic and transformational leadership and how these two
theories differ – p. 285
Commonalities:
1. Different behaviors:
a. Charisma
i. Do more things to foster an image of extraordinary competence for
the leader
1. Impression management
2. Information restriction
3. Unconventional behavior
4. Personal risk taking
b. Transformational
i. Empower followers
ii. Less dependent followers
1. Delegating significant authority to individuals
2. Developing follower skills and self-confidence
3. Creating self-managed teams
4. Providing direct access to sensitive information
5. Eliminating unnecessary controls
6. Building strong culture to support empowerment
2. Charisma is a necessary component of transformational leadership, but not vice
versa
Differences:
1. The emphasis on attributed charisma and personal identification.
2. Charisma
a. is perceived as extraordinary by followers who are dependent on the
leader for guidance and inspiration
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b. attributed charisma and personal identification are more central for the
theory
c. leaders are rare, and their emergence appears to be more dependent on
favorable conditions
d. Reactions of people are more extreme and diverse
e. Often targets for assassination or political tactics to remove them
3. Transformational
a. The essence appears to be inspiring, developing, and empowering
followers
b. Leadership can be found in any organization at any level
4. The essential influence processes between two types may not be compatible
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Chapter 10
Leading Change
Your Experiences with Change?
 Think about a time when your org implemented change, but the change was not
embraced by stakeholders
•Why it was not accepted?
Reasons for Resistance to Change
1. Lack of trust
2. Belief that change is unnecessary
3. Belief that the change is not feasible
4. Economic threats
5. Relative high cost
6. Fear of personal failure
7. Loss of status and power
8. Threat to values and ideals
9. Resentment of interference
12. Kurt Lewin’s models of org change (unfreezing, refreezing and forcefield analysis)
Lewin’s Force-Field Model (1951)
 Unfreezing
 Changing
 Refreezing
Stages in the Change Process
Lewin's Force Field Model
The Three-stage Process of Change
To elaborate on his model, Lewin also suggested a three-stage process of change
implementation which is necessary for effective change within an organization. Those
three stages are:
1. Unfreeze - Creation of motivation to change.
An organization must be prepared for any change which is about to occur. This process
is known as 'unfreezing' and involves the investigation of resisting forces. Any
premature unilateral or authoritarian increase in driving forces for change will, according
to the Lewin model, be met by an equal and opposite increase in resisting forces. No
change will occur unless there is motivation within the organization to do so. If there is
no motivation, it must be induced. This is often the most difficult part of any change
process. Change not only involves learning, but unlearning something that is already
present and well integrated into the personality and social relationships of the
individuals. It is for this reason that an organizations culture can often act as a resisting
force to change.
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Practice: The following methods are often used by managers and OD consultants to
unfreeze an organizational system:
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Disconfirmation or a lack of confirmation of present behaviors or attitudes.
Creation of guilt, discomfort or anxiety to motivate change.
Creation of psychological safety by reducing barriers to change or reducing
threat caused by past failures.
Provision of information to employees and stakeholders giving knowledge of the
first stage of the change process.
2. Change - Adjusting the equilibrium.
Developing new attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviors based on new information.
Once the resisting forces have been investigated, understood and minimized, the
change can be implemented. Resisting forces are reduced and driving forces increased.
Doing so adjusts the position of equilibrium towards the desired balance position.
Practice: There are three main approaches with which change may be implemented:

Rational - Empirical
Change, or OD, is seen as a process of rational persuasion whereby the benefits of the
change are logically explained to those who are influenced by it.

Normative - Re-educative
This approach also assumes employees are rational individuals, but acknowledges the
existence of socio-cultural norms within organizations. It challenges established values,
beliefs, attitudes and norms and re-educates employees into the new techniques of
working.

Power - Coercive
This method of change involves a process of the imposition of legitimate authority.
Feedback may be denied and no alteration to plans may take place as a result of
resistance. This approach simply forces through change by authority.
Practice: Methods used by managers and OD consultants to lead change:

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Establishing a sense of urgency.
Forming a powerful leading coalition.
Creating and communicating a vision.
Empowering others to act on the vision.
Planning for and creating short-term wins.
Institutionalizing new approaches.
3. Refreeze - Making routine.
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For a change to become routine and accepted into the day-to-day practices of an
organization, the organization must go through the final stage of refreezing the
organizational system. A variety of strategies may be adopted to achieve this, including
new rules, regulations and reward schemes to reinforce the change process and
maximize the desired behaviors of staff or employees
Stages in Reaction to Change
Four stages:
1. Denial – “this is not happening”
2. Anger – look for someone to blame
3. Mourning – acknowledge change
4. Adaptation – accept the change and move on
Prior Experience and Reactions to Change
How a person reacts to change depends in part on the person’s general confidence
about coping with change successfully.
Common effect is increase stress and frustration
Difference types of organizational change
Psychological Influences:
 Denial – “This isn’t happening.”
 Anger – Look for someone to blame.
 Mourning – People stop denying that change is inevitable, acknowledge what has
been lost, and mourn it.
 Adaption – Accept the need to change and go on with one’s life.
 Stages in the Change Process
•Response to Repeated Traumatic Change


Leaves people less resilient and more vulnerable
Leaves people inoculated and better prepared to deal with change
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Force Field Analysis
Prior Experience & Reactions to Change
13. Steps in the General Model of Planned change and what occurs in each phase.
General Model of Planned Change
 Entry Phase
 Feasibility for Change
 Contracting
 Diagnosis
 Plan the intervention
 Implement intervention
 Evaluate
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Remember these!
What would Schein say?
9. Schein’s definition of culture
 Culture is customs and rights.
 Good managers must work from a more anthropological model.
 Each org has its own way and an outsider brings his/her baggage as observer.
 Understand new environment and culture before change or observation can be
made:
1. Observe behavior: language, customs, traditions
2. Groups norms: standards and values
3. Espoused values: published, publicly announced values.
4. Formal Philosophy: mission
5. Rules of the Game: rules to all in org
6. Climate: climate of group in interaction
7. Embedded skills:
8. Habits of thinking, acting, paradigms: Shared knowledge for socialization.
9. Shared meanings of the group
10. Metaphors or symbols:
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Culture: norms, values, behavior patterns, rituals, traditions.
Culture implies structural stability and Patterning and integration.
Culture is the accumulated shared learning from shared history.
2 problems all groups must deal with:
1. survival, growth, and adaptation in environment
2. internal integration that permits functioning and adapting.
Culture Formally Defined
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
A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its
problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well
enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as
the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems.
The problem of socialization: teaching newcomers
The problem of behavior:
Can a large org have one culture? subcultures.
Summary
 Culture explains incomprehensible, irrational
 Org with history has culture.
 Not every group develops a culture.
 Once culture exists it determines criteria of leadership.
 Leaders should be conscious of culture otherwise it will manage them.
9. how culture is embedded in the organization
 Leader assumptions are "taught" to the group.
 Things tried out are leader imposed teaching.
 How do leaders get their ideas implemented?
o socialization
o charisma
o acting, by doing, exuding confidence
9. primary embedding mechanisms
Culture-Embedding Mechanisms
Secondary Articulation and Reinforcement
Mechanisms
Primary Embedding Mechanisms
What leaders pay attention to, measure,
and control on a regular basis.
How leaders react to critical incidents and
organizational crises.
Observed criteria by which leaders allocate
scarce resources.
Deliberate role modeling, teaching, and
coaching
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Organization design and structure
Organizational systems and procedures
Organizational rites and rituals
Design of physical space, facades, and
buildings
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Observed criteria by which leaders allocate
rewards and status.
Observed criteria by which leaders recruit,
select, promote, retire, and
excommunicate organizational members.
Stories, legends, and myths about people
and events.
Formal statements of organizational
philosophy, values, and creed.
Primary Embedding Mechanisms


Called "climate" of the organization
"Climate" precedes existence of a group culture.
What Leaders Pay Attention to, Measure, and Control

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What leader systematically pays attention to communicates major beliefs.
o what is noticed
o comments made
o casual questions and remarks
o becomes powerful if leader sees it and is consistent
If leader is unaware and inconsistent then confusion can ensue.
Consistency more important than intensity of attention.
Attention is focused in part by the kinds of questions that leaders ask and how
they set the agendas for meetings emotional reactions.
Important what they do not react to.
Leader Reactions to Critical Incidents and Organizational Crises




in crisis: how do they deal with it?
o creates new norms, values, working procedures, reveals important
underlying assumptions.
Crises are especially important in culture creation.
Crisis heighten anxiety, which motivates new learning.
A crisis is what is perceived to be a crisis, and what is defined by leader crisis
about leader, insubordination, tests leader.
Observed Criteria for Resource Allocation



How budgets are created reveals leader assumption.
What is acceptable financial risk?
How much of what is decided is all inclusive? bottom up? top down?
Deliberate Role Modeling, Teaching, and Coaching


Own visible behavior has great value for communicating assumptions and values
to others.
Informal messages are very powerful.
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Observed Criteria for Allocation of Rewards and Status




Members learn from their own experience with promotions, performance
appraisals, and discussions with the boss.
what is rewarded or punished is a message.
actual practice, what happens as opposed to what is written or said.
if something is to be learned their must be a reward system setup to insure it.
Observed Criteria for Recruitment, Selection, Promotion, Retirement, and
Excommunication


adding new members is very telling because it is unconsciously done.
also who doesn't get promoted says something.
How Leaders Embed Culture-Primary Mechanisms:
 By what leaders pay attention to, measure, & control
 How leaders react to critical incidents (Ken Lay/Enron vs. Jack Burke (Johnson &
Johnson)
 Role modeling and coaching
 How leaders recruit, select, promote and terminate
 How leaders allocate rewards and status
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Chapter 13
Ethical Leadership
Ethical vs. Unethical Leadership
What factors might explain why leaders act unethically?
Ethical Leadership Defined
 Burns: moral elevation of followers, appeal to values such as liberty, justice, equality,
and humanitarianism
 Heifetz: Help Fs confront conflict and find productive ways to deal with it.
 Greenleaf: Nurturing, defending and empowering Fs. Being completely open and
honest.
 Trevino and Brown: Demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through
personal actions and interpersonal relationships.
17. Ethics perspectives (know the slide and what is meant by deontological and
teleological perspectives)
Ethical Judgments
 Teleological perspective—focuses on the “ends” or outcome--Is the outcome moral?
 Deontological perspective—focuses on the behavior—is the behavior violating
ethical standards?
Conceptions of Ethical Leadership
 Defined in different ways (values, traits, behaviors, org actions)
 Different criteria used (values, moral maturity, ethical perspective)
 Judgments need to be made (leader’s intentions)
Personal Integrity and Ethical Leadership
 Consistency between espoused and actual behaviors
 Behavior consistent with a set of justifiable moral principles
Ethics Perspectives
 Kantian (late 1700s) – Rule driven—focus is on principle.
 Utilitarian (1800s) – Greatest good for greatest number of people—happiness and
pleasure are of utmost importance.
 Rawlsian (mid-1900s) – Maximin principle—maximize the welfare of those at the
minimum levels of society.
Assessing Ethical Leadership
Forces That Shape Managerial Ethics
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Forces That Shape Managerial Ethics
Personal Ethics
Organizational Culture
Beliefs and Values
Moral Development
Ethical Framework
Rituals, Ceremonies
Stories, Heroes
Language, Slogans
Symbols
Founder, History
Organizational Systems
Structure
Policies, Rules
Code of Ethics
Reward System
Selection, Training
Is
Decision
or Behavior
Ethical and
Socially
Responsible?
External Stakeholders
Government Regulations
Customers
Special Interest Groups
Global Market Forces
What would YOU do?
Chapter 13
Servant and Authentic Leadership
Servant Leadership
“Helping others to accomplish shared objectives by facilitating individual development,
empowerment, and collective work that is consistent with the health and long-term
welfare of followers.”
15. Characteristics and definition of servant leadership
Characteristics of Servant Leaders
 Integrity
o Is open and honest
o Keeps promises and commitment
o Admits and accepts responsibility for mistakes
o Does not manipulate or deceive people
 Altruism
o Enjoys helping others
o Takes risks or makes sacrifices to protect or benefit others
o Puts the needs of others ahead of own needs
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




o Volunteers for service activities
Humility
o Treats others with respect
o Avoid status symbols and special privileges
o Admits limitations and mistakes
o Is modest about achievements
o Emphasizes the contributions by others
Empathy and Healing
o Helps others cope with emotional distress
o Encourages acceptance of diversity
o Acts as a mediator or peacemaker
o Encourages forgiveness and reconciliation after a conflict
Personal Growth
o Encourages and facilitates the development of individual confidence and
ability
o Provides learning opportunities despite a risk of mistakes
o Provides mentoring and coaching when needed
o Helps people learn from mistakes
Fairness and Justice
o Encourages and supports fair treatment of people
o Speaks out against unfair and unjust practices or policies
o Opposes attempts to manipulate or deceive people or to undermine or
violate their civil rights
Empowerment
o Consults with others about decisions that will affect them
o Provides an appropriate amount of autonomy and discretion to
subordinates
o Shares sensitive information with them
o Encourages them to express concerns or dissenting views without
becoming defensive
Authentic Leadership
 Self-concept and self-identities of authentic leaders:
o Strong, clear, stable, consistent
o High self-awareness of their values, beliefs, emotions, abilities (they know
who they are and what they believe)
o High degree of self-acceptance; same as High levels of emotional maturity
(they know who they are and what they believe)
o Positive core values: honesty, altruism, kindness, fairness, accountability,
and optimism
o Key: They act in accordance with their beliefs
 They do not seek leadership positions to gratify a need for esteem,
status, and power
 They do not conform to role expectations that are inconsistent with
what the believe is proper
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
They are less defensive and more open to learning from feedback
and mistakes
Core Values of Authentic Leaders
 Motivation to do what is right and fair for followers
 Create positive relationships with followers
o High mutual trust
o Transparency (open and hones communication)
o Guidance toward worthy shared objectives
o Emphasis on followers’ welfare and development
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Chapter 14
Gender & Leadership
Barriers Women Face
 Sex-based discrimination
o Low number of women in high-level leadership positions (5% in 2001)
o In absence of sex-based discrimination, women should hold 50% of these
positions
The strong tendency to favor men over women in filling high-level leadership positions
has been referred to as the “glass ceiling”.
 Glass Ceiling effects
o Reasons for glass ceiling:
1. A lack of opportunity to gain experience and visibility in types of positions
that would facilitate advancement
2. Higher standards of performance for women than for men
3. Exclusion of women from informal networks that aid advancement
4. Lack of encouragement and opportunity for developmental activities
5. Lack of opportunity for effective mentoring
6. Lack of strong efforts to gain access to leadership positions
7. Difficulties created by competing family demands
8. A lack of strong action by top management to ensure equal opportunity
9. Bias to select and promote individuals who are similar to the managers
who make the decisions
10. Intentional efforts by some men to retain control of the most powerful
positions for themselves
 Role incongruity and perceptual biases
o Biases about skills and behaviors
o Perception on effective leadership must be: confident, task-oriented,
competitive, objective, decisive, and assertive (masculine attributes)
16. Role Congruity Theory
A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived
incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of
prejudice:
(a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of
leadership roles and
(b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably
when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less
positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other
consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to
achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms
substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that
heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and
leadership roles.
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17. Types of sexism in role congruity theory and behaviors (agentic and communal)
 The potential for prejudice against female leaders that is inherent in the female
gender role follows from its dissimilarity to the expectations that people typically
have about leaders.
 Prejudice can arise when perceivers judge women as actual or potential occupants
of leader roles because of inconsistency between the predominantly communal
qualities that perceivers associate with women and the predominantly agentic
qualities they believe are required to succeed as a leader.
 People thus tend to have dissimilar beliefs about leaders and women and similar
beliefs about leaders and men. In Schein’s (1973, 1975) early empirical
demonstration of this masculine construal of leadership, male and female managers
gave their impressions of either women, men, or successful middle managers.
 These respondents perceived successful middle managers as considerably more
similar to men than women on a large number of mainly agentic characteristics such
as competitive, self-confident, objective, aggressive, ambitious, and able to lead.
Sex-Based Discrimination
 The strong tendency to favor men over women in filling high-level leadership
positions has been referred to as the “glass ceiling.”
 Approximately 5% of nations had a female head of state (e.g., prime minister,
president).
 The number of women in top executive positions in large business organizations is
also very small, although it is gradually increasing.
 In the complete absence of sex-based discrimination, the number of women in chief
executive positions in business and government should be close to 50%.
 Gender-based discrimination was supported by age-old beliefs that men are more
qualified than women for leadership roles.
 These beliefs involved assumptions about the traits and skills required for effective
leadership in organizations (implicit theories), assumptions about inherent
differences between men and women (gender stereotypes), and assumptions about
appropriate behavior for men and women (role expectations).
 The implicit theories and gender stereotypes are also influenced by cultural values
for gender egalitarianism.
 There is no empirical support for the belief that men are more qualified to be leaders,
and laws now exist in the United States to stop sex-based discrimination.
 The antidiscrimination laws are based on the premise that men and women are
equally qualified to hold leadership positions in business organizations.

Gender stereotypes have been slowly changing, but the belief that men are more
qualified to be leaders still persists in segments of the population, and it remains
strong in countries where it is supported by cultural values.
Major Barriers Identified
 Initial placement in dead-end jobs
 Lack of mentoring, training
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



Little to no access to critical development assignments
Differential standards on performance appraisal
Little or no access to informal networks of communication
Counterproductive behavior and harassment by coworkers (e.g., sabotage,
undermining, threats)
Do Women and Men’s Leadership Styles Differ?
 Theories of Feminine Advantage
o Women possess the values and skills necessary for effective leadership in
modern organizations
o Women are more concerned with consensus building, inclusiveness, and
interpersonal relations
o Women have more empathy
 Beware: These theories are based on gender stereotypes
20. Research findings on gender differences in leadership
What does the research say?
 General behaviors: Findings are mixed and inconclusive with regard to traits
 Task and people-oriented behaviors: no significant differences with the exception of
participative, consultative styles, transformational leadership
 Effectiveness: No significant diffs; men perceived as more effective in positions
requiring high IS, women more effective when strong interpersonal skills were
necessary
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TOXIC LEADERSHIP
Toxic Leadership
Process whereby leaders:
 engage in destructive behaviors
 have dysfunctional personality characteristics
 inflict serious and enduring harm on their followers
Behaviors of Toxic Leaders
Dysfunctional Personality Traits
 Dishonesty
 Lack of integrity that reveals leaders as corrupt or untrustworthy
 Insatiable ambition that prompts leaders to put their own power/glory/fortunes above
their followers’ well-being
 Enormous egos (narcissism) that blind leaders to their own shortcomings
 Arrogance
 Amorality that makes it nearly impossible for leaders to discern right from wrong
 Avarice/greed-money at the top of their list
 Reckless disregard for cost of their actions
 Cowardice – shrinking from difficult choices
 Machiavellian – deceptive, use exploitative tactics to get what they want
Who are these leaders?
23. What is meant by toxic leadership as a multi-dimensional framework
Multidimensional Framework
•Leaders’ intentionality
 Intentionally toxic, or unintentional (incompetence)
•Intensity level of toxicity

High (unethical) to Low (ethical)
•The types of destructive behavior they engage
•Manipulate, mistreat, and undermine their followers by
o Leaving their followers (and sometimes non-followers) worse off than they
found them by deliberately undermining, demeaning, seducing,
marginalizing, intimidating, demoralizing, disenfranchising, incapacitating,
imprisoning, torturing, terrorizing, or killing them;
o Violating the basic human rights of their own supporters and others;
o Engaging in corrupt, criminal, and/or other unethical activities;
o Deliberately feeding their followers illusions that enhance the leader’s
power and impair the followers’ capacity to act independently, including
depicting themselves as the only one who can “save” the followers;
o Playing to the basest fears and needs of their followers;
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o Stifling constructive criticism and teaching supporters (sometimes by
threats and authoritarianism) to comply with, rather than to question, the
leader’s judgment and actions;
o Misleading followers through deliberate untruths and misdiagnoses of
issues and problems;
o Subverting those structures and processes of the system intended to
generate truth, justice, and excellence and engaging in criminal acts;
o Building totalitarian or narrowly dynastic regimes, including undermining
the legal processes for selecting and supporting new leaders;
o Failing to nurture other leaders, including their own successors (with the
occasional exception of blood kin) or otherwise improperly clinging to
power;
o Maliciously setting constituents against one another;
o Treating their own followers well, but persuading them to hate and/or
destroy others;
o Identifying scapegoats and inciting others to castigate them;
o Structuring the costs of overthrowing them as a trigger for the downfall of
the system they lead, thus further endangering followers and nonfollowers, alike;
o Failing to recognize or ignoring and/or promoting incompetence, cronyism,
and corruption; and
o Behaving incompetently by misdiagnosing problems and failing to
implement solutions to recognized problems.
•The types of dysfunctional personal qualities that drive their decisions and actions
• Discerning exactly where behavior -- such as frequent lying -- leaves off and
characterological qualities -- such as dishonesty -- begin is extremely difficult.
Nonetheless, certain enduring dysfunctional qualities of character mark the toxic
leader:
o Lack of integrity that reveals leaders as cynical, corrupt, or
o untrustworthy;
o Insatiable ambition that prompts leaders to put their own sustained
o power, glory, and fortunes above their followers’ well-being;
o Enormous egos that blind leaders to the shortcomings of their own
character and thus limit their capacity for self-renewal;
o Arrogance that prevents toxic leaders from acknowledging their mistakes
and, instead, leads to blaming others;
o Amorality that makes it nigh impossible for toxic leaders to discern
o right from wrong;
o Avarice that drives leaders to put money and what money can buy at
o the top of their list;
o Reckless disregard for the costs of their actions to others, as well as to
themselves;
o Cowardice that leads them to shrink from the difficult choices; and
o Failure both to understand the nature of relevant problems and to act
competently and effectively in situations requiring leadership.
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•Significance of consequences of actions

Terrorizing and killing to misdiagnosing issues
•Situational differences


Toxic is some situations and not in others
Toxic in one situation and non-toxic in the same situation at a different time
22. Internal and external factors that explain why we follow or tolerate toxic leaders
Why Do Followers Tolerate Toxic Leaders?
Our fears that we are personally powerless to challenge bad leaders also contribute to
our reluctance to confront them.
Internal Environment
1. Psychological - lodged in their psyches
a. The psychological needs most relevant to our yearning for leaders are
structured as a need for authority figures:
b. to replace our parents and other early caretakers for membership in the
human community
c. for a conception of ourselves as significant beings consistently engaged in
noble endeavors in a meaningful world
d. for the hope that we can live at the center of action, where powerful
leaders congregate to make important decisions.
2. Existential - embedded in the followers’ human condition
a. Strong yearnings for leaders percolate up from our unconscious, where
psychological needs send us in search of leaders who can comfort our
fears.
External Environment
1. External - stems from the uncertain, disorderly world in which we all live
a. “situational fears” give rise to an increased need for certainty and
orderliness
b. Leaders who promise us an orderly, predictable, and controlled
i. world can seem very attractive when everything around us appears
to be disintegrating
2. psychosocial needs - arise from the interaction between individuals
3. an unfinished and unfinishable world
19. Strategies for challenging a toxic leader
Strategies for Dealing with a Toxic, Destructive Leader
Individual Level Strategies:
 Create coalition of like-minded followers to confront the leader
 Report the leader to the leader’s boss or governing board
 Report the behavior to the media or regulatory agency
 Leave the organization
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21. Destructive Leadership, the types of destructive leadership, and the four quadrants
Destructive Leadership
Pro-subordinate
behavior
Constructive
Leadership
Supportive-Disloyal
Leadership
Pro-organization
behavior
Anti-organization
behavior
Tyrannical
Leadership
Derailed
Leadership
Anti-subordinate
behavior
What Is Destructive Leadership?
 Systematic and Repeated
 Additional Considerations
Behaviors Directed Toward Subordinates
Undermine or sabotage the motivation, well-being or job-satisfaction of subordinates
Bullying, harassing, humiliating, belittling, manipulating, creating in-groups and outgroups, creating scapegoats, and physical harm
Behaviors Directed Towards the Organization
Undermining or sabotaging the organization’s goals, tasks, resources, and
effectiveness
Stealing (money, time), laziness, fraud, failing to build teams, sabotaging goal
attainment, and working towards goals that are not those of the organization
Model of Leadership Behavior
Tyrannical Leadership
 Undermine the motivation, well-being or job satisfaction of subordinate
 Behaviors include:
 Bullying
 Harassment
 Manipulation
Derailed Leadership
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 McCall and Lombardo (1983) summarized the ten most common causes of
leadership derailment as:
1. An insensitive, abrasive, or bullying style
2. Aloofness or arrogance
3. Betrayal of personal trust
4. Self-centered ambition
5. Failure to constructively face an obvious problem
6. Micromanagement
7. Inability to select good subordinates
8. Inability to take a long-term perspective
9. Inability to adapt to a boss with a different style
10. Overdependence on a mentor
Each of these qualities has the ability to undermine a leader’s ability to gain trust and
commitment from supervisors and coworkers.
Supportive-Disloyal Leadership
 Show concern for subordinates while undermining tasks and goals of the
organization
 Supportive-disloyal leaders may give their employees more benefits at the cost of
the organization (Ditton 1977)
Constructive Leadership

Leaders are concerned about their subordinates while being focused on
goal attainment and effective use of resources
 Purpose of the fourth quadrant of the model is to draw attention to the way
destructive leadership manifests
Passive Leadership
Laissez-faire leadership:
Not a type of zero-leadership
A type of destructive leadership
•Undermine the organization objectives and/or employees’ well-being
It is best described as the absence or avoidance of leadership


Laissez-Faire Leadership
Leaders abdicated from responsibilities and duties
Leaders try to avoid decision-making and the responsibilities associated with the
position
Passive Management By Exception
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Leaders intervene when problems are either brought to their attention or become
impossible to ignore
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CONNECTIVE LEADERSHIP
"SOMETHING IS ON THE WAY OUT AND SOMETHING ELSE IS PAINFULLY BEING
BORN...IT IS AS IF SOMETHING WERE CRUMBLING, DECAYING AND
EXHAUSTING ITSELF, WHILE SOMETHING ELSE, STILL INDISTINCT, WERE
ARISING FROM THE RUBBLE...WE ARE IN A PHASE WHEN ONE AGE IS
SUCCEEDING, WHEN EVERYTHING IS POSSIBLE."
- VÁCLAV HAVEL
THE DAWN OF THE CONNECTIVE ERA
(Stage 3):
 Everyone & Everything Connected
 Conditions of Leadership Have Changed
 Old Leadership Methods Won’t Work
24. The eras in Connective Leadership
STAGE 1: Physical Era
 Began long before recorded history
 Existence of physical boundaries
forests, mountains, oceans
 Impenetrable boundaries served to obstruct and protect the group
 Demanded leaders who were strong and independent to defend primitive
sovereignty against nature and marauders
Important: survival, narrow focus, well insulated
STAGE 2: GEOPOLITICAL ERA
– LONG-TERM COALITIONS (ex: New Deal, NATO, Warsaw Pact)
Geopolitical Boundaries & Ideologies
Dominated by Most Powerful Member
Move in Unison
Refuse = Traitor (France/NATO)
– LEADERS: AUTHORITARIAN, charismatic
– DECISIONS: AUTONOMOUS
– FOLLOWERS: OBEDIENT, FEARFUL
Downside: individualism, centralized power
STAGE 3: CONNECTIVE ERA
NEW CONTRADICTORY LEADERSHIP FORCES:
25-Tensions in Connective Leadership—Two forces that are in direct contradiction that
connective leaders must acknowledge and integrate
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–INTERDEPENDENCE

Mutuality, Collaboration, Alliances, Networks, Teams, Shifting Coalitions, Hot
Groups, Community, Inclusiveness
– DIVERSITY








Differences, Independence, Uniqueness, Solo or Competitive Action, Exclusiveness
Connect own and others’ visions & tasks
Connect to other leaders & their groups
Connect to networks, alliances, global neighbors
Connective Eye: See Overlapping Agendas
Create shifting coalitions
Reach out to traditional opponents
Mutual goals, not mutual enemies
HOW ARE CONNECTIVE LEADERS DIFFERENT?
 Use Broad Set of Behaviors (use all nine styles) (know when to use the right tools)
 Symbolism, Dramatic Action, Timing, Costume
 Counter-Intuitive Gestures (Gorbachev)
 Persuade, Negotiate, Mediate (Gandhi)
 Use Self to Attract Others to Cause (Self-Sacrifice)
 Bring Others into Leadership Process
o Entrust, Empower
o Mentor Protégés
 Collaborate & contribute (servant) to others’ tasks & goals
 No need to outdo others
 Take pride in others’ success
 Search for meaning and authentic experiences
 Create ennobling opportunities
 Integrate diversity and interdependence through de-natured Machiavellianism – the
end justify the means, having it all
NOT NECESSARILY WARM & CUDDLY
They are servant leaders and they are served
Not traditional
They use different leadership styles
Always ethical, accountable, and authentic
27. Denatured Machiavellianism
DE-NATURED MACHIAVELLIANISM: ETHICAL SYSTEM SAVVY
 Consistently Ethical
 Advance Organizational/Societal Goals
o (vs. Leader's Personal Power)
 Demonstrate Authenticity & Accountability:
 (Dedication to Purposes Transcending Own Goals)
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




Enable Supporters to Ennoble Themselves – Concern for Immortality
Demand Sacrifice first from Self, then from Others
Encourage Active Constituents (vs. Passive Followers)
Join Others (Leaders, Former Foes, etc.) as Colleagues -- Not Competitors
Build & Renew Broad-Based Democratic Orgs --Not Dynasties or Oligarchies
Authenticity and Accountability
 Authenticity: Always dedicated to group’s (vs. personal) well-being
 Accountability: Always willing to explain decisions & behavior
CONNECTIVE LEADERSHIP
Based on Achieving Styles
Achieving Styles = RESEARCH BASE (characteristic behaviors for accomplishing
tasks)
 More than 25 years of rigorous testing
 3 Inventories with High reliability & validity
 Total database: >50,000 cases
 Since 1984: 20,000+ cases
 Cross-cultural data
 Individual, organizational, project data
TO MEET NEW NEEDS…
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26. The three sets and nine Achieving Styles (what do each of these say about how you
achieve your goals)
CONNECTIVE LEADERSHIP & ACHIEVING STYLES
Connective Leadership offers an important perspective for bringing together diverse,
even conflicting, groups that exist in an interdependent environment. Achieving Styles
are the nine underlying behavioral strategies that individuals characteristically call upon
to achieve their goals.
The Connective Leadership/Achieving Styles Model includes three sets of Achieving
Styles: Direct, Instrumental, and Relational. Each set comprises three individual styles,
resulting in a nine-fold repertoire.


Direct Set - People who prefer the direct set of behavioral styles tend to confront
their own tasks individually and directly (hence the "direct" label). The three
styles within the direct set emphasize deriving intrinsic satisfaction from
mastering the task, outdoing others through competitive action, and using power
to take charge and coordinate everyone and everything. These are the styles
most closely linked to diversity and its various expressions of individualism.
Relational Set - People who prefer to work on group tasks or to help others attain
their goals draw on behaviors described in the relational set. The three relational
styles emphasize taking vicarious satisfaction from facilitating and observing the
accomplishments of others, as mentors do; taking a secondary or contributory
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
role to help others accomplish their tasks; and working in a collaborative or team
mode on a group task.
Instrumental Set- The instrumental set reflects those behaviors described in the
accompanying article as "denatured Machiavellianism." The political savvy
embedded in the instrumental styles helps to diminish the sparks created by the
friction among people and groups with different agendas. The three instrumental
styles emphasize using one's personal strengths to attract supporters, creating
and working through social networks and alliances, and entrusting various
aspects of one's vision to others. Individuals who use themselves and others as
instruments for accomplishing organizational goals prefer the instrumental styles.
No individual style is intrinsically better than any other. Rather, the purpose of the
Connective Leadership/Achieving Styles Model is to identify leadership strategies based
on Achieving Styles and to call attention to the wide range of behaviors available to all
leaders. Those leaders who employ the broadest and most flexible leadership repertoire
are most likely to meet the complex challenges of the Connective Era.
INTRINSIC DIRECT
People who prefer this style are very self-motivated. They do not wait for others to help
them. They look within themselves both for motivation and for standards of excellence.
Even when others assure them that the job they have done is good enough, they are
often dissatisfied, particularly if they do not feel they have given it their best shot. They
enjoy the sense of autonomy that comes from not having to rely on others. Being in
control of themselves and how they do the task gives them a sense of intellectual and
creative freedom. They look within themselves for the resources to perform any given
task. Tasks that represent a real challenge interest them regardless of whether or not
they will receive any external reward. Doing a task well is reward enough for them. They
know what needs to be done, and they usually can articulate that vision for others.
COMPETITIVE DIRECT
People who prefer this style get tremendous satisfaction from performing a task better
than anybody else. Being "number one" is what counts for them. Competition motivates
them to do their best. It turns them on. Oftentimes, if a situation does not involve a
competitive element, they lose interest. To avoid this, they frequently try to turn noncompetitive situations into contests. If they do not come in first, they are disappointed,
but not discouraged. They go back again and again, until they finally succeed.
POWER DIRECT
People who prefer this style like to be in charge of everything: the agenda, the task,
events, people, and resources. Leadership positions attract them and give zest and
meaning to their activities. They have much less interest in situations that require them
to be a follower, since they usually feel that they can do better than the current leader.
They are very good at coordinating and organizing people and events. They know how
to commandeer resources and use them to take control and get things done. Most of
the time, they understand and act upon the need for delegating tasks to others. When
they delegate, however, they tend to keep control of the end result. Since they do not
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relinquish responsibility for the task, they tend to monitor the delegated activity rather
closely.
PERSONAL INSTRUMENTAL
People who prefer this style tend to rely on themselves, using their personality,
intelligence, wit, humor, charm, personal appearance, family background, and previous
achievements as instruments for further success. They enjoy public speaking and
usually can convince others to help in their task. They have a flair for dramatic gestures
and symbolism, selecting just the right symbol to convey the core meaning and
importance of their task. Their knack for taking counter-intuitive, or unexpected, action
takes both their supporters and opponents by surprise and captivates their
imaginations. They have a highly-developed sense of timing. They know how to use
ritual and costume to communicate their message. They are very persuasive and use
well-honed negotiating skills to resolve conflicts.
SOCIAL INSTRUMENTAL
People who prefer this style tend to accomplish things by involving other people whose
special skills or experience are relevant to the task at hand. They like to do things
through other people, and they always recognize the connections between people and
tasks. They keep good mental notes about the specific talents, knowledge, and contacts
of all their associates and easily link them to appropriate tasks. They have strong
political and networking skills, which they call upon comfortably. They keep in touch with
a large network of people, who feel remembered, liked, and ready to help them. They
gladly put associates who need assistance in touch with just the right helper. They are
more likely to pick up the telephone and call someone for information than to go to the
library or database to dig it out for themselves. Their network is their database.
ENTRUSTING INSTRUMENTAL
People who prefer this style tend to know how to make other people feel that they are
counting on them. Their confidence in others makes them feel they can do the task,
even if they have no specifically relevant experience. They entrust their goals and tasks
to others and believe that those others can accomplish the task as well as, or even
better than, they can on their own. When they entrust a task to an associate, they
generally expect that person to come through with minimal supervision. Their entrusting
style usually has the effect of empowering those on whom they rely, although, at the
outset, the people they select may quietly wish for more explicit directions and advice.
Nonetheless, people who prefer this style are very good at bringing out the best in
others. In most cases, they simply expect everyone around them to help with their
tasks. They engage in leadership through expectation. They are less concerned than
the social achiever/leader about selecting just the right person for a specific task,
because they simply believe that people will reach within themselves to live up to their
high expectations.
COLLABORATIVE RELATIONAL
People who prefer this style enjoy accomplishing a task by doing it with others, from a
single collaborator to a team. Faced with a task, their first response is to call on one or
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several others to participate in the project. They feel an added surge of enthusiasm and
creativity when they do things with others. Working in isolation rarely turns them on, and
they usually try to avoid it. People who prefer this style enjoy the camaraderie of
working with others and feel devoted to the group and its goals. They are willing to do
their portion of the work, but they also expect to receive their fair share of the prize. If
the team does not succeed, they accept their proper measure of responsibility.
CONTRIBUTORY RELATIONAL
People who prefer this style like to work behind the scenes to help others accomplish
their tasks. They take satisfaction from doing their part well so that the other person or
group is successful. They know that their contribution has made a difference to the
other party's success, and this gives them a satisfying sense of accomplishment. They
see themselves as a partner in the other person's task, but they also understand that
the major accomplishment belongs to the other person. They are pleased to participate
in important undertakings and often volunteer to help others whose goals they respect.
VICARIOUS RELATIONAL
People who prefer this style derive a real sense of accomplishment from the success of
others with whom they identify. They know how to be a good mentor, offering
encouragement and guidance to others. They are happy to support other individuals
and groups with reassurance, direction, and praise, but they do not get into the act
themselves. They feel very comfortable as a spectator or supporter of someone who is
the main achiever, rather than as a direct participant in the task. Their sense of pride in
the success of others is sufficient reward; they do not need to take credit for their
accomplishments.
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