The War for Independence (Revolution?)
Obj: To understand how the Revolution was not a radical transformation but did
produce political and social changes in the direction of greater equality and democracy.
I. Historiography
A. Progressives
1. Class Conflict
2. Beard
B. Neo Conservatives--two groups
1. Brown-Boorstin
a. J. Adams
b. Evolution not Revolution
2. Bailyn-Wood-Freemen--Ideological revolution
a. They were sincere
b. They thought it; they believed it
C. New Left and New History
1. Back to Conflict
2. Howard Zinn
a. Underclass
b. What were non-elites doing?
The Revolution in three stages
I. One--Revolt vs UK authority
A. 1st Continential Congress--1774
1. Reaction to “Intolerable Acts”
2. How to cope with UK power
a. Declaratory Act 1766
b. American response
B. UK troops to Mass--General Thomas Gage
1. “Shot heard around the World.”
2. Lexington and Concord-April 1775
C. Second Continental Congress-May, 1775
1. Extra-Legal -Hancock president
a. No majority sentiment for independence
b. Conservatives not elected
c. Communication--Post Office
d. Need money
2. Army--Washington?
a. Misgiving
b. Experience?
D. Early Military Action
1. Irony--claiming loyalty but raise army
2. Tempo increases--June - Ticonderoga and Bunker Hill
3. Armed conflict now increased the intensity of debate in the 2nd CC
a. Let’s negotiate—Parliament and King wants peace
b. Time for talk is passed—Rebellion!!
E. Dickinson’s Olive Branch Petition
1. Conservatives-last gasp
a. “We’re loyal”
b. “We know you understand”
c. It’s a misunderstanding—“What we got here is failure to cumuncate.”
d. “We want to prevent further hostilities”
2. George III foolishly slammed door
a. Never read Dickinson’s Olive Branch Petition
b. Instead, Prohibitory Law
1. “America in rebellion”
2. 20,000 troops--Hessins
3. Seize American ships—hang traitors
F. Rise of Republican Ideology
1. Inconsistency-fighting UK while loyal
2. Then Common Sense
a. Paine focused on George III
1. “He does not care for us.”
2. We must break from him
b. Washington read CS to his troops
c. But J. Adams did not find Paine so attractive.
3. Paine’s ideology –“Republicanism”
a. Natural Rights and Natural Law
b. Republicanism and “citizen” virtue
c. End aristocracy and deference
d. Actual vs. Virtual Representation
4. Not all agreed with Paine in his Republicanism
a. Many dislike Aristocracy
b. But favored “meritocracy”
G. Declaring Independence
1. Debate in Congress
2. Adams v. Dickinson
a. JD: “Let us wait till all agree”
b. JA: Must go forward - never get outside support.
3. So, The Declaration
a. Congress edges to independence
1. Richard H. Lee--July 2, 1776
2. Need explanation--Jefferson chosen to write it
b. First Revolution of Enlightenment
c. Lofty style-Entitlement to Life, Liberty, and Happiness
1. “Natural Rights”
2. “All men are created equal”
d. Blamed George III for Colonies’ Woes
1. George III “flouted our rights”
2. Colonies justified in cutting ties
3. List of grievances.
e. Slavery debate
f. Of course, they knew this was treason “A Hanging Offense”
II. Phase Two—The War
A. Legitimacy for the new United States
1. Role of Loyalist--20% of population
a. Often educated, wealthy, cultured
b. Often older - cautious
c. Anglicans, Quakers in PA and NY
d. Canada’s religious & secular elites
e. 80K driven out--200K “mild” stay
f. 50K served in UK military
g. British never utilized Loyalists.
1. Not trust
2. Never organized
h. Came from every area and social setting
2. Patriots--Whigs
a. Geographic distribution of new immigrants-NE and VA
b. Congregationalism
c. The Young
d. Adams: 1/3-1/3-1/3
B. British advantages
1. Population
2. Experience and training
3. Military: Navy and Army
4. Leadership and Loyalists
C. American advantages
1. Home front
2. Washington
3. European allies
4. War fatigue
D. Need for victories
1. Moral, allies-France
2. Initially in NE, GW moved south
3. Disastrous Battle of Long Island
4. GW contributions
a. Kept cause alive
b. Army in the field
c. States together during critical months.
5. “Crossing the Delaware”
6. Turning Point--Saratoga--1777
a. Cut colonies in half
b. Difficult terrain
c. New military strategy
d. Crevecoeur’s “American” left belief that Europe would help
e. Victory lifts spirits
f. Convinced France
1. Money and supplies
2. French Navy opened supply lines
3. Treaty of Alliance 1778
E. UK and GW Move South
1. Philadelphia
2. Valley Forge
3. Von Steuben re-energizes the Army
F. War and Native American Relations
1. Continued animosity over land
2. Cherokees Hard Hit
3. Iroquois
G. Financing the War
1. No taxation
a. States print paper money
b. Foreign loans
c. Bonds
d. Continentals
2. Inflation --out of control
H. War Decided in the South
1. UK Resources thin
2. Stalemate
3. Yorktown
I. Treaty of Paris 1783
1. Jay, Franklin, and Adams negotiated without France despite their promise, but
they won many concessions by going it alone.
2. American Independence
3. UK evacuate troops but . . .
4. US Reimburse Loyalists
5. Land to Mississippi--Ambiguous Florida boundaries
6. Native American ignored
J. Now! What kind of society?
1. Social order maintained
2. Gradual change
a. “Equality”
1. Eliminated primogeniture
2. Reduced property qualifications for voting--esp west.
b. Separation of church and state
1. NE kept state run Congregationalism
2. Anglican church dissolved in South - Episcopalian
c. North gradual abolition where economically not viable
1. Quakers
2. A. Zilversmidt
d. Rights for women--Republican Motherhood
1. Civic Virtue
2. Republicanism: altruistic citizen committed to public good
3. Mother entrusted with moral education
e. New sense of nationalism from sacrifice
III. Phase III Creating New Government: The States and the Articles of Confederation
(Objective: The federal Constitution represented a moderately conservative
reaction against the democratic and decentralizing effects of the Revolution and the
Articles of Confederation.
A. Making a new America
1. 2nd Cont Cong not a true government
2. Ran war thru committees
3. Need legal government
B. 2nd CC to states-create new governments
1. Use Locke Constitution theory
a. Compact of people
1. Only people can create constitution
2. “Higher Law” prevents abuse
b. Written
2. Before Revolution each col had leg and royal governor
3. Now, need state constitutions
a. Mass initiated Constitutional Convention in 1780
1. Special Sessions
2. Answer: “Where is power?”
b. “Actual Representation”
c. Annual elections-strong leg; weak governors
d. Coin money, raise armies, erect tariff, create ambassadors
e. Bill of Rights
C. Next, creating a “federal” government-Art of Confed-1777
1. Tories gone
2. John Dickinson proposed “Federal” system - 1777
a. Division of power between central govt and state govt
b. What kind will US have in 1777
3. “A loose confederation of friendship”
(Fear the tyranny of another Parliament, so restrict the govt power)
a. States supreme
b. No executive—Weak judiciary
c. Unicameral congress
1. States 1 vote regardless of pop-2/3 - 9 votes to pass a law
2. No power to tax
a. Borrow or issue IOU
b. Issue bonds and print paper money
c. Sell western lands
d. Ask for contributions from states
3. Raise an army and a post office
4. Pass treaties
4. Ratified 1781
a. Unanimous approval
b. Land quarrels
1. Western holdings angered many--(MD refused to ratify)
2. Compromise-Western to Congress
3. Create new states--not colonies
5. AC successes
a. Politically
1. Provided government Americans would accept in 1776
2. Ensured republicanism
b. Western land
1. Jefferson’s Land Ordinance of 1785
a. Surveyed, divided - sold to pay national debt
b. Townships of 6 mi sq
1. Each township divided - 36 sections (1 Sq mi)
2. Each section - 640 acres
3. 16th section set aside for school
2. Northwest Ordinance of 1787
a. How govern territories
b. Short colonial period
1. Congress appoint a governor like UK
2. When 60,000 inhabitants-equal partner
c. No slavery
D. New National economy
1. Early success
a. Confiscated loyalist lands
b. Manufacturing grew
c. Free to trade without Mercantilism--China
2. But major economic problems
a. No power to regulate commerce
1. States imposed own tariffs
2. Disputes arose
3. Navigation Acts applied to US now
4. Inflation raged-Congress powerless to curb state paper
5. Even Rejected “Imposts”- R. Morris
b. UK flooded US with cheap goods
1. Species flowed to UK--US short of cash
2. Created economic depression
3. US manufacturing collapse
c. Economy emphasized weakness of central government
1. Congress blamed
2. Economic instability increased anxiety
d. Without taxation debts unpaid
1. Foreign loans to Spain, Holland, France
2. Newburgh conspiracy-1783
E. Foreign policy disasters
1. Problems with UK
a. UK refused to send an ambassador (do we need 13?)
b. UK closed ports of trade (India, Caribbean)
c. British troops remained in west
d. Congress failed to pay Loyalists for war losses
2. Spain closed Mississippi
3. France demanded repayment of loans
4. Pirates in the Mediterranean
F. Domestic problems-Anarchy
1. Economy hit hard
a. Interest on National and State debts grew
b. States attempt to repay debt
1. Tariffs between states hurt
2. In 1786 VA called for Annapolis Convention
a. Only 5 states show up
b. Nationalists: “Let’s meet and revise AC”
2. Shays’s Rebellion
a. MA farmers faced high taxes—had to pay taxes -- 30% in gold
b. Daniel Shays led the revolt
c. MA responded with force
d. Frightened conservatives
3. Call for stronger government
IV. The Constitution
A. The Philadelphia convention at Independence Hall
1. Delegates: Fifty Five (age 42) “demigods” from 12 states
a. White men of property-lawyers, merchants-met in secrete
1. Most had experience drafting constitution in their own states
2. Most conservative “nationalists” seeking stronger govt
3. Sought to preserve Republicanism
a. Sought to forestall anarchy
b. Secure property against mobocracy
b. Washington chair
1. Most “firebrands” remained home
2. Leaders: Franklin, Adams, Hamilton, and Madison (5’2” 85 lbs)
a. Jefferson and Paine in Europe
b. S Adams, Henry, Hancock, Dickinson declined- “smell a rat”
c. Neo Con: Good decision: Time to change leaders
2. Conservative ideology dominated convention
a. Most in agreement--Seldom heated debate
1. Eco: Sound money - protect private property
2. Pol: Strong govt with 3 branches--checks and balances
a. Congress checks President
b. House checks Senate
3. Democracy to be feared
a. Shays
b. No popular election of President or Senators
b. But still supported Republicanism
1. Written Constitution
2. Representation of the people
3. Early action--Scrap Articles-begin over (a type of coup??)
a. James Madison hijacked conference.
1. Need a stronger government, but not too strong.
a. Key change was a stronger president and Congress
b. With his friend Edmund Randolph they create Virginia Plan
1. 3 branches- separation of powers -checks and balances.
2. Bi-Cameral Congress-power to tax based on actual rep
a. Both branches based on population
b. Larger have more power
2. New Jersey (Smaller States) Plan.
a. Back to AC, Unicameral Congress--each state gets one vote.
b. Taxation still based on population
c. Impasse--1/2 the time of the convention.
3. Madison then created “Great Compromise”
a. Two branches--one based on Va, one on New Jersey
b. Roger Sherman plan
c. Pacify large states--all money bills must start in House
d. After Great Compromise other issues solved quickly
1. Slavery and 3/5 compromise.
2. Compromise to non-slave states, slave trade to end in 1808
b. Now--the executive
1. Increase power
a. Strong govt need enforcement
b. Commander in Chief: “Mr President”
1. Veto power
2. Suggest but not create legislation--execute laws
c. How elect?
1. Not the people
2. Electoral College-four year term
d. Vice Presidency
e. Washington made delegates secure
c. The Judiciary
1. Annapolis caused need for stronger judiciary
2. Big deal--to mediate arguments between the states
3. Appointed for life
4. No Judicial Review in this document
D. Ratification--How to make this document the law of the land?
1. Procedure:
a. Each state to form special ratification conventions-not state leg!!
(Revolutionary? People directly select members)
b. Nine states needed to accept (Only 12 at Philadelphia)
2. Ratification debate
a. Anti-federalists--Old guard-opposed Constitution
1. Feared states swallowed by stronger govt
2. Fear standing army, another Parliament
3. Disorganized, poor, un-ed, and contradictory about need for change
4. Met in Secret-Feared No Bill of Rights—no God
b. Federalists
1. More educated, cultured, seaboard
2. Madison-GW lent support in VA; Hamilton in NY
3. Federalist Papers by Hamilton, Jay, Madison
a. Written for the most contested in MA, NY, and VA (Close vote)
b. Madison and GW lent support in VA; Hamilton in NY
c. Most famous is Federalist # 10 by Madison
1. Federal government will not be too powerful
2. Gov’t will be made up of factions
4. Nine ratified quickly, but big three dragged feet
a. Madison noted opposition argument
b. He promised Bill of Rights
5. By 1789 electors meet, GW wins-Madison to House
3. The “Federalist” Triumph in close vote
a. Only 1/4 adult males voted
b. Minority of conservatives engineered peaceful rev against the AC
c. In effect, eleven States seceded from the Confederation
d. Significantly, both groups favored a republican form of government.
e. It begins Federalists Era
The New Republic-A Second Try
Objective: Understand significance of Hamilton's economic policies and rise of
political parties
I. Federalist Regime
A. Washington’s First Term
1. GW unanimously elected
a. Only national figure
b. Character-Newburgh
2. How will Constitution work? Who decides?
3. Cabinet
4. First actions
a. Madison - Bill of Rights
1. 2/3 of House and Senate and then 3/4 of States
2. Restrict Federal power
b. Judiciary Act of 1789
1. Supreme Court
2. Lower courts
B. Economic issues
1. Depression
a. UK dumping cheap goods
b. Failure of US manufacturing
c. Debt-cash poor
2. Hamilton plan – “Report on Public Credit”
a. Need for debt
1. Funding the national debt
2. Assumption of state debts
3. Sell US Bonds (IOU) Permanent debt
b. For immediate cash—establish a tariff
c. “Report on BUS”
1. Need a bank
a. Regulate currency
b. Issue bonds
c. Sell stock
2. Broad powers—“Necessary and Proper” -- Loose Construction
3. Opposition to Hamilton – Jef and Madison –Ego?
a. Assumption unfair
b. Debt –weak and corrupt
c. Tariff unfair
d. Bank unconstitutional
e. Strict Construction “Indispensable not convenient”
4. Issue to Washington
a. GW: Bank is ok
b. Hamilton wins but needed compromise
c. Both sides accept Constitution
1. Anti-Feds gone
2. But, who best to interpret Constitution?
d. Dinner party
1. Bank ok, separate financial and political capitals NY & DC
2. Assumption only if Capital in South
5. Ham wanted tax on liquor (to pay debts) 1794
a. TJ opposed
b. Whiskey Rebellion
c. Washington show of force
II. Rise of Political Parties
A. GW 2nd Admin-Foreign Problems (1793-1796)
1. French Revolution and war with UK
a. US Franco Treaty 1778
b. What to do? Jef v. Ham
2. Then Edmond Genet solidified feelings
a. French diplomat
b. Angered Washington
3. GW: “Neutral”
a. Rejected France Treaty--Rebuffed, TJ resigned
b. Prepared to run for president
B. Now two distinct view emerged
1. Federalists: GW & Ham
a. Strong govt - trade
b. Loose Construction
2. Democratic Republicans: TJ and JM
a. Small gov –farmers
b. Strict construction
3. Formed around economic and foreign policy issues
C. More problems
1. Silly UK
a. Orders in Council
b. Impressment
2. Battle of Fallen Timbers-1795
a. Mad Anthony Wayne
b. Little Turtle--Treaty of Grenville
1. US blamed UK—Troops in west
2. Native Americans gone in Northwest Territory
3. Jay Treaty – June 1795
4. Pinckney Treaty with Spain—October, 1795
a. Right of deposit in New Orleans
b. Pinckney became a hero
5. The divide between Fed and Rep grow: GW vs TJ
6. Washington retires—Issued his Farwell Address
a. No entangling alliances
b No political parties
D. Election of 1796-Parties emerge
1. Jefferson (Burr) –Adams (Pinckney)
2. Hamilton's role
E. New Problems
1. Adams and GW cabinet
2. "Adams's Quasi War with France"
a. XYZ
b. Election 1798 for congress (Its a Big Deal)
3. Alien & Sedition-Fed Witch Hunt
4. Kentucky-Virginia Resolves
a. Alien – sedition violated Constitution
b. States have right to declare such acts unconstitutional
F. Election of 1800 “Bloodless Revolution”
1. Adams v. Jefferson
2. Ugly campaign
3. Hamilton again
a. Angry over no war with France
b. Pinckney again
c. “Fix” Election
4. Bizarre results
a. Ham: TJ ok; Burr a sleaze,
b. But Burr never in it.
5. End of Federalists - Legacy
a. Preserved democracy
b. Created strong economic system
c. Avoided war—made LA Purchase possible
The Enigma of Jeffersonian Democracy
Objective: Understand significance of Hamilton's economic policies on the rise of
political parties and the consequences for both Federalists and Republicans
Thesis: The choice between Adams and Jefferson seemed clear-cut in 1800, but by the
end of his two terms as President, Jefferson had become little different from the
Federalists he so despised.
III. Jefferson’s First Administration 1801-05
A. Quick Review-Rise of Political Parties
1. Eco policies--Funding and Assumption-Bank
2. Foreign policy problems
a. Troops in the West
b. Impressment
c. Jay and Pinckney Treaties
d. Adams "Quasi" war
e. XYZ and Election of 1798
3. Ideological differences
a. Strict vs Loose Construction
b. Alien-Sedition-1798
c. Va-Ky Resolves-1799
B. Historiographic Debate—Rhetoric v Reality
1. Progressives – Dem v. Aristocracy
2. Neo Conservatives-—Jef and Ham were similar
a. Hofstadter
b. “We are all Republicans: We are all Federalists
c. Both men aristocracy—no real class conflict
d. But there was a nagging concern about race and slavery
1. Largely ignored—NW Territory and 1808 restriction
2. Everyone did it.
3. New Left—Donald L. Robinson
a. The issue was one of race more important than slavery
1. Jef huge hypocrite
2. Maybe not then, but now he is paying for it.
3. “Get off Mt Rushmore.”
b. Jefferson enigma/hypocrite
1. “All men are created equal but DNA tests reveal he fathered 6 slave
children with his slave Sally Hemming.
2. He cut government spending calling Adams wasteful, but
overspent his own funds and died in debt, having to sell all his slaves
and his library to pay creditors
3. He fought George III but luxuriated at the court of Louis XVI
4. He opposed Alien and Sedition but as President urged prosecution of
Federalists under state “sedition” laws
5. He praised the “Yeoman farmer” as the backbone of America but believed
that only the “Natural Aristocracy” should rule
6. He advocated “revolution” every 20 years.
“God forbid we should ever be twenty years without such a rebellion as the one by
Daniel Shays...The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood
of patriots and tyrants. It is natural manure.” Adams later said: That’s pretty heady
stuff since he never picked up a weapon in war to defend his country or himself.
7. He was also carefully ambiguous on the constitution.
a. And yet, he bought Louisiana without authority
b. He increased the size of the military to threaten Americans in 1808.
4. Neo Con rebuttal
a. “Get off it Tosh--He did great things. Are you on Mt Rushmore?”
1. End slavery in NW
2. Road to Ultimate Extinction
b. He was an enormous figure in the Revolutionary generation
1. Second only to Washington in importance.
2. His resume was more impressive than Washington or Adams
a. Va legislature, delegate to Continental Congress, founded U of Va
b. Author of Dec of Ind
c. Ambassador to France, Secretary of State, and Vice President
3. JFK: “Tonight we are honored to have the largest collection of Nobel
Laureates assembled at the White House for dinner. These men are
the greatest concentration of talent and genius in this house, except
perhaps when Thomas Jefferson ate alone.”
4. Skepticism led him to question all religion but accept “deism.”
a. He demanded separation of church and state as a way
to protect the state
b. “It does me no injury for my neighbor to say, ‘There
are 20 gods or no gods.’ It neither breaks my bone
nor picks my pocket.
C. What did American society look like when TJ took office?
1. Population explosion -7 million by 1810
2. Western Conquest-4 new states by 1809
3. Prosperity of the nation was increasing:
a. agriculture 90% of America
b. commerce in major cities
D. Responsibility Breeds Moderation
1. Inaugural-“We are all Reps. . . Feds”
a. No Robespierre
b. Pardoned martyrs of Alien-Sedition Act
2. Early domestic policies
a. No pomp: clothes, dinners
b. Spoils of office-only 50% to Rep
c. Galitin-End Tax-but ok Funding, Bank, Tariff
d. No help for manufacturing
e. Farmer was backbone of society
3. Early Foreign policy
a. Peace with UK and FR (Treaties worked)
b. Cut Army (2,500 troops)
c. Cut Navy--replaced with "Jiffs"
d. Then "Harsh Realities" with Barbary Pirates
e. Louisiana Purchase-1803
1. New Orleans blocked by Napoleon
2. Napoleon now a significant threat
3. Powerless US: Buy or ally with UK
4. “God Watches Out . .”
a. Needed $ for war with UK
b. Yellow Fever
c. Wanted to prevent US-UK alliance
d. Sell 825,000 vague miles for $15 million
5. Constitutional issues—practical or hypocritical?
6. Lewis and Clark-1804
IV. Jefferson's 2nd Administration--Election of 1804
(Strategy of Feds?)
A. Domestic troubles begin early--when only one party.
1. “Tertium Quids”-Randolph-Yazoo
2. Essex Junto came from other extreme
3. Attack on the judiciary
a. Midnight appointments-1801
b. Marbury v. Madison & Judicial Review
1. Marshall = Hamilton
2. Significant defeat for Jefferson
a. Marshall: “Courts can strike down legislation”
b. Marshall: “Courts can define what Constitution means.”
3. Jefferson reaction was swift
a. Impeachment
b. Pickering and Chase
4. Burr Conspiracy
a. Trouble with Hamilton
b. Treason—Aaron I
B. Failure of Foreign Policy
1. Britain and France at war again
2. US powerless
a. Again--British Orders in Council
b. 6000 sailors impressed
c. Napoleon issued Continental system seized 200 ships
3. Chesapeake-Leopard 1807
a. Advice:
b. Suggestions
4. Clamor for war (But fight with what? He cut army and navy)
5. Embargo -1808
a. Jefferson powerless tries economic solution
b. Results—Depression
1. Commercial collapse
2. Civil Liberties abused
6. “Non-Intercourse Act” ends Embargo with all but UK and FR
7. Jef left in defeat
a. Embargo failed
b. 3x more costly than a navy
8. Ended with a whimper
a. Remained popular in the South
b. By 1970, however, his reputation hit all time low.
c. Letters from Adams
C. Madison’s election and stumble into War
1. Macon Bill #2
2. Napoleon’s deception-Madison’s blunder
3. Henry Letters
D. Causes for the War
1. War Hawks (S and W) election in 1812
2. Tecumseh and the Profit -Tippicanoe
3. Canada and Freedom of the Seas
4. National Honor or Madison’s Mistake