Faculty of Engineering and Environment
BE 1173 Project Organisations
Human Resource Management syllabus
Summer semester 2013
Edited by
Robert Moehler
Email: robert.moehler@northumbria.ac.uk
Tel.: +44 191 227 4746
i
ii
Contents
BE 1173 Project Organisations ................................................................................................................. i
Human Resource Management syllabus ............................................................................................. i
Contents ................................................................................................................................................. iii
1
2
Lecture: Scene Setting..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2
1.2
Managing People .................................................................................................................... 2
1.3
The Syllabus ............................................................................................................................ 3
1.3.1
Examples of Polemic Headlines ...................................................................................... 3
1.3.2
Management of the Changing Workplace ...................................................................... 7
Lecture: Scene Setting 2................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1
Seeking organisational happiness ......................................................................................... 10
2.2
Reading Research Papers ...................................................................................................... 11
2.3
Organisational and Team Climate ......................................................................................... 12
2.4
Critical Success Factors ......................................................................................................... 13
2.4.1
Task Design.................................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2
Group Composition ....................................................................................................... 13
2.4.3
Organisational Context ................................................................................................. 13
2.4.4
Internal Process and Boundary Management .............................................................. 14
2.4.5
Group Psychosocial Traits ............................................................................................. 14
2.5
2.5.1
Social ............................................................................................................................. 14
2.5.2
Task Related .................................................................................................................. 14
2.6
3
Project Chemistry Outcomes. ............................................................................................... 14
Paper Summary ..................................................................................................................... 15
Lecture: Project Culture ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1
The Culture of Workplace Organisations .............................................................................. 17
iii
3.2
3.2.1
Behaviour and Experience ............................................................................................ 18
3.2.2
TASK 1: Culture in your Workplace ............................................................................ 19
3.3
Some Business Metaphors: ................................................................................................... 20
3.3.1
Free Spirits .................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.2
Setting Fire to the First Floor. ....................................................................................... 21
3.3.3
Fords losses are magic. ................................................................................................. 21
3.3.4
The Frog and the Pan of Water. .................................................................................... 22
3.4
TASK 2: GENERATE YOUR OWN CULTURE CASE STUDY ....................................................... 22
3.4.1
YOUR HYPOTHESIS IS: ................................................................................................... 23
3.4.2
Background Notes: Four Dimensions. .......................................................................... 23
3.4.3
Four Dimensions ........................................................................................................... 23
3.5
A Corporate Strength Questionnaire .................................................................................... 25
3.6
TASK 3: Cultural stereotypes ................................................................................................ 27
3.6.1
TASK CULTURE............................................................................................................... 27
3.6.2
POWER CULTURE .......................................................................................................... 27
3.6.3
PERSON CULTURE ......................................................................................................... 27
3.6.4
ROLE CULTURE .............................................................................................................. 27
3.7
4
ACTION SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................. 18
Some Research Papers to Review and Analyse: ................................................................... 28
Motivation 1.................................................................................................................................. 29
4.1
LEARNING OUTCOMES:......................................................................................................... 29
4.2
Why Motivate? ..................................................................................................................... 29
4.3
The Red Gate Software case ................................................................................................. 29
4.3.1
4.4
TASK 1: REVIEW CASE STUDY COMPANY - RED GATE. .................................................. 30
Motivation Theories and Practice ......................................................................................... 31
4.4.1
Motivation Theories ...................................................................................................... 31
4.4.2
Popular Motivation Theorists ....................................................................................... 31
iv
4.5
TASK 2: MOTIVATION - REFLECT ON YOUR ANSWERS TO THE RED GATE CASE STUDY. ...... 33
4.6
TASK 3: MOTIVATION - FURTHER EXERCISES TO REVIEW YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF
MOTIVATION THEORIES. ................................................................................................................... 33
5
Motivation 2.................................................................................................................................. 35
5.1
LEARNING OUTCOMES .......................................................................................................... 35
5.2
Motivation within the Dynamics of Project Management ................................................... 35
5.3
A Review of Recent Published Research papers from the International Journal of Project
Management..................................................................................................................................... 35
5.4
TASK 1: Compare and Contrast these 3 Papers .................................................................... 41
5.4.1
6
Management & Leadership 1........................................................................................................ 42
6.1
7
General Discussion ........................................................................................................ 41
Management Styles .............................................................................................................. 42
6.1.1
Authoritarian (or autocratic style) ................................................................................ 42
6.1.2
Democratic .................................................................................................................... 42
6.1.3
Laissez-faire ................................................................................................................... 43
6.2
Communication systems ....................................................................................................... 43
6.3
Leadership and Management ............................................................................................... 43
6.3.1
Leadership. .................................................................................................................... 44
6.3.2
Management ................................................................................................................. 44
6.4
TASK 1: Develop your Own Leadership Theory..................................................................... 45
6.5
Leadership Style Matched to Project Type: an example of current thinking! ..................... 46
6.6
Some Leadership Definitions from famous people .............................................................. 46
Management & Leadership 2........................................................................................................ 48
7.1
Leadership: Seeking a new leadership style ........................................................................ 48
7.1.1
Considered to be the old style ...................................................................................... 48
7.1.2
Considered to be the new style .................................................................................... 48
7.2
Behaviour of Leaders - 2 distinct categories ......................................................................... 49
7.3
Needs Orientated and Task Dominated Work Place Cultures .............................................. 49
v
7.3.1
Relationship Behaviour: needs and relationship orientated ....................................... 49
7.3.2
Task behaviour: Initiating Structure ............................................................................. 49
7.4
REVIEWING DIFFERENT POPULAR THEORETICAL MODELS ................................................... 50
7.5
Action Centred Model ........................................................................................................... 50
7.5.2
7.6
Managerial Grid .................................................................................................................... 54
7.7
Contingency Theory .............................................................................................................. 55
7.8
A Power Base for Leaders ..................................................................................................... 56
7.8.1
8
Likert sub-divides a leaders power base into 4 categories ........................................... 56
Management & Leadership: Situational Leadership..................................................................... 57
8.1
Leadership Behaviour Types ................................................................................................. 57
8.2
Follower Readiness Levels .................................................................................................... 58
8.3
Competence and Commitment............................................................................................. 58
8.4
TASK 1: Looking at Leadership Style ..................................................................................... 58
8.4.1
9
Review a work place situation using Adair’s ................................................................. 52
The Situations / Tasks: Seeing the problem from both sides! .................................... 60
Project Governance....................................................................................................................... 63
9.1
Evaluation of alternative approaches of the effective Management of Projects................. 63
9.2
Management of People ........................................................................................................ 63
9.2.1
9.3
Bureaucracy and Roles: Organisational Structural Influences on Behaviour ............... 64
TASK 1: Designing Organisational Structure ........................................................................ 65
9.3.1
Function-based structure .............................................................................................. 65
9.3.2
Product-based structure ............................................................................................... 66
9.3.3
Questions to be addressed ........................................................................................... 67
9.4
TASK 2: List and Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of a Function Based
Organisation and a Product Based Organisation – from the perspective of the employee. ............ 68
9.5
TASK 3: Leadership Style; Motivation and Organisational Work Groups ............................. 68
9.6
Project Management: The Gathering Together of Individuals for a Single Purpose. ........... 70
vi
9.7
TASK 4: Discuss the advantages / disadvantages to an Organisation of Pure Project
Management Organisational Structure philosophy. ........................................................................ 71
9.8
Selection of Structure ........................................................................................................... 71
9.8.1
Relating Project Structures to Project Objectives ......................................................... 72
9.9
TASK 5: Reflect on your own organisation ............................................................................ 73
9.10
Further Study: Structures to Facilitate the Empowered Organisation ................................ 74
9.11 TASK 6: Experiment: Have a go at re-engineering your workplace to fit some of the above
models............................................................................................................................................... 74
10
Project Governance 2................................................................................................................ 74
10.1
Some Key Roles and Individuals within a Project Management Governance Framework ... 74
10.1.1
Metaphors of the Organisational Jungle....................................................................... 75
10.1.2
TASK 1: Can you identify these people and the roles they have in your organisation?75
10.2
Programmes and Portfolios as a Form of Governance ......................................................... 76
10.3
Dilemmas in Organisational Structure .................................................................................. 77
10.3.1
Business Strategy .......................................................................................................... 78
10.3.2
Structure ....................................................................................................................... 78
10.3.3
Work Groups ................................................................................................................. 78
10.4
TASK 2 CASE STUDY: Dilemmas in Organisational Structure ............................................... 79
References ............................................................................................................................................ 83
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1 24/01/2013 Introduction
…every completed project has a secret life rooted in the joys and difficulties,
the motivations and enthusiasms of the process, of getting there (Allison,
1997).
1.1 Who am I? and if yes, how many?
Dipl.-Ing. Robert C. Moehler (Möhler) M.Sc.
Lectuerer in Project Management
Faculty of Engineering and Environment
Northumbria University
Wynne Jones Building (106a)
Ellison Place
Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST
T: +44 0 191 227 4746
F: +44 0 191 227 3167
E: robert.moehler@northumbria.ac.uk




Scholar in Governance and Organisational Studies
FoEE, Northumbria University, Newcastle: Lectureship on the M.Sc. Project Management
Programmes, duties include Lecturing on the modules:
– Project, Programme and Portfolio Management;
– Research Methods;
– Project Organisation and
– Strategic Project Management.
FoEE, Northumbria University, Newcastle: Doctoral researcher, duties included making sense of the
skills landscape and developing tools that help explaining the current dynamics. This work originates
on a research project, funded by EPSRC and NECC:
– Moehler (Forthcoming) Employer strategies to engage with the skills development agenda in
the Tyne and Wear region. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Northumbria University.
Research interests:
– Skills Development, incentive settings and experience (H. Dreyfus);
– Organisational Theory (e.g. Actor Network Theory, Institutionalized logics and legitimisation)
– Philosophy of science
How can organisational specific skills development for complex and technical challenging projects be
managed? What are the restricting and enabling logics of the stakeholders involved in this learning journey?
“The only thing we learn from history is that we learn nothing from history.” Friedrich Hegel
“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.” George Santayana
ESSENTIAL READING
Many, many other books will give you lots of information with regard to human resource
management and project management – so many that you will be spoilt for choice which may
extend into a real problem for you – there is just too much around!
1
For myself – I have used the following books:
(Morris, Pinto & Söderlund, 2011) - Morris, P. W. G., Pinto, J. K. & Söderlund, J. (eds.) (2011) The
Oxford Handbook of Project Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
(Morris & Pinto, 2007) - Morris, P. W. G. & Pinto, J. K. (eds.) (2007) The Wiley Guide to Project
Organization & Project Management Competencies. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
followed by (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007) - Huczynski, A. & Buchanan, D. A. (2007) Organizational behaviour: an
introductory text. 6th edn. London: Prentice Hall.
First published in 1985. It has been regularly updated and expanded since then and is now very
current and a substantial “single source” book for this subject area.
The International Journal of Project Management; and International Journal of Project
Organisation and Management are a rich source of published research information.
1.2 Introduction
Successful Project Organisations require successful human resource management; it is a central
feature of how organisations gain and maintain success.
Project management requires a focus on the (end) product that is essential – there has to be
something there to see or to use, something made or built on the ground, for example; but also
there also has to be an ongoing focus on the process – without the process, the product will not
happen. So the contradiction continues, without a focus on the product, the process is meaningless.
Some perhaps get a buzz out of the process – team-working, partnerships, empowerment, and so on
– but forget what they are in business for –

to get that project completed on time, to price, to quality.
My hypothesis, therefore, is

Project management success can only be judged by the product.
It is also suggested that improved performance in industry requires more than better
processes, new technology or contractual regulation.
Improved performance is dependent on motivated and valued people, working in a
culture of co-operation, teamwork and continuous improvement.
1.3 Managing People
Managing People is about:

Getting from them the most that they can give to sustain and develop your business.

This includes enabling people to find a job sufficiently interesting and satisfying to encourage
them to perform well.
2

Motivating people to work efficiently and effectively which requires the manager to
understand the relationship between motivation and productivity.
Managing people:

is all about getting things done through (other) people,

not simply keeping everybody apparently busy and happy.
1.4 The Syllabus
The term “human resource management” for some people is an unpleasant term suggesting (to
some) that people working in an organisation are nothing more than resources to be managed as
any other organisation resource (i.e.., tools and equipment) – a “Taylorism” perspective, perhaps.
F.W. Taylor theories of Scientific Management argue for a clear division between the work done be
management and workers; scientific methods to determine the best way to do a job and to select
the best people to do a job; along with training methods and surveillance to improve productivity.
This syllabus does not go into this “territory” but concentrates on those practices which might
engage employee participation and commitment; and those organisational practices that might also
motivate and encourage commitment – but also to get the best from a workforce that meets the
needs of the business they work for in the internal and external context that they belong to.
It is a “massive” subject area – and in the context of the timescale of this module and programme of
study, I have had to make decisions with regard to which syllabus topics would be of use (and of
interest) to you.
In some cases, there will be no definitive processes to adopt: so much of effective practice depends
upon context. Successful project management is a complex phenomenon. I attempt to introduce
you to the dynamics of human resource relationships within project management activity and what
they might achieve.
This selection of appropriate syllabus has therefore been based on my attempt to bring a number
of subjects to your attention that should “sensitise” you more to your own workplace
environment – with you more able to manage and expand your own role in your workplace, and
hopefully, your own influence on the business environment you belong to.
2 Managing People, Context and Structures (31/01/2013)
RCM
2.1.1 Examples of Polemic Headlines
Some banner headlines / quotations to stimulate your thinking (I use these to generate opinion –
they are dramatic and suggest strong opinions).
One type of business (no structure?):
3
This business is really successful at working in a particular way; it is very flat, very open and going
forward we must not lose that, we must not lose the magic (Unknown, 2004).
Can you afford to have a flat open, management system with no hierarchy?
Another type of business (too aggressive?):
You want pistols, hot-blooded people bent on making their mark. Not mild mannered conforming
types who will succumb to the awesome power of the existing culture (Pitchett. P. & Pound, 1993, pp.
33 - 34 ).
Perhaps a note of caution here – the author is also the publisher. Can you afford “hot blooded
people” – thrusting, ambitious – can you hold on to them? Can you give them what they want? Can
they give what you want?
A view on the need to manage people:
There must be a congenial corporate culture, capable and assertive human resource leadership, and
a truly supportive top management.
The importance of top management’s role must not be underestimated.
How executives experience and interpret human resource issues and whether they truly see
investments in people as a source of competitive advantage will determine the extent to which they
pursue a leadership position in human resource management.
Like all other essential business tasks, human resource management is the responsibility of operating
management, not of the human resource department (Anderson, 1997).
Anderson (1997) expressed this in response to a previous article by Mervis (1997) quoted in
(Patterson et al., 1997, pp. 22 - 23).
As a part of their recommendations, Patterson et al.(1997) finally ask;
What then are the essential ingredients for creating an organisation that views investment in people
as a source of competitive advantage?
4
2.1.1.1 TASK 1: People – Who needs people?
A CONTEXT DISCUSSION: Some questions to begin this process of study.
Current issues that involve people in your organisation:

What are the “hot” topics in your organisation / country at this moment in time?
What do you consider to be the big issues with regard to successful business?

What do you think might be the consequences and how do you think these might be
dealt with?
If you can’t think of a current issue – think back to any experiences you have had with regard to
change – how was it dealt with – what were the processes to deal with the change?
Hot Topic
Consequence and action required
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
5
You need people:

What value does your organisation place on the people employed by the
business? How does this manifest itself? What indicators would you use?

What are the nutrients (support systems, workplace practices, etc) in your
organisation that develop and support people?
What are you seeking? I suggest it’s people who are in their “natural” habitat – square pegs
in square holes, I suggest at a minimum level – people that have the skills, knowledge and
aptitude to do a “good job” – but also, I believe, you also need people with grit and
determination to remain in post when the going gets tough; people who can receive and
accept responsibility; and those who continually seek a better way of doing business.
2.1.1.2 TASK 2: Nutrients1 in your business
(these can be internal / external to the organisation) –
List them:
Random
Most important to least important
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
What can you summarise from this list (Perhaps try and answer the question “why” – always
the hardest question of all, in my opinion, but also the most illuminating)?
1
A number of questions to ask of yourself and your organisation - What supports you, what nurtures you, what encourages
you, what gives you the momentum or energy to do what you need to do, what prepares you for new work / initiatives, what
facilities are there provided to fulfil your potential and realise fully any ambitions you may have?
6
Current Issues - My own thoughts reflect issues on different levels:
2.1.2 Management of the Changing Workplace

Mergers, companies swapping assets, mixing different workplace cultures;

Moving into new market places, dealing with the new and the un-rehearsed;

Breaking down “old” ways of doing business, fresh starts;

Management of Staff Development;

Keeping pace with your competitors, staying ahead of your competitors, fear of being left
behind;

Learning organisations, learning from success and failure;

Getting the best out of your workforce;

Retaining your workforce, attracting the best people to your organisation;

Fear of losing your market share;

New procurement methodology putting your business at risk (JIT – dedicated suppliers –
what happens when the need for your service disappears?);

Bandwagons (you climb on board or stay sensible?);
And finally, in this period of intense financial instability:

how do you hold on to key staff in a declining marketplace?
Some personal thoughts and comments:
The world of business: are these your experiences?

Unremitting change, colliding priorities, pressure for results - the modern world of work.

No business or part of a business is immune.

The modern manager must reduce costs, stay in touch with technological developments,
and understand the dynamics of your ever-changing marketplace and customer demands.

You cannot afford to retreat to the apparent safety of your bunker and issue orders.

Organisations need to be flexible and responsive.

Decision-making needs to be devolved.

You must harness experience, skills and energies of diverse groups of people and build
teams to get results.
7
The background to this programme of study is a commercial and business environment that could be
described as hostile and competitive but with lots of opportunities to shine and do well:

Business today has to be more efficient and more effective than ever before.

Business and people have to work smarter.

Resources in business (people!) have to be used to their maximum potential.

Groups and teams within organisations have to be productive and pro-active.

Organisations cannot rest and sit on their laurels. They have to be constantly on the move.
They have to seek new targets, new goals.

Individuals have to be able to take responsibility; work on their own; be tough and robust;
and determined to complete tasks. To be self-starters and completers.

Conversely, no one person can be an island in a business; they have to work with others;
listen to and trust others; and seek out techniques to get the best out of themselves and
others in group work situation.
8
2.1.3 TASK 1:
Is happiness important to you?
I have included this little introductory exercise to help you begin the process of your own
articulation of what makes you “happy” (and perhaps those around you in the workplace) – and
then to further think about what motivates you as a person at this moment in time, in your life
and your career.
Ask yourself - what represents personal happiness at work to you? Is it:

a clear desk,

a cluttered desk,

a new computer,

a new car,

a challenging job,

etc.?
List your happiness Factors? (it is sometimes useful to list these randomly and then list them in
order of importance to you – in this way you “freewheel” your initial thinking without slowing you
down by offering a detailed judgement)
Random
In Order of Importance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
9
2.2 Seeking organisational happiness
Is this important? What would be your receipt for success?
2.2.1.1 TASK 2: How would you describe YOUR organisational happiness?
10
2.3 Reading Research Papers
A general structure to reading a research paper would be as:
1.
Did the paper describe an important problem addressed via a clearly formulated question?
2.
Was the field work approach appropriate (i.e., qualitative / quantitative)?
3.
How were the setting and the subjects selected?
4.
What was the researcher's perspective, and has this been taken into account?
5.
What methods did the researcher use for collecting data—and are these described in enough
detail?
6.
What methods did the researcher use to analyse the data—and what quality control measures
were implemented?
7.
Are the results credible, and if so, are they important?
8.
What conclusions were drawn, and are they justified by the results?
9.
Are the findings of the study transferable to other settings?
For myself, I like to look at the substantive element of the work – what is it saying; but also to try to
understand the research process – the field work – is it authentic and authoritative?
From research papers such as these, theories can be developed, explained and explored which relate
to the workplace and to project management, in particular. They explain and articulate the
dynamics of the project workplace.
You may ask – what is a good theory?
There is nothing more practical than a good theory(Lewin, 1952).
They can be used to try and understand behaviour – and ultimately through this understanding and
application – to influence and to change behaviour.
That is, successful, purposeful project
management is inextricably linked to successful people management.
11
2.3.1.1 An Initial Reading Exercise:
Nicolini, D. (2002) 'In search of “project chemistry”', Construction Management and Economics, 20
(2), pp. 167-177.
The paper (Nicolini, 2002) “In search of Project Chemistry” uses as its’ context, the construction
industry. Using this volatile and dynamic (my words) project environment, it highlights what might
be considered “special” about a project. The “special” internal operational work environment of the
project – project chemistry - can lead to effective project performance.
My question for you:
How does the successful management of people fit into the scenario as put forward by Nicolini?
Key issues raised in this paper, I suggest are:

Importance of interpersonal relations, team spirit and collaboration.

Relationship dimensions and factors that may lead to successful project performance.
Project chemistry then becomes for Nicolini, a metaphor to highlight a particular aspect of business
and work practices, albeit there are inherent risks as well – with “chemistry” comes the challenge of
“risk” – it may not be in a fully managed and controlled environment with a “black-box” hidden
internal project environment, perhaps developing.
There follows an attempt to define and articulate the heuristic potential of project chemistry.
2.4 Organisational and Team Climate
Atmosphere within an organisation – organisational climate – relates to the behaviour of individuals.
Organisational Climate is a result of either:
Nicolini posits 3 alternative dimensions.
Focus 1: Organisational Characteristics created from the:

Size of the organisation;

The degree of centralisation of decision-making within the organisation;

The number of levels of hierarchy;

The nature of the technology employed;

The extent to which formal rules and policies proscribe (i.e., prevent) individual behaviour.
Focus 2: Interaction of Individuals as a response to the context in which they work and is, in
consequence, a
12

Shared response to the organisational situation.
Focus 3: Perception of Managers – and the role of their leadership – to create and shape the
climate in which the project team will operate. This will include

The organisational structure that they set up;

The way employees are rewarded;

How employees are recruited and promoted.
Those who argue against the value of assessing organisational climate as being a contributory factor
to project success, suggest that context needs to be aligned with organisational climate. The
“climate” has to serve a “purpose”. You have to understand what project is required, to fully match
/ balance organisational climate to effective project performance.
2.5 Critical Success Factors
Nicolini uses the example of the cross-functional nature of project work in the construction industry
– the gathering together within the construction project of a range of different employees with
different areas and levels of expertise, experience and knowledge, coming together to produce “the
project”. He suggests that this experienced model of working is being translated into other project
management environments to good effect.
Conditions conducive to organisational climate include:
2.5.1 Task Design

Challenging task

High levels of autonomy and empowerment

Formalised but flexible problem solving and progress measurement.
2.5.2 Group Composition

Right mix of expertise

Leader selected to match the project context

Openly negotiated roles and responsibilities

Stable and continuing membership
2.5.3 Organisational Context

Clear articulation of strategic vision

Practical line support

Project focussed accountability and reward systems
13
2.5.4 Internal Process and Boundary Management

Group defined goals and feedback

Project leader facilitates rather than dictates

Discussion welcomed and differences addressed

Use of networking outside of project boundaries to influence resource
2.5.5 Group Psychosocial Traits

Trust, respect, willingness to change, cohesiveness attributes exist.
2.6 Project Chemistry Outcomes.
Nicolini puts together a set of attractive outcomes as a result of project chemistry. He divides these
up into social and task related outcomes
2.6.1 Social

Reduced social distance

Mutual understanding

Low conflict / constructive disagreements

High motivation and collective focus

Increased morale and dedication
2.6.2 Task Related

Improved problem detecting

Increased innovativeness

Improved communication

Reduced defects

Reduced waste

Reduced bureaucracy and related costs

Absence of litigation and legal costs
14
It would seem to me that these are extremely attractive and worthwhile attributes of a good
positive working environment which, as in all team working, is greater than the sum of the parts –
there is something extra special about a successful project environment that brings out the best in
its’ workforce and increases the project teams capability.
Group effectiveness and group performance are enhanced.
The challenge in the project work environment is to achieve this with nurture and ongoing
maintenance essential.
2.7 Paper Summary
Project chemistry effects project performance
Good project chemistry will produce

Close social relationships

Friendly and open environment

Low levels of conflict

High motivation

Focussed team activity

High team morale and team dedication
Project chemistry is an outcome of the relationships between people, the task, and the organisation.
Project chemistry needs to be understood, nurtured and maintained.
A further task for you – is to review the process of the Nicolini paper and test it for authenticity and
authority. Is the research process appropriate?
15
2.7.1.1 TASK 3:
paper
SUMMARISE YOUR Key Points from the Nicolini research
Random Findings
RANK - Most Important Findings
1
2
3
4
5
What lessons can you learn from this – to put into practice into a project management setting in
your own professional, industrial or workplace context?
How would transfer these findings into a Project Management context of your own experience?
16
2.8 Context: Work places
2.9 The Culture of Workplace Organisations
The culture of work place organisations can help or hinder the progress or survival of the
organisation. Even what may be seen as a developing organisation (and therefore, classed
in the realms of good practice) can still get itself into dangerous territory.
Managing people is all about getting things done through them, not simply keeping
everybody apparently busy and happy.
But as Covey (1992) suggests that this is not easy and asks questions such as
 How do you unleash the creativity, talent, and energy of the vast majority of the
workforce, whose jobs neither require nor reward such resources.
 How do you decide between tough management that forces a better deal as against a
kinder management that hopes for a better bottom line; or do you try to seek a third
alternative that is tougher and kinder?
 How do you have change, flexibility and continuous improvement and yet still
maintain a sense of stability and security?
 How do you maintain control, yet give people the freedom and autonomy they need to
be effective and fulfilled in their work?
(See also Covey (1994), The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People.)
But of course, the bottom line is What works?
What doesn’t work?
I suggest that any management theory needs to be tested against and embedded or grounded in
practice – the practice within the Industry you belong to – in my case, the Construction Industry.
It also needs to be set against the need for all organisations to be developing organisations constantly testing the way they do their business and constantly trying to find better ways of
doing what they do.
17
2.10 ACTION SYSTEMS
Culture leads to action: The way we do things around here.
All organisations / companies / businesses / projects are ACTION SYSTEMS. The
current work place culture of an organisation can help (or hinder) action. This may be simply
expressed as “the way we do things around here!”
So there may be a way of “doing
business” that will help the organisation deal with a particular problem or issue. There may
be a difficulty if the problem or issue needs to be dealt with in a different or special way to
“normal”. In some cases, you may get a negative response and inaction based on “we’ve
never done it that way before”. For the new project - there may also be the problem of the
new “team" with no action systems developed yet. You have to make it up as you go along.
2.10.1 Behaviour and Experience
It is suggested that there is a relationship between behaviour and experience with our
experience informing or directing our behaviour. In the same way – the work place culture of
an organisation will set action standards and practices that are set by that culture.
We (often?) reproduce the action the culture of the workplace dictates; the manager
submitting to the demands of the organisation. Often needing people to be “divided beings”
– a person for work / a person for home – the “hard person” at work and yet the caring /
loving parent at home. A term used to describe this dilemma – kinetic sting – the price to
be paid for your role in the company. This can often lead to real hate of the job and the
organisation but for some, a price that has to be paid. But, would you work for such an
organisation?
18
2.10.2
TASK 1:
Culture in your Workplace
LIST
Any work place practices that have influenced the way you work or behave?
These may be overt / covert.
These may have been particularly apparent in the early days of joining an organisation or
perhaps during a period of change – i.e., take-over by another company; change of
manager, etc.
Your examples may include –
At a low level – culture can manifest itself in such things as
 dress sense (suit, tie, smart clothes or the opposite);
 communication systems – telephone, written memos, emails, even verbal language.
 hours of work – start early / late, finish early / late, work unpaid overtime, etc.;
 sometimes going against your own natural way working / doing business.
NOW list these in ORDER OF IMPORTANCE
and add your comment with regard to your own personal feelings towards these practices –
on a scale of 1 (low) to 5 (high) scoring system , how happy where you following these
practices.
Random
In Order of Importance to you
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
CONCLUDE
1.
Have you been under pressure to conform in some way to the “norm”?
2.
Do you consider yourself to be now a part of the work-place culture and an “insider”?
3.
How do you feel about this?
19
2.11 Some Business Metaphors:
These are “business stories” that can help to set scenes. Do you relate to any of these?
2.11.1
Free Spirits
As well as needing people who “fit in”, there is the converse thought that there is the
opposite dimension to look at – people who can discover and learn for themselves?
You may need people who are free spirits prepared to go where no human being has trod
before – a need for great exploration / seeking new discoveries. Perhaps for people who
can cope with the unexpected – to think on their feet, to think “in action”. Not to rely on
rehearsed solutions. A term used to describe this is going beyond “cognitive apprenticeship”
– that is, going beyond the way that the business has taught you how to do things.
The film “Saving Private Ryan” - think of it as a management metaphor – the management of
uncertainty. Young, dynamic companies often seek this model – no structure, no hierarchy,
no holding back from experimentation or trying something new.
But this approach also can be extremely dangerous, even for well established companies –
will you succeed, can you afford not to succeed? Look at Nick Leeson situation with Barings
Bank (also became a film) – a technically empowered rogue who wreaked havoc with illegal
trading on the derivatives stock exchange.
What would you conclude from these 2 examples of practice?
Have you any examples from your own employment history of being in situations like
this?
20
2.11.2
Setting Fire to the First Floor.
From Kenneth Allison, 1997, Getting there by Design, page 132, Architectural Press.
Honda – who attempt to set up a work environmental triad comprising enduring values, trust
and empowerment – have a way of encouraging innovation by setting up a balance between
set tasks and loose controls. How these are managed is interesting. In the words of a
Honda executive discussing how task groups work: “We put them upstairs, remove the
ladders, and say, “You have to figure out a way of getting down”, then we set fire to the first
floor. I think human beings display their greatest creativity under these circumstances”
(Quoted from Pascale, R., 1990, Managing on the Edge, Simon and Schuster.)
What would you conclude from this business metaphor?
Have you any examples from your own employment history of being in a situation like
this?
My own thoughts:
Sadly it often needs a serious situation to develop before thinking and action ensue. Note –
the use of the word empowerment – an important, currently popular, concept that needs
further examination (also look at the word – subsidiarity – the inevitable conclusion of
empowerment, in my opinion.) The advent of distributed computing and telecommunications
has enabled unprecedented levels of accountability and responsibility to be pushed down
the line and out from the corporate nerve centre – generally with positive results – measured
in terms of efficiency, productivity and to some degree, the satisfaction, fulfilment and reward
of those so empowered. But it can go horribly wrong!
2.11.3
Fords losses are magic.
A newspaper headline from a few years back – “Fords losses are magic” – allowed the carmaker to fundamentally change its way of doing business. After years of making continuous
profits, management never felt in a position to change their archaic production practices.
After a loss making year – they had the reason / impetus / gravitas to get change started.
There was now a readiness for change!
21
A story for breaking out of an existing culture – have you any experiences such as these?
2.11.4
The Frog and the Pan of Water.
Charles Handy often quotes the following story –
 Put a frog into a pan of hot water and it will jump out and save itself.
 Put a frog into a pan of cold water and gently turn up the heat – the frog is clever – it
is able to adapt to the rise in temperature and stay alive, but – there is a limit to
how much the frog can change and adapt. Sadly, the frog doesn’t know when
this is. There comes a time when the water gets so hot that it explodes and dies!
The point behind the story being – applied as a business metaphor – that if you try to put a
business into a dangerous situation – it will do the obvious and protect itself. However,
potentially dangerous situations can creep up on you over a long period of time -– a
business can change and adapt to suit the external situation it finds itself in (reduction in
market share, reduction in market price for it’s goods) until the elastic cannot stretch
anymore – with result of implosion / explosion.
2.12 TASK 2: GENERATE YOUR OWN CULTURE CASE STUDY
Based on the following, I want you to prepare a Culture Case Study analysis of an
Organisation that you have experience of.
This exercise has been set out as a mini-research project which asks a question, which you
can convert into your hypothesis which you will then prove or disprove using a questionnaire
and then a process of analysis (with testing against a model) followed by some analysis and
reflection.
22
Begin by answering the following –
Has it a strong or weak Culture?
Strong
Weak.
YES / NO
YES / NO
(note – that this is a polarity question, perhaps always unfair – but I have put it in to corner you.)
Write down your hypothesis, beginning with the name of your chosen organisation
For example – this MSc degree course in Project Management has a strong culture.
2.12.1
YOUR HYPOTHESIS IS:
Now I want you to begin a detailed process of analysis (and eventually to prove or disprove your
original assessment).
2.12.2
Background Notes: Four Dimensions.
Note: this survey activity is based on work done by Deal and Kennedy (1982).
This is used by Huczynski & Buchanan (2007).
2.12.3
Four Dimensions
2.12.3.1
Values
Organisations have a strong value system, which gives direction and purpose to their
membership.
Churches, religious associations and cults are prime examples of this.
Espoused values such as fairness, the importance of education, loyalty, or quality show that
the company stands for something, and gives it a reason to be.
A corporate system develops over a number of years.
2.12.3.2
Heroes and heroines
These provide role models to aspire to and emulate.
23
Can be company founders, successful CEO’s.
May be ordinary employees who accomplish extra-ordinary things and embody the corporate
culture’s ethic of success.
Alive or dead, these people motivate staff by personifying the company, which is after all, an
abstraction.
2.12.3.3
Traditions and Rituals
These are the means by which the culture’s values are communicated to employees on a
daily basis.
They include meetings, ceremonies and taken for granted rituals.
Strong
cultures look for opportunities to celebrate, reward and symbolise rites of passage,
promotions and achievements, which conform to, and reinforce basic corporate values.
These are rarely written down. Nevertheless, they show members, which behaviours are
permitted and which are discouraged.
2.12.3.4
Networking Culture
The informal communication network is the vehicle for transmitting culture.

Storytellers tell newcomers how they should behave in order to succeed in the company;

Priests are the guardians of the culture’s values; they speak in parables, and know the
company’s history;

Whisperers and gossips spread news, embellish stories and create heroes and heroines;

Cabals are the small groups of people who organise themselves to advance up the
organisation.
These communication roles are a feature of all companies. In a strong culture they support and
communicate important corporate values to all organisational levels.
(a bit of personal reflection here – which one are you, or perhaps you are a few of these, in your
organisation?)
FOLLOW UP EXERCISE AFTER YOU DONE THE QUESTIONAIRE
Development into a common feature analysis - seek out the common features.
DISCUSSION / REFLECTION.
Is a strong organisational culture a good or a bad thing?
Does it help or hinder an organisation?
24
2.13 A Corporate Strength Questionnaire
This questionnaire is intended to rate your perception of the strength of the culture of the organisation
chosen by you along the four dimensions of values, heroes and heroines, traditions and rituals and
the cultural network (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007).
SA Strongly Agree
A Agree
N Neutral
D Disagree
SD Strongly Disagree
SA
A
N
D
SD
1.
5
4
3
2
1
New recruits are carefully made aware of how things are done in this organisation.
2.
5
4
3
2
1
When an organisation member performs excellently they are recognised at formal
ceremonies. (e.g. fresher’s week, strategy away days, employee’ family fun day’s)
3.
5
4
3
2
1
Well-established traditions are a feature of this organisation. (e.g. fresher’s week, strategy
away days, employee’ family fun day’s)
4.
5
4
3
2
1
As a newcomer, it isn’t long before someone tells you a story about the organisation in
the “old days”.
5.
5
4
3
2
1
Employees can easily recognise the organisations basic beliefs which are reflected in many of
its practices, procedures and programmes.
6.
5
4
3
2
1
The memories of the organisations great heroes are kept alive for current members.
7.
5
4
3
2
1
Members of this organisation have distinctive ways of communicating and relating to one
another. (e.g. use of names – first names / surnames only; extensive emailing.)
8.
5
4
3
2
1
The organisation has a procedure for matching new recruits with established staff to help
them become better integrated.
9.
5
4
3
2
1
The organisation has a single ideal that symbolises to all its members what it stands for (e.g.
quality, learning, customer care).
10.
5
4
3
2
1
The success of some organisation members is communicated to and serves as a model for
others.
11.
5
4
3
2
1
Organisational ceremonies are taken seriously by senior staff who always attend them (e.g.
graduations, long service award presentations).
12.
5
4
3
2
1
The organisation’s grapevine regularly carries information about significant events that affect
all employees.
25
Corporate Strength Questionnaire – scoring and interpretation.
Add the scores for the following sets:
A
score
B
score
C
score
D
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q10
Q11
Q12
B
C
D
score
TOTALS:
A
GRAND TOTAL:
A
relates to VALUES.
B
relates to HEROES and HEROINES.
C
relates to TRADITIONS and RULES.
D
relates to CULTURE NETWORK.
Now make a comparison to the following benchmark as suggested by Deal and Kennedy
Values
Heroes &
Heroines
Traditions &
Rituals
Cultural
Network
Strength
Grand Total
Very strong
13 – 15
12 – 15
12 – 15
13 – 17
47 – 60
Strong
11 – 13
10 – 11
10 – 11
11 – 12
41 – 46
Medium
9 – 10
6–9
7–9
9 – 10
33 – 40
Weak
7–8
4–5
5–6
8–9
26 – 32
Very weak
3–6
3–4
3–7
3–7
12 - 25
NOW, have you proved or disproved your hypothesis?
26
2.14 TASK 3: Cultural stereotypes
Four pre-dominant cultural stereotypes can characterise organisations.
All these elements may exist in all organisations – but at the end of the day which dominant theme
exists, will depend upon the context it which it exists.
2.14.1
TASK CULTURE
Often consisting of individuals operating in teams or as a matrix organisation.
Can provide a “home” for professionals – organisations providing professional autonomy, often flat
hierarchies and consultation within an organisational climate surrounded with expertise.
At best: co-operative, expert, good in a changing environment, with strong relationships between
mutually respected colleagues. Not a risk taker.
At worst: tends towards excessive navel-gazing, can be a “smoke screen” for the real stereotype – a
power culture (can be shown up in an emergency, for example).
2.14.2
POWER CULTURE
Often centred around a strong individual surrounded by reliable individuals who think and act in a
similar way. Few formal rules or bureaucracy but can be a very disciplined organisation. Decisions
made quickly and unequivocally. People judged on basis of effectiveness and results. Can be bogged
down with Machiavellian practices.
2.14.3
PERSON CULTURE
Created from cluster of individuals who have come together for mutual benefit. The organisation is
loose, decentralised and networked. Professionals can feel stronger allegiance to a person culture
because they have a greater sense of commitment to their own professional standing. They
generally work for themselves. Can be difficult to organise and exercise power over.
2.14.4
ROLE CULTURE
Generally has formally defined roles, rules, and procedures. They seek minimum risk and maximum
efficiency and effectiveness. Can be rigid and slow to change. Can be reliable in action albeit
individuals may hide their “talents” behind their roles. Very process orientated and can exist within
job secure and 9-5 organisations.
Which do you think are most suitable for the industry you belong to and the project management
context that exists therein? (and answer the follow up question – and why? Further Reading
(Rowlinson & Root, 1996; Zuo & Zillante, 2006; Ankrah, 2007))
27
2.15 Some Research Papers to Review and Analyse:
1. The Importance of Project Culture in Achieving Quality outcomes in Construction (Thomas et
al., 2002).
2. Towards a new workplace culture(Savolainen, 2000).
3. Understanding Approaches to Culture (Fellows, 2006).
REVISIT THE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS Chapter:
Review your development:
You should be able to
1.
Understand the ingredients of work place culture
2.
Understand the positive and negative effect that culture can have on worker motivation and
therefore subsequently, performance.
28
3 Motivation 1
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES:
You should be able to understand the general principles and theories of worker motivation and
apply them to work place situations.
3.2 Why Motivate?
Predicting, understanding and influencing work behaviour can help to make an organisation more
efficient – it will be able to achieve more from its’ workforce; it will recruit more easily suitable
people to “fit” into its’ workforce.
Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both from within as well as beyond an
individual’s being, to initiate work-related behaviour and to determine its form, direction, intensity
and duration (Pinder, 1998).
Our motives are a major determinant in our behaviour. It is thought that if we / you understand
what motivates a person, it will help to influence (or increase) behaviour patterns. The conclusion
being – if an organisation can identify motivators, it can manage (manipulate?) these to increase
levels of employee satisfaction and productivity levels amongst its staff.
An example from a young and expanding IT company:
3.3 The Red Gate Software case
Their company website has to offer the prospective applicant (Red Gate Software Limited, 2012):
When you join Red Gate you'll be doing a real job from day one. We don't have long graduate
induction or rotation schemes. Each year we have vacancies for technical graduates to join us in
software development, software testing, user experience, IT and product support, and for
humanities graduates to join us in Marketing. We offer an excellent financial package and a
comprehensive benefits package including a £2,000 graduate signing bonus.
Red Gate will challenge you and invest in your personal and professional development from the
outset. Depending on your role, you may have the option to attend international trade shows or
conferences. You will be working with people who are experts at what they do; you'll learn from
them and they'll learn from you. Because we're a growing company, the sky's the limit for your
career development.
Red Gate's philosophy is all about 'simple'. We make ingeniously simple tools that are simple to use
and simple to buy. Simplicity extends to our recruitment process too. There are no long application
forms or assessment centres and you'll interview with people doing the same job as you.
Most importantly of all, we offer a great working environment. Red Gate is relaxed and informal but
we take our work very seriously, allowing you to make your mark on our products and the way we
do business. Whatever part of the company you work in, you'll be part of a small team with open
discussions and the free flow of ideas.
29
Some questions to try and answer:
1. What do you think about this description of what sort of workplace environment you would
work for?
2. What sort of people do you think they are trying to attract?
3. Does the language used do the job you think it is intended for?
3.3.1 TASK 1:
REVIEW CASE STUDY COMPANY - RED GATE.
List what would attract you to this company? (it is sometimes useful to list these randomly and then
list them in order of importance to you – in this way you “freewheel” your initial thinking without
slowing you down by offering a detailed judgement)
Random
In Order of Importance
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
30
List what you would not like about this company or make you just a little worried?
Random
In order of Concern
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
3.4 Motivation Theories and Practice
3.4.1
Motivation Theories
Many Motivation Theories exist.
You may ask: what use are they, what purpose do they serve?
What use do you think can be made of them?
Theories help to understand practice. It is suggested that they allow you to work with a model to
analyse or try to make sense of how a workplace works, for example, and in this way, enables you to
work, in a structured and organised way towards improved practice. It can be argued that all
theories are fallible; it is only that some are more or less fallible (and, therefore, more accurate) than
others.
There is nothing so practical as a good theory (Lewin, 1952).
3.4.2 Popular Motivation Theorists
3.4.2.1 Hierarchy of needs theory
Maslow: A hierarchy of needs theory going from our basic, low level, biological requirements of
food, water and shelter through into the ever higher needs of safety, affiliation, knowing and
understanding, aesthetics, self actualisation, and finally into transcendence. It is argued that as each
31
level is satisfied, we then move into the next higher level – and it is that level which then becomes
our dominant motivator. However, you could argue that some of us will do without, or sacrifice,
some of the lower level motivators to find success at a higher level.
3.4.2.2 Theory X and Y
McGregor: This theory was based on Maslow and develops into a set of models or styles of
management, called Theory X and Y, that relate to employees and are based on your perception of
what motivates your employees. Theory X suggests that your employees are lazy, they dislike work
and that they need to be forced into work with tactics that control, coerce, direct and may even
threaten with punishment (i.e., if you do not do this, I will stop you be able to do that, type language
/ action). Theory Y managers believe that there employees like work, are creative, seek
responsibility and exercise self-direction.
3.4.2.3 motivation – hygiene theory
Herzberg: Advanced the motivation – hygiene theory which separates those actions in our
workplace which motivate at a higher level from those which operate at a lower level only, dealing
with the hygiene factors in the workplace. The higher motivators considered intrinsic to an
employees job to make them work harder are things such as responsibility, recognition,
achievement, advancement opportunity, work itself (and the design of how the work is done),
learning and growth opportunity. Such attributes of the workplace such as pay, benefits, working
conditions, quality of supervision and inter-personal relationships are not considered to be
motivators, only hygiene factors which, if present, only prevent job dissatisfaction. They do not, it is
argued, increase satisfaction; they only prevent dissatisfaction. You may ask, is this true of you?
3.4.2.4 needs theory
McClellend: Is a needs theory that argues that we hold achievement, power and affiliation as our
important needs and that they exist in all of us, albeit to different levels. Are these relevant to you?
3.4.2.5 reinforcement and behaviour modification theory
Skinner: Produced a reinforcement and behaviour modification theory. It looks at what we as
managers do to increase worker motivation and that we should always be seeking to reward desired
behaviour and therefore use positive reinforcement and generally try to ignore poor behaviour.
Skinner also looks at other behaviour modification practices that include negative reinforcement and
punishment.
3.4.2.6 dimensions of expectancy
Vroom: Relates motivation to the dimensions of expectancy and suggests that a person will do
something or work as hard as required based on what the outcome will be in terms of expectation of
reward. Expectation of promotion, for example, will encourage extra effort (and likewise, removal
of promotion expectancy discourages extra effort – what is in it for me, I hear you say).
32
3.5 TASK 2:
MOTIVATION - REFLECT ON YOUR ANSWERS TO THE
RED GATE CASE STUDY.
With the benefit of reading through the different motivation theories,
Which motivation theory most accurately reflects your own personal current motivation situation?
Why do you think this is so?
3.6 TASK 3:
MOTIVATION - FURTHER EXERCISES TO REVIEW YOUR
UNDERSTANDING OF MOTIVATION THEORIES.
CASE STUDY SITUATIONS (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007):
1. You have been asked to be the leader of a student work group by me. One member of the
group repeatedly fails to turn up for meetings. She does not do her share of the work and
you are often left to complete it for her. This confirms your view of people like her being
fundamentally untrustworthy.
Which theory applies?
2. There is a last minute rush to re-equip one of the computer labs in your School. Overtime
payments have been authorised for both work sections. The head of hardware reports that
his staff have responded well and will meet the deadline. The software manager, however,
complains that she is not able to induce her staff to work late or work weekends. They
complain of having to do the same old things. When they were there they spent their time
talking about the state of the local football team, and were just not getting on with their
jobs. She reckons that she will have to cut their overtime bonuses if they don’t shape up.
Which theory applies?
3. Your group syndicate is preparing a report to the rest of the year group. Only 2 people are
allowed to present from each group and within your group you do have 2 people who have
volunteered to do this. They would like to have the practice but unfortunately do not have
any experience. You do have two other group members who are very experienced and have
excellent presentation skills. They would do an excellent job.
33
Which theories would you use to ensure that everybody remains motivated?
4. One of your modules in your programme is very hard it seems. Hardly anyone gets a first for
any of their work, only a few get 2.1’s, and most get a 2.2 or a 3rd. The module tutor has
complained about the quality of the work with general comments about all students being
lazy these days.
Which theories explain how much time each student will devote to this module?
Which theories suggest what the lecturer should do to improve performance?
5. Many of your friends are encouraging you to run for President of your Student Union. You
think that this might be a good idea, but you know that it will detract you from your studies
(there are only so many hours in a week!). You worry that your marks for your degree
course might suffer. What do you decide?
Which theories are relevant?
6. You have joined a “blue-chip” construction project management organisation as a graduate
trainee. The construction sector has witnessed an amazing roller-coaster ride in recent
years of boom / bust with subsequent challenges of recruitment and redundancy. Your
organisation has decided to relocate to new purpose built premises to reflect the leadingedge image of the organisation. Work teams have also been re-organised into “project work
teams” of six, and they are empowered to make their own working arrangement. The
response has been mixed; some teams are already performing very well but some not so
well. Team leaders have already reported that some team members are slowing the others
down.
What theories are relevant?
SUMMARY:
34
4 Motivation 2
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
You should be able to:
Understand different motivational dynamics present in a project orientated work place.
Consider different approaches to a suitable working place environment to encourage and facilitate
well motivated employees.
Understand the consequence of the unique motivational experiences associated with project
orientated organisations.
4.2 Motivation within the Dynamics of Project Management
…every completed project has a secret life rooted in the joys and difficulties,
the motivations and enthusiasms of the process, of getting there (Allison,
1997).
I begin this section by repeating the adapted quotation I have used as the opening “headliner” to my
learning notes. For me, it encapsulates much of what I have enjoyed working in the construction
industry – that is, you work on “tangible” artefacts – buildings – which you can see through from the
“beginning” - of specification, to design and to the build phases, through to the challenge of the
“end” - completion and occupation. It is exciting to stand on a piece of ground and watch the first
hole in the ground being dug; it is challenging to persist and persevere when the weather conditions
are bad or when crucial components arrive on site damaged or inferior to what is required; it is full
of pressure and tension – and stress – coping with the cash flow on a contract, or dealing with the
challenges of a mainly sub-contracted workforce. I have always been motivated by the process of
construction – the challenge of building – of project management.
Our motives are a major determinant in our behaviour. It is thought that if we / you understand
what motivates a person, it will help to influence (or increase) behaviour patterns. The conclusion
being – if an organisation can identify motivators, it can manage (manipulate?) these to increase
levels of employee satisfaction and productivity levels amongst its staff.
4.3 A Review of Recent Published Research papers from the
International Journal of Project Management
Paper 1: When project-based management causes distress at work by Asquin, Garel & Picq (2010).
Reviews project management work place environments that may cause pressure, heavy
commitment, risk and perhaps suffering.
35
They set a high level scene by quoting Kwak & Anbari (2009): Project-based working is so
widespread today that it can be seen as a component of the new ideology of modern capitalism as
well as a pervasive element of social life.
They suggest that a myth is created of good fortune to be gained from project-based work.
The language of project-based management seems laden with connotations: surpassing of oneself,
challenge, initiative, personal achievement, professional development.
Employees working on projects become actors suggesting a form of autonomy that they are
supposed to enjoy.
They conclude that forms of distress emerge for which no responsibility is really taken.
They paint a rather disturbing and dramatic picture using a quotation from a French national
newspaper: The nature of work has changed; it has become more fluid, flexible and reactive and, for
many employees, certainly more interesting. However, the changes have also given rise to a new
phenomenon: pressure. Various indicators show that work intensification and the resulting pressure
are having a dangerously damaging effect on working conditions, with worrying increases in
absenteeism, mental-illness, occupational diseases, workplace accidents, even suicide and, to a
different extent, alcoholism and drug addiction in the workplace (Askenazy, P., 2005, Le Monde,
31/12/2005, France). Personally I would want to contest this statement – I have not seen much of
this myself in my workplace – but perhaps I am naive and not fully experienced in the challenges of
project management in a “full-on” commercial setting. However, they do set a disturbing set of
features of project management activity that do need to be addressed: the employee is at risk!
Employee Risk Management
3 categories are used to subdivide and deal in detail with employees “at risk” workplace practices:
1
Individual risks from excessive commitment and involvement.
They use the example of an employee seconded on a part time a week basis to a project in the same
company - he had felt obliged to join the project team – it was seen as a “feather in his cap” (a
career step-up move) – but the exposure from being in the “company limelight” had a detrimental
effect: The pressure I had been subjecting myself to, plus the pressure from my department had been
putting on me for so many long months, as well as the pressure from the project manager and then
form the team members, it was all too much: I was exhausted, drained, completely lacking
motivation. At first, the project environment had been an attractive work place situation: Knowing
your opinion is being sought, that your needed, frankly it’s gratifying, and the project manager took
advantage of that in order to push me into always working just that little bit harder. On the plus
side, there was excitement in the project and good working relationships had been forged with the
rest of the project team (much better than in his normal workplace).
Motivational dynamics are naturally present in project activity: A locus for high levels of commitment
because of their intrinsic characteristics: they present a time-limited challenge that stirs individuals
into action, giving them clear objectives to be fulfilled through team work and marking a break from
daily routine.
They therefore conclude that involvement is generated from:
36
 intellectually – ideas contribute directly into the team;
 socially – you are a part of a team;
 emotionally – the energy you deploy creates an attachment to the project and the team.
(it would seem there is no escape?)
They suggest that you can sub-divide these personal issues as:
No alternative: The “team ethic” drives you on to doing things you would not normally consider –
long hours, hugely increased effort to meet deadlines, for example.
Professional Risks: Social pressure and the intimacy often found within project team can lead to
members being challenged about their ability to “do the job”. You are often forced to commit
yourself without being certain you can do keep your promises.
Suffering psycho-affective disorders: Pressure does not suit everyone - projects can generate
performance anxiety and increase in competitive spirit - consequences being stress, burnout and
lead to unattractive ways to “take off the pressure”.
2
Destabilising of professional identity
In a project team gathered together from many professional disciplines (and therefore different
levels of expertise), the views of specialists may be watered down: technically we were well below
what we were capable of. The position of the “expert” in the project team can be compromised by
the other team members not being on their “wave length” and having to have their work diluted in
the project can lead to stress. Traditional professional identity can be over-ridded by the affiliation
with the project and the project team – whilst may seem a strong point – the dependency of
working within interdependent and multi-skilled work teams can sometimes compromise
professional identity.
3
Precariousness of professional careers
Attachment to project work could compromise career development – the “temporariness” of the
project always meaning that project team members are always having to “move on” and look for the
next project – often in competition with fellow team members from the same project. Personal
ability may also be tied into the success or otherwise of the project - a successful project suggesting
that you have done well, a bad project suggesting that you were to partly to blame! Balancing
career development and project opportunities can also be a nightmare for some!
Conclusions:
1
Feelings of isolation for the individual
2
Loss of collective capability
and, finally, a question 3
Is project-based work a tool for individual collective and organisational development (and
success) or a new form of exploitation and domination?
37
Paper 2: The Project Involvement Index, psychological distress, and psychological well-being:
Comparing workers from projectised and non-projectised organisations by (Chiocchio et al., 2010).
Many organisations are using projectisation of their production units to increase efficiency and
competitiveness (even if their natural work habitat does not facilitate project-driven work units).
This paper views project worker activity from the (negative) perspective of worker inefficiency exists
(with the consequence of reduced productivity) if poor health conditions are evident.
Job demands from work overload, time pressures, etc. can lead to fatigue and ultimately to stress.
In particular, project overload, disruption to progress, inefficiency caused by competing
commitments in multi-project situations result in a psychological stress response
High demand, low control
High production complexity; low levels of routine operations
Even if projects are characterised by uncertainty and variable expectations – highly efficient project
organisations will strive for standard procedures across projects: they will also seek to sustain
continuous learning through knowledge management between projects.
Where projects are the “business”, organisational structure will be tailored to manage uncertainty.
Duplication of effort, variable workloads, complex decision making processes, multiple
communication channels require employees to have project specific training and competencies.
Findings
Irrespective of job category, employees involved in non-project based organisations who are also
involved in projects show higher levels of distress and lower levels of well-being than employees
involved in projects that come from project based organisations.
Project work, despite its challenges, is perceived to be more rewarding than routine based work.
Healthy organisations provide clarity of goal, opportunities for growth, pride in group task
completion, and organisational cohesiveness.
Organising tasks into projects with clear deadlines, multi-disciplinary challenges, intense teamwork
and high worker cohesion, foster attributes which will positively affect mental health.
Paper 3: Profiling work motivation of project workers by Dwivedula & Bredillet (2010).
These authors set out to understand the constructs of work motivation in project-based
organisations and to make comparisons to traditional organisations to find out what is “special” with
regard to motivation factors that might exist within project-based organisations.
Motivational attributes (using a range of existing research material) that can be found within the
project management environment, they suggest are:

Challenging nature of work

Feedback on performance, enjoyable nature of work

Task identity, task significance, and job autonomy
38

Shared identity, need for relatedness, cohesiveness, and communication
Model of work motivation for project organisations - contributing factors
Their main conclusions are summarised into a 5-dimensions model:
1
Employee development
job advancement
variety of knowledge
participative decision making
high level of knowledge
development of competencies
sense of achievement
2
Work climate
variety of tasks
social interaction
feedback from work
significant job
communication flow
3
Perceived equity
adequate pay
adequate recognition
freedom at work
feedback from colleagues
4
Work Objectivity
complete piece of work
clarity of goals
5
Job Security
job security
Traditional organisations are characterised by vertical structures for flow of authority and
communication; there is little customer focus.
Projects are temporary structures engaged in the creation of temporary products or services: they
require cross-functional skills for successful completion; they are characterised by performance
constraints and environmental uncertainties.
Traditional organisations appear to have a dominant job characteristics theoretical model with skill
variety, task identity, task significance, training and feedback incorporated via formal techniques.
They use the example of the construction industry whereby large organisations are becoming
increasingly flat – achieving greater client focus with multi-function teams that are adequately
empowered – is the key to success.
39
Further observations
1
Employee development: worker empowerment is more easily achieved within project
environments because of the nature of the work – a great deal of flexibility, creativity and
intellectual analysis is needed; ambiguous standards with uncertainty of outcomes combined with
often established and shared methods of working in the project tea – all mitigate against
management control from outside of the project team.
2
Work climate: if project team members have a common objective to attain, have sufficient
task interdependence, and when they are able to constantly interact with each other, a positive
work place climate is achieved.
Perceived equity: combines financial and non-financial rewards, grounded in the theory that an
employee is motivated if effort is matched by reward. In particular, professionals are considered to
value a sense of responsibility and can be expressed through a desire for freedom at work. Nonfinancial reward such as recognition and feedback are considered important whilst financial reward
based on performance is seen as another form of feedback.
3
Perceived equity: constituents include financial and non-financial rewards. Belonging to the
area of Equity Theory” which argues that motivation occurs when there is a direct link between
effort and reward (the challenge, in my opinion, is to articulate “reward” – what is meant by
reward?).
4
Work Objectivity: specificity of project objectives with measurable accountability increases
motivation.
5
Job Security: this is a recently emerging factor as the consequences of the current financial
“tsunami” bite. The significance of organisations needed to reduce staff numbers, having a secured
job is considered to be a significant motivator to employees.
The final conclusion of this paper suggests that the concept of worker motivation may not be all that
different between traditional and project based operations; the key difference being – that the
source of work motivation may be different.
The multidimensional nature of work motivation reveals that initiatives directed towards

empowering the employee;

providing a motivating work environment;

challenging and interesting nature of work;

formal and informal communication; and

job security
significantly explain work motivation in a project context.
40
4.4 TASK 1: Compare and Contrast these 3 Papers
1.
Look for common issues
2.
Look for differences in opinion
3.
Is there a common message arising from these 3 Papers?
4.4.1 General Discussion
1
What are the unique motivation dynamics generated from project management activity?
2
What are the problems associated with project management activity with regard to
employee well-being?
3
How would you maintain full employee effectiveness within project management workplace
situations.
41
5 Management & Leadership 1
5.1 Management Styles
At a basic level this can be the difference (and all points along the continuum scale) between Cooperation -v- Coercion scale.

Co-operation is based on education, engaging interest – the humanistic movement.

Coercion is based on function / authority techniques that try to force someone to do
something – follows Taylorism principles.
A style that is confrontational and it is
suggested that this is only successful in the short term.
Management style may vary according to the

situation;

organisation;

the people;

the manager.
Performance and motivation (and satisfaction) of groups / teams may be affected by the type of
leadership adopted in a work situation.
3 styles of leadership normally recognised in mainstream management literature 
authoritarian;

democratic; and

laissez-faire.
5.1.1 Authoritarian (or autocratic style)
 all policies determined solely by the leader.
 all authority centred on one person - the leader.
 leader dictates task, role and mode of work.
 obedience secured through reward system.
 quick decisions produced.
 morale and ownership of decisions may be impaired.
5.1.2 Democratic
 all policies determined by group / team discussion and decision.
42
 wishes and suggestions of team members are incorporated.
 alternatives proposed with choice / decision made on way
forward.
 objective praise and criticism from leader.
 increased morale, quality of decisions, ownership of decision.
 slower decisions.
 dilution of best solutions with compromises sometimes made.
 muddiness with responsibility for decision accountability.
5.1.3 Laissez-faire
 minimum of leader involvement.
 goals set and individuals left to make own decisions to reach
targets.
 leader does not attempt to appraise or regulate.
 allows team / group members to fulfil individual development.
 team / group may lack control, direction and cohesion.
 inefficiency and chaos may result.
5.2 Communication systems
Styles of management / leadership may relate to communication systems in useautocratic -
orders issued to subordinates.
democratic -
interchange of ideas allowed.
laissez-faire -
information only supplied on request.
A useful way of seeking understanding of how a particular work place is managed is to look
at and track the communication systems in operation in that work place. This is a good lead
or indicator of what style of management is in place.
5.3 Leadership and Management
Leadership, management, power and authority are all closely related terms and sometimes
are difficult to separate and understand individually.
Some language to investigate first -
43
5.3.1 Leadership.
“A leader is someone who exercises influence over others.
In a group, it is the performance of those acts which help the group achieve its
preferred outcomes” (Cartwright & Zander, 1968, pp. 304)
A more romantic working definition is that provided by Bryman et al. (2011).
“.... the creation of a vision about a desired future state which seeks to enmesh all
members of an organisation in its net” (pp. 6).
Successful leadership must be seen in its context, argues Bryman, and that one successful
style of leadership in one context might be unsuccessful in another. Bryman also suggests
that there is a direct correlation between personality characteristics and leadership success.
Successful organisational performance may depend on A leader who is dynamic and inspirational;
or,
it may not need a leader, some organisations may be so routine task
orientated that they do not need leaders.
5.3.1.1 Collective leadership
Collective leadership - A famous study looked at a street gang (Thrasher, 1927.) in
Chicago.
Dimensions of natural leadership and sharing of leadership roles were
analysed where the supplementary strength of others were integrated into task completion
roles.
In other words, the leader changed according to specific ability (and common
recognition of that ability).
5.3.2 Management
According to Stewart (1999, pp. 74) management “... is to do with deciding what should be
done and then getting other people to do it.”
The functions of management include  establishing overall purpose and policy.
 forecasting and planning for the future.
 organising work, allocating duties and responsibilities.
 giving instructions or orders.
44
 control - checking that performance is according to plan.
 co-ordinating the work of others.
Leadership functions may be considered as  Initiating - keeping the group action moving.
 Regulating - influencing the direction and the tempo of the group’s work.
 Informing - bringing information or opinion to the group.
 Supporting - creating an emotional climate which holds the group together.
 Evaluating - helping the group evaluate its’ decisions or procedures.
plus - you might like to add such tasks as being a scapegoat; being a parental figure;
making decisions on behalf of others, etc.
5.4 TASK 1: Develop your Own Leadership Theory
Your own personal choice – someone you admire – your “hero” as a leader – what traits /
characteristics do they demonstrate.
LIST
Random
In Order of Importance
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
45
NOW - develop you own theory of leadership –
What should leaders be expected to be able to do?
Summary:
What is your “take home” message?
5.5 Leadership Style Matched to Project Type: an example of current
thinking!
A précis of Müller & Turner (2007) argues that leadership style has an impact on project success,
that certain leadership styles are more able to achieve a successful outcome. They use the 3
dimensions of intellectual, emotional and managerial competence to assess project managers
leadership styles.
Their hypothesis being:
1. The project manager’s leadership style influences project success.
2. Different leadership styles are appropriate for different project types.
5.6 Some Leadership Definitions from famous people
Leadership is an elusive quality that can be hard to define. Here are a few people who have tried…
(which one suits you?)
"A leader is a dealer in hope." Napoleon Bonaparte, French soldier, statesman, revolutionary (17691821)
"A leader is best when people barely know that he exists, not so good when people obey and
acclaim him, worst when they despise him. 'Fail to honour people' they fail to honour you.' But of a
good leader, who talks little, when his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will all say, 'We did this
ourselves.'" Lao Tzu, Chinese founder of Taoism, author (6th Century BC)
"A leader shapes and shares a vision which gives point to the work of others." Charles Handy
(1992)
"A leader takes people where they want to go. A great leader takes people where they don't
necessarily want to go, but ought to be." Rosalynn Carter, US First Lady (b.1927)
46
"As we look ahead into the next century, leaders will be those who empower others." Bill Gates
"Be willing to make decisions. That's the most important quality in a good leader." General George
S. Patton Jr.
"Leadership and learning are indispensable to each other." John F. Kennedy
"Leadership is a combination of strategy and character. If you must be without one, be without the
strategy." Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf
"People ask the difference between a leader and a boss. . . . The leader works in the open, and the
boss in covert. The leader leads, and the boss drives." Theodore Roosevelt
"You manage things, you lead people." Admiral Grace Murray Hooper, US naval officer (1906-1992)
“Leadership: the art of getting someone else to do something you want done because he wants to
do it.” Dwight D Eisenhower (1890 - 1969) US Statesman.
"Leadership: The capacity and will to rally people to a common purpose together with the
character that inspires confidence and trust" Field Marshal Montgomery
My own personal favourite:
"Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success; leadership determines whether the
ladder is leaning against the right wall." Stephen R. Covey
(apologies for the lack of political correctness in some of them – they are a bit dated!)
47
6 Management & Leadership 2
6.1 Leadership: Seeking a new leadership style
6.1.1 Considered to be the old style

Leadership was seen as a trait few had and few could develop;

you had it or you didn’t;

if you had it, you didn’t share it;

you told people what to do and how to do it;

you operate a strict chain of command and control;

you guarded knowledge and information; and

you watched your back for the knives.
6.1.2 Considered to be the new style
 Managers as leaders 
a movement from autocracy to trusteeship.

the concept of management is being replaced by that of leadership: give up the compulsory
control; gain influence, voluntary co-operation, trust, respect, commitment.

management is not so much about scientific, determinist, mechanistic techniques and
explanations - much more about building knowledge, people, teams, organisations that work
well together, achieve their purpose, and provide fulfilment for those involved.

new leaders “assemble and maintain human organisations in sustainable organisational forms”:
this takes the orchestration, nurturing; political and inter-personal skills and moral insight; all
those previously derided soft skills turn out to be valuable management and leadership tools.

team approach is used from shop floor to top management: everyone, no matter how
inexperienced, should be treated with basic human respect as part of a team.

not just about the changing nature and demystification of leadership: leadership itself, is being
devolved / dispersed to more people.

instead of looking for one super-manager, virtually everyone in the organisation needs these
qualities.
A Key to New Leadership is giving and receiving feedback and seeking improvement (and being
seen to be doing so).
48
6.2 Behaviour of Leaders - 2 distinct categories
The Ohio State University studies of 1940 (which have become seminary source data) attempted to
make sense of the complex and diverse nature of leadership with the creation of two distinct
categories.
It is considered that this traditionally perceived category still exists between
employee centred leadership.
(democratic)
and
job centred leadership.
(autocratic)
Not either end of a spectrum of behaviour; both styles are independent of each other; some argue
that a democratic style within a task orientated culture (you have to get the job done) but also
with a style that maintains group relations is the most effective style.
Again, the challenge in your work place is to adopt a management style that gets the best out of
your work force, not just in the short term, but also in the long term to maintain organisation
efficiency and effectiveness.
6.3 Needs Orientated and Task Dominated Work Place Cultures
Huczynski and Buchan (2007)also examines the difference between needs orientation and task
dominated work place cultures as –
6.3.1 Relationship Behaviour: needs and relationship orientated
A socially sensitive model: The leader is interested in and listens to subordinates, allows participation
in decision making, is friendly and approachable, helps subordinates with personal problems and is
prepared to support them if necessary.
The leader’s behaviour indicates genuine trust, respect, warmth and rapport. This enhances
subordinates’ feelings of self-esteem and encourages the development of communications and
relationships in a work group.
6.3.2 Task behaviour: Initiating Structure
A task orientated model: The leader plans ahead, decides how things are going to get done, assigns
tasks to subordinates, makes expectations clear, emphasises deadlines and achievement, and
expects subordinates to follow instructions closely. The leader’s behaviour stresses production and
the achievement of organisational goals. This type of behaviour can stimulate enthusiasm to achieve
objectives as well as encouraging and helping subordinates to get the work done.
This approach recognises that a task-orientated approach can have a positive motivating dimension
with the emphasis on production.
49
6.3.2.1 Fruit for thought
My own thoughts set in the context of the Construction Industry (which I belong to) is that with tried
and tested models of work, with the production process of the project already identified, the taskorientated approach may be the predominant approach. The focus “vehicle” is the task – completed
to time, cost, quality, etc. But, to me, the wise manager / leader will also encourage and practice
needs relationship management techniques to get the best out of their work force.
However, for new ways of doing business (new partnering relationships, new resourcing challenges,
any degree of innovation) the industry must move into relationship behaviour and actively
encourage participation.
The balance is always between these two approaches – when to use / not use either approach?
6.4 REVIEWING DIFFERENT POPULAR THEORETICAL MODELS
6.5 Action Centred Model
Team
individual
task
Figure 1: Adair’s “circles” of engagement
50
The degree and orientation of circle overlap will demonstrate or illustrate the way task, group and
individual needs interrelate. If the area of overlap is concentrated heavily towards “group” – then
the work place activity may be at the detriment of the task and the individual. The needs of the
“group”, possibly preventing the task being completed and the development of an individual. The
same discussion can be looked at with an over-emphasis on the “task” (short termism production
strategies being the danger) or with an over-emphasis on the individual (and the dangers of
“collectiveness” being ignored – everyone going off in their own direction and not holding to the
discipline of collective action) (Adair, 1973).
The intention behind this 3-circle model of an ACTION CENTRED LEADER being that the leader must:

Direct the job to be done – task structuring;

Support and review the individual people involved in doing it;

Co-ordinate and foster the work team as a whole
My own personal thoughts: this is more of a model than a theory – simplistic in format – and
perhaps un-realistic in practice in its full and purest form. But in its simplicity, it graphically
illustrates how long term success in any work place situation requires the 3 dimensions of TASK,
GROUP (or team) DEVELOPMENT, and INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT to be considered – the model
suggests – in equal proportions – in my view, this is unrealistic. But equally, if one “circle” becomes
(extremely?) over-dominant, then the long-term success of the work place is seriously at risk.
A more detailed breakdown challenge for the leader is as follows (Bolden et al., 2003):
6.5.1.1 Task






define the task
make the plan
allocate work and resources
control quality and rate of work
check performance against plan
adjust the plan
6.5.1.2 Team






maintain discipline
build team spirit
encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose
appoint sub-leaders
ensure communication within the team
develop the group
6.5.1.3 Individual





attend to personal problems
praise individuals
give status
recognise and use individual abilities
develop the individual
51
6.5.2 Review a work place situation using Adair’s
Action Centred Leadership model (it might be useful to use a Likert scale and see how the circles
develop; it might be also be useful and illuminating to review this approach over the life-cycle of a
project – and see if there is anything to learn from this more detailed investigation).
1. Which are the dominant circles?
2. For long term success in the work place – How should the circles interrelate?
Task
 define the task
 make the plan
 allocate work and resources
 control quality and rate of work
 check performance against plan
 adjust the plan
Team
 maintain discipline
 build team spirit
 encourage, motivate, give a sense of purpose
 appoint sub-leaders
 ensure communication within the team
 develop the group
Individual
 attend to personal problems
 praise individuals
 give status
 recognise and use individual abilities
 develop the individual
52
Measuring the Performance of a Leader
based on Adair's Action Centred Approach
excellent
scale
score as
5
non-existent
4
3
2
1
Task
define the task
1
make the plan
2
allocate work and resources
3
control quality and rate of
work
4
check performance against
plan
5
adjust the plan
6
TOTAL average (÷ 6)
Team
maintain discipline
1
build team spirit
2
encourage, motivate, give a
sense of purpose
3
appoint sub-leaders
4
ensure communication
within the team
5
develop the group
6
TOTAL average (÷ 6)
Individual
attend to personal problems
1
praise individuals
2
give status
3
53
recognise and use individual
abilities
4
develop the individual
5
TOTAL average (÷ 5)
By using this simple scoring system, you can build up your picture of the size of each “circle”; the
degree of “overlap” will be your estimation of how each circle is in “balance” with each other.
6.6 Managerial Grid
High
Blake & Mouton (1964) collected evidence from a wide range of companies belonging to developed
countries. Main findings suggest that to improve performance, planning and communication had to
excel. The 9 by 9 approach was used to locate a managers “managerial style” within the two critical
dimensions of a concern for production and a concern for people.
9
1,9
9,9
Country Club Management
Team Management
thoughtful attention to the needs of people
work accomplishment is from committed people;
for satisfying relationships leads to a
interdependence through a "common stake" in
comfortable and friendly organisation
organisation purpose leads to relationships of trust
atmosphere and work tempo
and support
Middle of the Road Management
5,5
Concern for People
5
adequate organisation performance is possible
through balancing the necessity to get out work while
Low
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level
1
exertion of minimum effort to get required
efficiency in operations results from arranging
work done is appropriate to sustain
conditions of work in such a way that managers
organisational membership
interfere to a minimum degree
Impoverished Management
Authority-Compliance Management
1,1
1
9,1
5
low
9
high
Concern for Production
Figure 2: The Blake and Mouton LEADERSHIP GRID
54
6.7 Contingency Theory
Fielder’s (1967) research was based on highly focussed teams and worker groups. It is argued that
an LPC score can help you better understand your own position and relationship with regards to
your own work colleagues. Easiest way to complete this score is to think of someone you have
problems working with.
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) score:
Rate this person on the following scale:
Pleasant
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
unpleasant
Friendly
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
unfriendly
Rejecting
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
accepting
Tense
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
relaxed
Distant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
close
Cold
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
warm
Supportive
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
hostile
Boring
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
interesting
Quarrelsome
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
harmonious
Gloomy
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
cheerful
Open
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
guarded
Backbiting
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
loyal
Untrustworthy 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
trustworthy
Considerate
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
inconsiderate
Nasty
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
nice
Agreeable
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
disagreeable
Insincere
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
sincere
Kind
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
unkind
55
Scores: Your score tries to interpret your own relationship with that person and subsequently your
own leadership style.
57 or less (low LPC) suggests that you are a Task-orientated person
64 or higher (high LPC) suggest that you are a Relationship-orientated person.
Summary Position:
Low LPC Leader
High LPC Leader
Task completion gives self-esteem
interpersonal relationships provides self-esteem
Task first
people first
Hard with those who fail
loyalty a key issue.
Likes detail (no trust?)
bored with detail (trust established?)
Summarise your own position with regards to this theory – where do you stand?
For myself, I would want to hold task completion as a major indicator of successful performance YET,
still hold on to the relationship / people first / loyalty / trust relationship dynamics – a very difficult
balancing act! The challenge being – how would you achieve this in practice?
6.8 A Power Base for Leaders
Likert (1961) summarised the Ohio differences with illustrative quotations from front line
supervisors as ... this interest in people approach is all right but it’s a luxury. I’ve got to keep
pressure on production, when I get production up, then I can afford to take time to show an
interest in my employees...to... we accomplish high production by letting people do the job the
way they want (as long as they accomplish the task) ...
6.8.1 Likert sub-divides a leaders power base into 4 categories
exploitative autocratic -
benevolent authoritative -
participate -
democratic -
no confidence or trust in work force.
imposes decisions.
motivates by threat.
little communication.
condescending superficial trust and confidence.
never delegates, imposes decisions.
motivates by reward.
paternalistic.
has some trust and confidence in employees.
listens but still controls decisions.
motivates by reward and involvement.
uses ideas generated by others.
has complete confidence and trust in employees.
allows employees to make decisions.
56
motivates by participate goal setting.
shares ideas and opinions.
Again – by looking at the practice indicators – allows you to make a judgement of the type of
leadership model being practiced.
7 Management & Leadership: Situational Leadership
Hersey & Blanchard (1988) argue (effectively, in my opinion,) for qualities of leadership that take
into account the situation;

leaders must adapt their style to the situation;
which suggests,

that they must be able to diagnose the situation.
They base this theory on the twin axis of
relationship behaviour
and
task behaviour.
With a varying leader behaviour of
and
Delegating
(task dimensions)
Participating
(relationship dimensions)
Selling
(relationship dimensions)
Telling.
(task dimensions)
(But again, be careful – Bryman (2011) suggests that this model is inadequate. For a detailed
argument challenging the robustness and pragmatic utility of this theory – read Graeff (1997)).
Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of Task Behaviour and
Relationship Behaviour that the leader provides to their followers. They categorized all leadership
styles into four behaviour types, which they named S1 to S4:
7.1 Leadership Behaviour Types
S1: Telling - is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines the roles of the
individual or group and provides the what, how, why, when, and where to do the task – they tell!
S2: Selling - while the leader is still providing the direction, they are now using two-way
communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the individual or group
being influenced to buy into the process.
S3: Participating - this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task is accomplished
and the leader is providing less task behaviours while maintaining high relationship behaviour.
57
S4: Delegating - the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and responsibility has
been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved (only) to monitor progress.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time. Effective leaders need
to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the situation.
7.2 Follower Readiness Levels
The right leadership style will depend on the person or group being led - the follower. The HerseyBlanchard Situational Leadership Theory identified four levels of Follower Readiness R1 through R4:
R1 - They generally lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and are unable and unwilling
to do or to take responsibility for this job or task.
R2 - They are still unable to take on responsibility for the task being done; however, they are willing
to work at the task.
R3 - They are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to take on responsibility.
R4 - They are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to do it well. They are
able and willing to not only do the task, but to take responsibility for the task.
Readiness Levels are also task specific. A person might be generally skilled, confident and motivated
in their job, but would still have a readiness level R2 when asked to perform a task requiring skills
they don't possess.
7.3 Competence and Commitment
A further development links competence and commitment (i.e., motivation) as
1
High competence and high commitment
2
Moderate to high competence and variable commitment
3
Some to low competence and low commitment
4
Low competence and high commitment
The challenge for the project manager being – to understand the “position” of their workforce and
to manage accordingly.
7.4 TASK 1:
Looking at Leadership Style
Based on Situational Leadership principles: Carry out this exercise with a colleague from your own
workplace with each one of you taking the role of either supervisor or subordinate.
Introduction: When would you use a particular leadership style?
This is assuming you are flexible and sensitive enough to a situation and can adapt your personal
leadership style to match a situation. These thoughts are based on the Hersey / Blanchard model of
leadership which suggests that the most effective style of leadership takes into account the amount
58
of support and direction giving is needed based on the readiness of followers (i.e., workers) to
perform a particular task.
The four leadership styles identified by Hersey / Blanchard are –

Telling: in which the leader gives direct instructions and supervises performance closely.

Selling: in which the leader takes care to explain decisions and gives subordinates an
opportunity to check their understanding.

Participating: in which the leader shares ideas and involves subordinates in decision
making.

Delegating: in which the leader gives responsibility for decision making and implementation
to subordinates.
The over-arching principle in this theory, is that you adapt your leadership style to fit the context,
to fit the situation.

I could argue, that this approach is too flexible, that the situation dictates too much, that the
situation needs to be adjusted to fit the needs of the organisation or the business you are
about.

What do you think?
59
7.4.1 The Situations / Tasks: Seeing the problem from both sides!
Situation 1: The Office Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Pat Lowry, the office supervisor. One of your administrators,
Bill Taylor, seems to spend a lot of time on the job socialising, talking with others and regularly
coming back late from lunch. As a result, a lot of the clerical work does not get done on time, and
you can see the work of others being disrupted. You have asked Bill to come and see you because
you want to see what can be done about this.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt:
telling, selling, participating or delegating?
 Decided upon your style:
Your style is -
______________________________
then 
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer 
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer 
what responses you would expect to get,
answer 
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate: You are Bill Taylor, an administrator in the general office. Your job
is pretty mundane and routine, and you do not see it as much of a challenge. Nevertheless, you
enjoy the job. The people you work with are nice, and you enjoy talking to them as you go around to
collect the mail and other paperwork. Sometimes you all go out to the pub for lunch, and
sometimes you are late in getting back. Your boss, Pat Lowry, has asked you to come for a talk
today. You are not sure what it is all about, but you suspect that it might have something to do with
these long lunches. You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from
you? answer -
60
Situation 2: The Sales Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Chris Peacock, the manager of the sales department. One of
your staff, Peter Albrow, has started coming to work late over this last couple of months. He can
arrive anything between 10 and 30 minutes late each day. This is annoying other people on the
staff, as well as yourself, and you have asked him to come and see you about it so that you can
persuade him to come in on time.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt:
telling, selling, participating or delegating?
 Decided upon your style:
Your style is ______________________________
then 
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer 
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer 
what responses you would expect to get,
answer 
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate.
You are Peter Albrow, and you have worked in the sales department for some time. You have
recently moved to a new apartment, which is further away from the office. If you miss the bus /
train connection, which has a reputation for being unreliable, you can be late for work. This has
happened a few times recently. Your boss, Chris Peacock, has asked to see you today. You are not
sure what it is about, but you suspect that it might be about your timekeeping.
You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from
you? answer -
61
Situation 3: The Computer Worker
Side 1: You are the Superior. You are Les Johnson, head of the computing department. Peter Long,
one of your subordinates, has special computing skills and is at present deeply involved in a major
project. Something urgent has come up, and an exciting software development programme for a
major customer, and you have asked him to come and see you, to give him this extra work on top of
his existing work load which cannot be passed on to anybody else.
How are you going to handle the conversation? In particular, what style are you going to adopt:
telling, selling, participating or delegating?
 Decided upon your style:
Your style is -
______________________________
then 
decide how you are going to open the conversation,
answer 
how you are going to progress with it, what questions you might ask and in what sequence,
answer 
what responses you would expect to get,
answer 
and how you hope to end the conversation.
answer There is a knock on the door and your subordinate comes in.
Side 2: You are the Subordinate. You are Peter Long and you work in the computing department.
At present, you are up to your eyes in a major programming project, which is interesting and
requires skills that nobody else in the department has. Your boss, Les Johnson, has set up a meeting
with you today. You are not sure what this meeting is about, but you think it might mean more
(unwelcome) work for you.
You knock on the door and enter.
What style of leadership would you expect to get the most positive and constructive response from
you? answer -
Now, compare notes!
62
8 Project Governance
8.1 Evaluation of alternative approaches of the effective Management
of Projects
A few opening statements upon Project Governance is:
“...a set of management systems, rules, protocols, relationships and structures that provide a
framework within which decisions can be reached for project development and implementation”
(Bekker & Steyn, 2008).
“...concerned with creating the conditions for ordered rule and collective action...” (Stoker, 1998).
“...synonymous with good and transparent management of firms and institutions”(Müller, 2009).
Müller (2009) suggests that: “Contemporary governance is grounded in Foucault’s (1926-1984)
philosophy of Neo-liberalism, in which individuals are not directly “steered” by their supervisors but
through subtle forces in the society (or company, or organisation) in which they live (or work for)...
develop a strategy for creating a domain whereby individuals are responsible and engage in “selfcare”.”
Project underperformance can arise from:

The cross-functional, and cross company management of many projects can provide a fertile
ground for project failure.

Poor performance of projects can often be attributed to lack of information management,
project monitoring and control.

A lack of transparency and proper financial control of organisations has often led to
corporate failure and scandal.
PMBOK (2000) suggests that the concept of Project Control as a mechanism remains mainly within
the confines of Planning and Execution of the Project: that is belonging to the internal environment
of the project (the full internal environment being the four process phases of Initiate, Plan, Execute
and Close).
Project Governance, it is suggested, takes cognisance to the External Environment (factors,
pressures and influences) that provide the context in which the project is activated and realised.
8.2 Management of People
To be done successfully requires you to resolve two sets of objectives:

those of the organisation

and those of the people involved in it.
63
Problems will occur when these two separate objectives are in conflict which will need to be
resolved by good management.
8.2.1 Bureaucracy and Roles: Organisational Structural Influences on
Behaviour
Tall / flat structural differences in organisation may effect individual and corporate motivation
with thoughts of 
motivation may be helped or hindered by organisational structure.

the organisational structure can influence behaviour.
Bureaucracy
has tended to dominate large, modern organisational structures.
stresses the definition of roles and their relationships.
Hierarchy
refers to the number of levels to be found in a particular organisation.
Organisations
may be defined as goal-orientated systems seeking effectiveness and
efficiency.
Organisational structure may be summarised, though, from two different viewpoints 1. structure is a means for attaining the objectives and goals of an organisation.
2. structure is the extent to which, and the ways in which organisational members are
constrained and controlled by the organisation and the distribution of activities and
responsibilities and the organisational procedures and regulations.
People behaviour and attitudes to work is often influenced by the structure of the organisation they
belong to. Constraints and demands of the job can dictate behaviour. It is therefore impossible to
explain the behaviour of people in organisations solely in terms of individual or group characteristics
or motivation.
That is,
work methods used,
types of communication systems used,
performance judgement methods,
can all influence / dictate behaviour.
64
A simple comparison between Tall and Flat Structures:
Fill in the missing spaces with help / hinder statements Organisational form
Motivation
tall
help.
hinder.
flat
help.
hinder.
8.3 TASK 1:
Designing Organisational Structure
Should organisational structure be based on function or product? (The debate between role
versatility –v- functionalism specialism) adapted from Huczynski and Buchanan (2007).
Your company makes a biro pen. This involves 3 operations:
Operation T
making the plastic tube.
Operation C
making the plastic cap.
Operation I
making the ink-holder.
Each biro requires a tube, a cap and an ink holder. The different machinery making these items
varies in age and is replaced on a regular cycle. The manufacturing team consists of a plant
manager, 3 supervisors, and nine operatives. Under these circumstances, this business could be
departmentalised by function or by product.
8.3.1 Function-based structure
Organised as 3 functional departments, each department could produce 3 units of production per
day.
Manager
Supervisor
Supervisor
Supervisor
1
2
3
TTT
CCC
III
Operators
Operators
Operators
65
8.3.2 Product-based structure
Organised into 3 separate but identical production departments. Each worker carries out each of
the 3 tasks.
Manager
Supervisor
Supervisor
Supervisor
1
2
3
T C I
T C I
T C I
Operators
Operators
Operators
Before looking at the questions over the sheet, based on your own instinct, which system do you
think will be the most productive for this product?
Now, answer the questions over the page.
66
8.3.3 Questions to be addressed
Answer
F = function
Give a reason
P = product
1. In which structure is the job of the supervisor likely to be more difficult?
2. In which structure will supervisors be most qualified to be promoted to plant manager level?
3. Which structure produces a greater division of labour for operatives?
4. In which structure is conflict between departments most likely to occur?
5. Which structure allows the better comparison of each supervisor’s performance?
6. Which structure produces operators who can be easily be promoted to supervisor level?
7. With which structure will the firm be most affected if one department shuts down through
equipment failure or a strike?
Conclusion – for this particular product, what is now your considered answer to the question, which is
likely to be the most productive organisational structure to use?

Give your reason -
What lessons can be learnt to translate into other organisational and production environments?
67
8.4 TASK 2: List and Compare the Advantages and Disadvantages of a
Function Based Organisation and a Product Based Organisation –
from the perspective of the employee.
Function Based
Advantage
1
2
3
4
5
Disadvantages
1
2
3
4
5
Product Based
Advantage
1
2
3
4
5
Disadvantages
1
2
3
4
5
Which system would you prefer and why?
8.5 TASK 3:
Groups
Leadership Style; Motivation and Organisational Work
CASE STUDY:
An Unmotivated Building Inspector.
Adapted from Buchanan and Huczynski (1997).
Nobody at Kirraton Council planning department knew what to do about Simon Lucas. Simon was a
building inspector. It was his job to approve proposals for small alterations to buildings (such as
extensions and loft conversions) which did not need formal planning permission, and to check that
the building work was consistent with the approved plans. The trouble was, he didn’t – at least, not
often and not quickly. There had been a number of complaints about delays in approval of plans
that were Simon’s responsibility. He did not seem to keep up with the frequent changes in building
regulations, which meant he sometimes made decisions that contradicted them. He only rarely
carried out site inspections. This meant that some of the less scrupulous builders got away with
unauthorised changes to plans, and others who genuinely wanted his advice did not get it.
However, it was difficult to pin Simon down. Council guidance was vague: plans should be dealt
with “within a few weeks”; site inspections conducted “as and when necessary”, and decisions made
“within the spirit”, not the letter of some of the less vital regulations.
Simon’s boss, Katherine Walker, decided that she would check his records and unobtrusively observe
him at work – it was an open plan office, so that this was feasible. She discovered that he was 26
years old, and had qualified as a building inspector two years earlier. Simon had been recruited by
68
Katherine’s predecessor, apparently partly because Simon had come up the “hard way”. Rather than
attending college full-time to obtain the necessary qualifications, he had worked for several years as
an architect’s draughtsman and attended college night classes. In fact, he had been on of the last
people to qualify in that way. The building inspectors’ professional institute had subsequently
decided that part-time study could not develop the necessary skills and knowledge for work as a
qualified building inspector. Katherine knew it was true that the part-time route was often seen as
“second class”. She heard it said that this had prevented Simon from getting a job in another area of
the country where he very much wanted to live. Few senior building inspectors held the view of
Katherine’s predecessor that Simon’s route into the profession was superior to full-time study.
Katherine observed that Simon often seemed not to be doing very much. He sat at his desk doodling
quite a lot. He sometimes had to phone people more than once because he had forgotten to check
something the first time. It took him a long time to find things on his shelves and desk. As far as she
could tell, his home life was not a particular problem. Simon was married, apparently happily, and
seemed to participate in many social and leisure activities judging from his lunchtime conversations,
not to mention his phone calls to squash clubs, campsites, etc., during work time!
Simon’s job was relatively secure. Ultimately he could be sacked if he demonstrated continuing
incompetence, but he had successfully completed his probationary period (Katherine wasn’t sure
how). Because Kirraton Council covered only a small area, and because Simon’s job was a specialist
one, he could not be moved to another town or department. Building inspectors’ pay depended on
age and length of service, with only slightly higher rates for those with a relevant college degree.
Outstanding performance could only be rewarded with promotion, and this was extremely unlikely
for anyone with less than ten years’ service.
The other four building inspectors were quite close-knit group of building sciences graduates who
had worked together for several years before Simon’s arrival. He had found it quite hard to establish
a relationship with them, and it now reflected badly on them all. They did not involve him much in
their activities, and nor did they appear to respect him. Katherine knew something had to be done,
but what, and how?
Your challenge is to motivate Simon. Ps – you are not allowed to sack Simon!
1. Leadership Approach – Relationship OR a Task Orientated Approach – what would you do?
2. Restructuring the Workplace – what work groups would you create to alleviate the problem?
69
8.6 Project Management: The Gathering Together of Individuals for a
Single Purpose.
Within the concept of Project Management, the gathering together of individuals with the aim of
making them a cohesive whole and ensuring the benefit of all stakeholders is a fundamental role of
most project managers. The organisation of people into ad-hoc groups takes advantage of bringing
together individuals from different specialisms (sometimes called management or functional
chimneys – language which suggests compartments that run vertically through the organisation with
career progression that is overt) as needed for the project task.
Conventional Management Hierarchy (or pyramid) has provided the basis on which the majority of
organisations are ordered. For the militaristic model, this can mean 11 or more layers in the chain of
command (foot soldier to the top ranking general).
Other structures will include organisation by

product group.

customer type.

geographical area.

function.
The Nature of Work Organisation is important, as it will

define responsibility and authority.

outline reporting arrangements.

determine overhead management costs.

set the structure behind the organisational culture.

determine one set of stakeholders in the project.
Within the Project Management environment – metaphorical walls or divisions may be created in
organisational terms between the project management team and the rest of the organisation
perhaps leading to isolationism / elitism? To try to overcome this protective / defensive structure,
lines of communication / responsibility are often added which require reporting lines out from the
project into other sectors of the organisation – seeking performance integration of the whole
organisation.
Pure Project Management Organisations will move an organisation away from functional chimneys
and may be the predominant structure in the construction industry?
The Project Team are formed for the particular project and then disbanded on completion – the
team is temporary and transitional.
70
8.7 TASK 4:
Discuss the advantages / disadvantages to an
Organisation of Pure Project Management Organisational
Structure philosophy.
Matrix Management has been introduced to achieve the benefits of project based organisational
structures without the disadvantages (Maylor, 2010).
The lightweight matrix: The PM acts as co-ordinator only of the work project with duties as
chairperson bringing together helpers / specialists as required. Considered the weakest form of
matrix structure with little commitment demonstrated by participants. Can be skewed off-course/
agenda by members being not of the right level (too high / too low in the management hierarchy).
The overlay model: A shared model between that of project management and line management
with the task of seeing each “project” as a contribution to the whole – the combined role of being a
line manager then influences (dictates?) and compromises behaviour within the project team. (is
this a bad thing, I ask?)
The heavyweight matrix: Also called the secondment model – with staff being brought into the
project team from their “normal” full time job. Can be useful for bringing in expertise and
experience – but can be difficult for participants to return to their original work habitat.
Success can be dependent upon 
training given to managers and team members.

support systems to individuals to sell the proposal to them (career, long term possibilities,
etc.)

the nature of the individual person – can they cope with new work place practices, future
uncertainties, etc
8.8 Selection of Structure
Remember – you are trying to achieve the best from the people you manage – but it has to be set in
context of the opportunities and constraints of the task, the current organisational structure and the
people you employ. Decisions of structure are always (as are all decisions?) set against and within a
context (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2008; Maylor, 2010).
71
8.8.1 Relating Project Structures to Project Objectives
The Functional Organisation:

Example of usage: minor change to an existing product.

Advantages: quality through depth of specialisation possible within existing functions, possible
to hide or lose project costs within existing budgets.

Disadvantages: Relatively slow as a process (difficult to impose importance / time constraints).

Issues for the project manager: integration of functions within the organisation.
Lightweight Project Organisation:

Example of usage: implementing change to an existing work organisation – eg. new IT system.

Advantages: quality maintained.

Disadvantages: some cost advantage due to additional co-ordination – but at expense of the
matrix.

Issues for the project manager: two bosses problem.
Heavyweight Project Organisation:

Example of usage: major innovation project.

Advantages: speed and quality (through improvement leaps) and use of relatively stable and
focussed organisation as a base.

Disadvantages: perhaps adverse reaction from existing line managers; additional direct coordination and administration costs.

Issues for the project manager: two bosses problem.
Project Organisation:

Example of usage: large scale construction projects.

Advantages: speed highest through dedicated, focussed resources; organisation design
dependent only on project strategy.

Disadvantages: can incur significant additional costs due to the relative expense of contractors;
quality may not improve over time; instability of staff.

Issues for the project manager: management of knowledge (ongoing transfer – the learning
organisation?).
72
Fruit for thought: The question to be asked, it seems to me, is – which of the project management
models will get the best out of your employees whilst still retaining the overall objectives of your
organisation?
Current thinking suggests that businesses today, seek to be responsive, flexible, nimble, and quick to
respond to customer needs and your competition from your competitors. In this sense, are any of
these organisational structures adequate?
Of course, if your answer is no – then you have to come up with a workable alternative to avoid a
Nick Gleeson type disaster. Peters (1992) comments that “matrices become hopelessly complicated
bureaucracies and gut the emotional energy and ownership of those closest to the marketplace.”
Examples of some of the problems that seem to exist:

Power struggle between insider / outsider managers (to the project) – seeking status; seeking
resources?

Anarchy – people perceive that as soon as you get something working, you change it (have a
look at the quotation at the bottom of this section, have a guess at when it was written.)

Groupitis – (a made up word) – decision making is removed from the individual who will not
take a decision without group approval.

Overheads that are imposed can be costly.

Decision-strangulation – so much time is spent trying to get consensus that any individual flair is
stifled and the group becomes a barrier to any rapid progress.
What do you think?
8.9 TASK 5:
Reflect on your own organisation
Look at a range project tasks (small - large) (or an adopted organisation for this process of study).

Identify and describe the project management structure.

Review the performance of the project organisation:

Was the task completion successful?

Was it helped or hindered by the structure of the organisation?

Were the people involved fully utilised within the project organisation?

With the benefit of hindsight (the only perfect science?), how would you organise the
project structure to employ your project participants more productively?
73
8.10 Further Study: Structures to Facilitate the Empowered
Organisation
Previously, I have looked at a fairly basic, simple set of continuum with simple comparisons;
Clutterbuck & Kernaghan (1995; McCabe, 1998) looks at a range of radical (perhaps even,
sophisticated) structures that may facilitate empowered organisations.
Bull’s-eye:
Customers are in the middle, the organisation is built around them.
Amoeba:
Continual change in shape and structure with continuous division into smaller units
as the organisation expands – grow and split being the operative words.
Star:
needs.
A few employees work direct with customers – can facilitate Project Management
Boundaryless: An extension of the “star” with barriers between organisation and customer vague
(and therefore, meaningless). I wonder if this could relate to the current movement into Partnering
where boundaries become unclear – and who is the customer /client anyway?
Chemical Soup: Another metaphor for Project Management - management organisation systems –
suggesting that teams come together for the project and then dissolve when finished into new
combinations.
8.11 TASK 6:
Experiment: Have a go at re-engineering your
workplace to fit some of the above models.

Would it work?

What would be the advantages?

What would be the disadvantages?
9 Project Governance 2
The working environment of the management of projects is to do with task management, within a
set of boundaries of time and cost plus other factors. A project therefore, could be described as a
temporary organisation – they have a beginning and an ending! Projects reside within a permanent
(i.e., they have no start or end time) organisations and could be considered to be the production
function of the organisation (Müller, 2009).
9.1 Some Key Roles and Individuals within a Project Management
Governance Framework
Generally speaking, successful project management organisations grow organically. Initially set up
with a senior expert. He quotes his earlier work Englund & Müller (2005).
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9.1.1 Metaphors of the Organisational Jungle
Diagrams, pictures, etc always tell a good “story” – I quite enjoy these “word pictures” of metaphors
describing some of the leading “players” in successful project management business environments:
Metaphors of the Organisational Jungle used to describe the personalities needed for successful
project management organisations.
The Brown Bear: Are intelligent, have excellent navigation and a long term memory. They have a
deep introspective capacity, are caring, compassionate, seekers of deep self-knowledge, dreamers at
times and helpers. They have tremendous power and physical strength, intelligence, inner
confidence, reserve and detachment. They draw great strength from solitude, choose peace instead
of conflict and contemplate the healing power. Their contribution is strength, introspection and selfknowledge.
Suitable for the establishment of new project management environments.
The Lion: Lions roar in concert to scare away their enemies. They are needed to communicate the
project management message, including best practice. Can be mid-career professionals often used
as a role member for junior members of the project management team. They then move onto new
territory.
Suitable for growth mode.
The Eagle: Hover at high altitude, constantly monitoring what is happening at ground level – and
can be at that point within seconds! They see the broader picture – often beyond the boundaries of
your own organisation. They can also work top-down through to the finest detail. That can be hard
to find in an organisation with there capacity to deal with breadth and depth.
Essential to maintain long term survival.
9.1.2 TASK 1:
Can you identify these people and the roles they have in
your organisation?
When do they get involved (i.e., when are they most active)?
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9.2 Programmes and Portfolios as a Form of Governance
Many businesses divide their production between regular, routine based activity and one-off,
project based activity.
One-off projects will compete for resources.
There is a need for effectiveness of production of projects and an efficiency in the delivery of
projects.
Effectiveness requires an organisation selecting the right project to do and collecting together a
range of projects that satisfy the goals and their contribution to it’s corporate strategic needs into a
suitable portfolio of activity.
Efficiency is achieved through combining minimum costs of converting the input of resources into an
achieved output.
Programmes and portfolios achieve balance between effectiveness and efficiency by providing a
product that is fit for purpose that is done through programme management; and the lowering of
costs by the economic use of the scale of resources through portfolio management.
Decisions of their “inter-relateness” will influence possible organisational structures to be used for
governance purposes.
For example: Project based organisations
Option 1
Maximise the return on individual projects in a multi-project organisation. Projects
not related to each other and subsequently do not share resources across projects. The challenge
can be to match the skills sets and knowledge base of the project team to that of the projects needs.
Option 2
The grouping together of a range of projects within a portfolio of projects to
maximise the effectiveness of delivery – the skill sets of the project teams – to maximise the
strategic objectives of the organisation.
Option 3
Using a programme of projects to combine a number of individual projects that
share a common objective albeit skill set requirements differ.
Option 4
Hybrid organisations balance the maximisation of effectiveness and efficiency
through a combination of programme and portfolio management. They share skill sets through
portfolios and relate project objectives through programmes.
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shared
portfolio of
projects
4
not shared
Resources
2
1
multi-project
organisation
3
unrelated
hybrid
organisation
programme
of
projects
related
Objectives
Different Governance Styles
Müller (2009) suggests that the hybrid organisation provides by far, the better performance
organisation – whereby the importance of careful and simultaneous management of programme
and portfolio of projects will ensure the best corporate results.
The objective is therefore to select the best projects to achieve your organisations goals.
9.3 Dilemmas in Organisational Structure
Opening Statements: Classical theory (received wisdom?) suggests that the most successful
organisations are those with the best structured and optimum organisational structure (i.e. span of
control, lines of authority and communication, etc.). However some (dated?) research (Woodward,
1965) contradicts this classical theory in that it is suggested that it is the technology process that
determines appropriate structure. In this sense, questions need to asked with regard to the process
of production – for example, are your products mass produced or “be-spoke”? (or perhaps even
more complicated, a bit of both).
Two Different dimensions of structure can emerge:
1. Mechanistic – classical type for stable situations – precise and detailed specification of roles; a
standardised approach to activities and rules.
2. Organic – more dynamic, loose unstructured work groups; for situations of change with
informality and adaptability; however, you may lose control.
and
3. Centralised – to deal with hostility or pressure from external forces.
4. Decentralised – to deal with complexity of decision and action.
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Which can quite easily split into even more dimensions such as:
1. High integration with low control (organic structure).
2. High integration with high control (bureaucratic structure).
3. Low integration with low control (anarchic structure).
4. Low integration with high control (mechanistic structure).
9.3.1 Business Strategy
In order for the organisation to survive, it requires a business strategy to link its operational and
administrative activities with the external environment. The anticipated outcome of the strategic
process is to win in the face of the competition and to be able to deal effectively with the forces,
which represent opportunities and threats to the organisation (Naoum, 2001).
9.3.2 Structure
Structure follows strategy. If the strategy establishes the objectives of the organisation and
determines the direction in which organisations will go, then the structure facilitates the
achievement of these objectives. Structure provides the framework of an organisation and its
pattern of management. It is by means of structure that the purpose and work of the organisation is
carried out.
9.3.3 Work Groups
The design of organisational structure is associated with grouping people into units and sub-units to
achieve individual and organisational objectives. A cohesive work group provides greater
integration, which leads to better co-ordination and managerial control.
Therefore to deal with this Case Study you may wish to put some strategic thoughts together and use
these as your guiding influence to inform your choice of organisational structure. So, what is this
organisation trying to achieve?
You may also wish to consider just what are the most effective staff groupings should be to ensure an
efficient and effective work place.
The Challenge: Should organisational structure be based on function or product?
SOME FURTHER BACKGROUND NOTES:
Structure exists in all organisations – either overtly or covertly. Often we are unaware of it until
external factors trigger a re-design. Yet, it could be argued, the arrangement of levels,
responsibilities, job descriptions and reporting relationships is the scaffold that links organisational
goals to human performance. An effective structure meets both employee and customer needs
within the context of organisational goals.
An organisational chart will depict an organisations formal structure and help to co-ordinate the
work of individuals and the functions that they perform.
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Hierarchy refers to the number and levels of authority in the organisation. A simple differentiation
is that between tall and flat organisations.
Span of control refers to the number of subordinates that report to one line manager. Within a flat
organisation this can be many. The broader the span of control, the fewer the levels of hierarchy
but also the fewer opportunities for promotion. With a narrow span of control, daily contact
between a line manager and their work force can be frequent.
Functional relationships exist in many organisations where specialists provide a service to line
managers (e.g., personnel, accounting).
Formal and informal Organisational Structures exist in most organisations with formal being
planned, rational, and stable and deal with position, authority, etc. whilst informal can be
spontaneous, emotional, and dynamic.
Design or evolution of structure will generally be carried out to try and out into practice the duties
and functions of the organisation.
Traditional, grouping of the workforce will be as per:
Function
based on the function they perform.
Product
what they produce.
Customer
for different types of customer.
Territory
based on geography – often based on economical travelling distances.
Plus you may also consider a
Matrix structure based on dual (or even triple) rather than single chain of commands. Some argue
that traditional function or product based structures are not sophisticated enough to cope with
complex work places. However, there are a number of disadvantages to a matrix structure. For
example, role overload can happen and role ambiguity often leads to conflict. Reporting situations
can get complicated with, for example, natural reporting (within your professional, functional,
discipline) can override reporting to a project line manager.
Matrix organisations tend to have a high level of performance in dealing with complex, creative work
products. Also, because the amount of interaction among members in the matrix structures, and
the high levels of responsibilities they possess, matrix organisations usually have greater worker job
satisfaction.
9.4 TASK 2 CASE STUDY: Dilemmas in Organisational Structure
The Challenge: Should organisational structure be based on function or product?
Case Study: School of the Built and Natural Environment, Morpeth University
You are to design an organisational structure for this University School based on the following
background case study notes.
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You are the newly appointed Head of School, Robert Moehler, and you have to decide on and
propose TWO different ways of organising your School and you have to submit these two different
alternatives to the Vice-Chancellor of the University to facilitate further debate and a clear decision
to be made with regard to which is the preferred option.
TASKS:
1. Prepare an Organisational Structure for each alternative.
2. Declare your principles underlying each structure.
3. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of each structure.
4. Summarise your findings into one A4 poster style presentation.
THE CASE STUDY: The School of the Built and Natural Environment is one of 7 Schools within
Morpeth University. The School combines a wide range of built and natural environment studies
from service engineering, many surveying disciplines, construction management, architectural
technology, architecture and interior design, to geography and environmental management. It also
provides a “ladder of opportunity” from sub-undergraduate degree education, undergraduate
education and an expanding post-graduate studies programme of taught and research degrees
based on particular staff expertise in project management and it’s generic application across a range
of organisational functions. It also wants to expand its’ consultancy and engagement with industry
and professional practice and to be seen as a Regional Flagship Location of Excellence. Currently,
the emerging national political agenda suggests that the sub-undergraduate degree education
programme is under some threat and that this area of education may be transferred to Further
Education Colleges (who are anxious to expand their activities into this area of provision) but the
school wants to retain this provision as being essential to the overall financial well-being of the
school..
Morpeth University is very successful as a university. It has generated and maintains a high status
nationally but still has to cope with regional competition from 2 “red-brick” Universities with high
research ratings. Whilst these “competitors” do not have such a vibrant and successful built and
natural environment provision, they are keen to expand and develop the size and status of their
business school provision. Consequently, they are seen as real competition.
The School has a developing reputation across the world and is seen as an attractive proposition
balancing quality of education provision with quality of life style. The University is situated in a very
attractive part of the country and can offer a good balance between city, suburban and country life.
Staff and the local people are naturally very friendly and easy to get on although sometimes the local
dialect can take a little time to get used to and understand. The local football team sometimes is
successful with (normally) a good attractive style of football and a well-respected manager. The
School offers a wide range of in-house consultancy activity to a range of important regional and
national organisations.
80
There is a need to improve the productivity and the quality of services provided by the School.
As a newly appointed Head of School you are re-thinking how best to structure the BNE School and
organise the staff into coherent work groups. The workforce are looking to you to come up with
some new ideas and there is this moment in time when there is an opportunity to integrate staff
from different backgrounds into effective work groups, otherwise staff morale would plummet
further.
Good teaching attracts students and more students, means more income for the School. The view
of students as “customers” means that the high quality performers amongst the staff were
becoming a premium. There was also a fair amount of competition amongst other Universities to try
and attract these staff to work for them. There was also the need to have staff who could teach
beyond undergraduate level but these staff needed to have a number of years experience as
practitioners to work with these groups as these students could be critical of both the material
presented and the lecturer themselves. It needed a “special” person to work with post-graduate
students. However, all staff were also challenged to be successful with their research. Sometimes a
good teacher was not a good researcher and vice-versa.
Whilst providing a range of undergraduate and sub-degree named awards fitting into professional
disciplines (RIBA, CIBSE, CIOB, RICS, APM, etc), the challenge also was to provide a good range of
common curriculum at early levels within academic programmes with specialisation of curriculum
developing towards the latter levels of academic programmes.
The School, at the moment, has 80 academic staff and 20 administration / technical staff. A range of
central specialist departments (e.g., technical computing staff, estates, personnel, etc.) also support
it.
The “products” of the School of the Built and Natural Environment.
1. Teaching of vocational undergraduate full time and part time degree programmes including subdegree level with approval / accreditation by professional bodies operating in the built
environment.
2. Teaching of vocational and generic postgraduate full time and part time degree programmes. It
is desired to expand this provision.
3. Research including publication of research papers and research underpinning teaching activity.
4. Doctoral supervision.
5. In-company consultancy.
6. Short courses.
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ASSESSMENT MODEL: Relationship between organisational structure and performance.
In order for you to attempt a process of objective measurement, you need to agree on a range of
key performance indicators.
You need to list a range of KPI’s first!
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