 Re-introduce TA’s
 2 posts for first discussion week – introduce self + comment
on others’ posts, pose questions, etc.
 Registration glitch erased initial posts in a few discussion
groups
WEEK 2: September 15
Mapping the Field and Your Place in It
The Cartography and Archaeology of Media Studies
Identifying Your Interests, Cultivating Research Ideas
POLITICS OF MAPPING
Image: Daniel K. Wallingford, A New Yorker’s Idea of the United States of America, 1939
Image: Saul Steinberg, View of the World from 9th Avenue, 1976
Cartographic historian Matthew Edney: “each map’s character is determined by the context
within which the map was made and used, a context formed from an amalgam of social
needs, power relations, and cultural conventions. The role of any map is to invest the
world with meaning and significance. In this respect, maps are used to aid the fundamental
distinction drawn by humans between places and spaces” (Ackerman & Karrow 121)
Image: Joyze Kozloff, Stars Over Manhattan IV (City of New York, 1864), 2002
"Maps are the foundation for structures into which I insert a range of issues,
particularly the role of cartography in human knowledge and as an imposition of
imperial will. My map and globe works – frescoes, books, paintings, sculptures,
floors and walls - image both physical and mental terrain, and employ mutations to
raise geopolitical issues. Often their figurations are places known only in the
imagination, composed of memories and fragments. With an increasing urgency, I
seek the physical corollaries between mapping, naming, and subjugation, while
charting and reflecting our earth."
Image: Nina Katchadourian: Austria, dissected paper map, 6 x 9 inches, 1997
Austria describes itself as "the heart of Europe." This photograph shows the entire Austrian
road network, dissected from a paper map and formed into the shape of a heart
(http://www.ninakatchadourian.com/maps/index.php)
Historian Susan Schulten, on maps of America: “the most powerful maps in the nation’s
history have been tools of exploration and discovery, statements and projections of
1
national coherence and power, and instruments to explain the fundamental shift in spatial
understanding brought by the modern era.” (Ackerman & Karrow 205)
 Relate to Katchadourian
Image: Mark Lombardi, Bush Market, 1999
Image: Situationist Maps: Guy Debord, Naked City, 1957; Constant Nieuwenhuys,
Symbolische voorstelling van New Babylon (symbolic representation of New Babylon), 1969
Cartographic librarian and historian James Ackerman distinguishes between the itinerary
map: “primarily concerned with the representation of a single route or corridor of
movement” – and the network map, which “describe[s] an entire system of routes or
pathways within a place, region, or country” (Ackerman & Karrow 39)
Image: William Faulker, Map of Yoknapatwpha County from Portable Faulker, 1945;
another version in Absalom, Absalom, 1936
Image: Dell Books, Mapbacks, 1940s
Image: Matthew Bennett, Mayberry
Words as Networks and Places
Image: Howard Horowitz, Manhattan 1997
Image: Tibor Kalman, Untitled
Personal – Place-based – Representations
Image: Map of Tenderness (Carte du Tendre)
o Sentimental Geography
o Inspired by Clelie, Historie Romaine, novel by de Scudery (1607-1701)
o Topographic allegory, representing stations of love as if real paths and places
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FIRST, WE’LL ATTEMPT TO CREATE A NETWORK MAP OF
THE FIELD, AND THEN YOU CAN CREATE YOUR OWN
ITINERARIES
Image: Giuliana Bruno, film historian, in her Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and
Film, simultaneously traces the spectator’s -- the moving, feeling, gendered subject’s -engagement with cinema and cinematic spaces; while she also retraces the history of
cinematic apparatus, filmic space, and exhibition
(See also Tom Conley, Cartographic Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007).
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE FIELD
HISTORY OF LIBERAL EDUCATION
SLIDE: Aristotle’s Politics, Book VIII: “there is a kind of education in which parents
should have their sons trained not because it is necessary, or because it is useful, but because
it is liberal and something good in itself”; “To aim at utility everywhere is utterly
unbecoming to high-minded and liberal spirits” (Roosevelt 3)
 Smacks of elitism
SLIDE: Rafael, School of Athens, 1509-10
“The amount of ‘useful’ knowledge imparted to young people, he goes on to explain, should
‘never be large enough to make them mechanically minded.’” (Roosevelt 3)
“the citizens of a state should always be educated to suit the constitution of their state”
(Roosevelt 3)
“Liberal education was conceived of as having an ethos that contrasted with and in some
ways counteracted the ethos of the marketplace.” (Roosevelt 3)
“The assumption was that the polity required forms of knowledge and habits of
mind that were different from the forms of knowledge and habits of mind
required by the economy.” (Roosevelt 3)
SLIDE: Laurentius de Voltolina, Liber ethicorum des Henricus de Alemannia, Einzelblatt, 14th c.
Political aims of liberal education flourished during Roman Empire (Cicero), replaced by
religious aims of medieval scholasticism
SLIDE: Seven Liberal Arts
Ancient Greece: orators like Isocrates emphasized grammar, rhetoric, arts of persuasion;
philosophers like Plato emphasized mathematics and logic
3
“Medieval universities taught the seven liberal arts: the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and
dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy) (Peters)
SLIDE: Kant Lecturing
Kant’s The Conflict of the Faculties: argued against graduate education in 18th c.
Prussia in which there was a “lower” philosophical faculty and “higher” faculties of
theology, law, medicine; Kant “argues that since philosophy is concerned with truth and
reason, it is philosophy that should provide the standards with which to judge the
‘higher’ professional schools”; “philosophy is needed both to demystify and to judge
the direction of the disciplines that are closest to the seats of power – in Kant’s world,
church and state” (Roosevelt 4)
 “The liberal arts are essential to civic life, for they alone can nurture the skills of
critical thinking and objectivity necessary for judging the powerful
commercial forces that affect our lives” (Roosevelt 4)
SLIDE: Diderot’s Encyclopedia, 1750- (Memory, Reason, Imagination; History, Philosophy,
Poetry)
SLIDE: Weitsch, Alexander von Humboldt Portrait, 1806
“the humanities date from the early nineteenth century, when universities were taking
shape as institutions of research, as initially associated with the Humboldt tradition in
Germany… The understanding of knowledge as a product of research had been
preceded by at least two alternative conceptions of knowledge, either as self-awareness
(Delphi Oracle: ‘know thyself’) or as traditional learning, administered and passed on
by a class of learned people” (Jensen)
Late 19th c: founding many large private universities, inspired by German models and
devoted to scientific method and specialized research; “stress on specialization and the
free electives system increasingly came to be seen as creating a ‘political as well as an
intellectual empty space’” (Roosevelt 5) – Thorstein Veblen critical of underlying
‘pecuniary’ purposes of American universities
19th c: rationalized into the social sciences: history, economics, sociology, psychology,
political science, and anthropology (Peters)
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
“…if the trades grew out of cities, the professions came from the universities…. Professions
gave certification a new form, one that only a few gentlemen could afford at first. The
liberal arts and the social rank which had traditionally been the locus of general wisdom
became precisely the basis for the professional right to use judgment and recommend
extent of services, rather than having to deliver on demand like tradesmen.”
(McCullough 255)
4
Robert E. Lee started first journalism program at Washington & Lee in 1868; positioned
“printing as an adjunct to a curriculum in the classics” (Sloan 3)
BREAK
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CARTOGRAPHY OF THE FIELD
SOCIAL SCIENCE MAP
SLIDE: Newspaper Row, 1873-5
Mid 19th Century to early 20th Century: Modernity & Mass Society Theory: Durkheim
(anomie),
 Fascism, Nazism
Mass Society: industrialization, urbanization, modernization increase social differentiation
and psychological isolation; mass refers to a “distinctive pattern of social organization”
(Lowery & DeFleur 11)
Post 1930s: “by the second decade of the twentieth century, three distinct mass media
waves had swept across the western world in quick succession, fundamentally altering the
exercise of state power, the construction of the citizen, and public memory itself. The
cheap rotary press, film, and radio…” – “media occupied an increasingly significant
part of the information infrastructure essential to the functioning of democratic
governments and the capitalist system” – Hitler’s Germany of Stalin’s Soviet Union
(Uricchio 26)
Development of Tools of Research: prior to 20s, there was “little in the way of systematic
investigation of the effects of mass comm. w/in what we would today call a scientific
perspective” (14); “Communication research is an extension of the methodology and
theory-building strategies of the social and behavioral sciences.” (Lowery & DeFleur
15)
 Durkheim’s numerical data on deaths by suicide
 20s: teaching of statistical techniques; birth of content analysis
 Early 20th c: rise of sociology: Tonnies (gemeinschaft, gesellschaft)
SLIDE: Early Press + Movie Theaters
Later 20s: “moralists and critics had posted warning about the effects of the popular press
throughout the nineteenth century as newspapers and magazines became more widely read”
(17); Great War: “American way of life seemed to be deteriorating” – blamed, in part, new
motion pictures (18) – “people were concerned about the problem of media audiences;
research methods were available that could be used for objective studies; and social scientists
believed they had a sophisticated understanding of the mass society to which the new media
were delivering vast amounts of information” (Lowery & DeFleur 18)
“Sustained research in the field of mass communication and media studies developed
in the US from the 1930s onwards… This was some 40 years after the birth of modern
media, which happened between 1880 and 1910 with the expansion of mass circulation
newspapers the rapid rise of the cinema and the development of radio” (Williams 23)
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SLIDE: Mass Society Criticism: 1920s-50s:
 Mass media are a negative and disruptive force in society and should be
controlled
 Mass media have the power to directly influence the attitudes and behavior
of ordinary people
 People are vulnerable to the power of mass media b/c they have become
isolated and alienated from traditional social institutions
 Social changes brought about by disruptive influence of mass media will
result in advent of more authoritarian and centrally controlled societies
 Mass media bring about decline in cultural standards and values (Williams 29)
SLIDE: Michael Delli Carpini: origin of field: growth of mass media, fear of their
propagandizing effects, concern about the stability of democracy, emergence of new
technique for studying social phenomena; draws on traditions from humanities (e.g.,
rhetoric), social science (e.g., political science and anthropology), sciences (e.g., information
technology, cybernetics, psychology) and professions (e.g., law, policy, journalism) (Dervin &
Song)
SLIDE: Ron Rice, UCSB: concerns about propaganda from WWI and WWII; rise of
audience research with introduction of radio; influx of European sociologists and social
psychologists after WWII; growth of urban studies and concern over transformation of
communities and rise of mass society; rise of grad education w/ GI bill; influx of immigrants
(Dervin & Song)
Barbie Zelizer, Penn: origins: post WWII, development of social science research
councils, gravitation toward funded research on media effects, increasingly present role
of media as new actor in public sphere (Dervin & Song)
SLIDE: Blank
Magic Bullet Theory as a point of departure – informed by Darwinian models, which
portrayed media audiences as “irrational creatures guided more of less uniformly by their
instincts” (Lowery & DeFleur 13)
 Direct effects: hypodermic needle; magic bullet
Propaganda Analysis and Public Opinion: inter-war years; Harold Lasswell’s
Propaganda Techniques in the World War (1927); Walter Lippmann’s Public Opinion (1922)
“parallel appearance of mass medium-specific university disciplines such as
journalism by the turn-of-the-century and film studies by mid-century” – “In many of
its incarnations, journalism has had a disciplinary status closer to that of law or
medicine than to art history or literary studies” – “Its functionalist research orientation
…made it instrumental in the definition of the ‘new’ social science discipline of mass
communication, where it was joined by radio and television, but not, with a few
notable exceptions, film.” (Uricchio 26-7)
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SLIDE: LANDMARK EFFECTS STUDIES
Payne Fund Studies: “psychological field experiments conducted by Peterson and
Thurstone to study the impact of exposure to one or more films on children’s attitudes
toward social issues” + quantitative approach using “biographical technique to probe the
influence of the movies on children’s daily behavior” (Lowery & DeFleur 381); “The movies
did seem to bring new ideas to children, influence their attitudes, stimulate their
emotions, present moral standards different from those of many adults, disturb sleep,
and influence interpretations of the world and day-to-day conduct” – may have been
true, since movies were so new (41); conclusions reinforced the “legacy of fear that had been
kept alive by strident denunciations of the evils of propaganda during the same decade and
by the widely held beliefs about the horrors of newspaper influence current during the late
nineteenth century” (Lowery & DeFleur 41); used survey, content, experimental
methodologies
Radio Panics: War of the Worlds – of 6 million who tuned in, one million were panicked;
study intended to focus on panic behavior, w/ mass communication not a primary interest
 Invasion from Mars: Cantril’s multimethod study of “how the American public
responded to Orson Welles’s ratio dramatization of War of the Worlds
suggested…how to combine qualitative and quantitative methods…” (Jensen
156-70)
SLIDE: People’s Choice: Media in a Political Campaign: study of media influences on
voters in Erie County, OH, during presidential election of 1940; “prompted a fresh look at
social relationships as an important part of the mass communication process”
(Lowery & DeFleur 383); innovated use of panel interviewing techniques
 People’s Choice: “focused on the place of media political democracy, relying on
panels and other state-of-the-art survey methods”; “media reinforce rather than
change people’s positions”; “overall, media serve democracy” (Jensen 156-70)
Audiences for Daytime Radio Serials: uses and gratifications (Herzog) – differences
between heavy and light listeners; uses: emotional release, satisfying wishful thinking,
social depictions in play provided them w/ advice applicable in their own lives
Iowa Study of Hybrid Seed Corn: Adoption of Innovation: studied how people learn
about and make decisions about new products and services; S-shaped curve of adoption –
“different kinds of people, exposed to different kinds of information, adopt at distinct stages
along the curve” (Lowery & DeFleur 384)
Experiments with Film Persuading the American Soldier in WWII: studies use of films
for indoctrination and training films during WWII – see if films could change beliefs and
attitudinal orientations of new recruits
 Film experiments on American Soldiers: “series of experimental studies were
conducted on Frank Capra’s Why We Fight films, asking to what extent they
might not only provide information, but also shape attitudes” (Jensen 156-70)
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
http://www.pbs.org/thewar/detail_5250.htm
SLIDE: Persuasion: Search for Magic Keys: learn how to change people’s beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors – search for a systematic theory of persuasion
 Yale Program of Research on Communication and Attitude Change (Carl
Hovland); Found only short-term changes
Personal Influence: 2-Step Flow: Katz & Lazarsfeld
 Research agendas often shaped by issues raised in political debate; much commercial
funding
 Lazarsfeld’s Personal Influence study: funded by two commercial sponsors: McFadden
magazine publisher and Roper polling organization – Lazarsfeld and Katz defined
“two-step flow
SLIDE: Project Revere: Leaflets as a Medium of Last Resort – “understand ways of
communication with large populations scattered into the hinterland from cities that would
become targets if the unthinkable happened” (Lowery & DeFleur 387)
SLIDE: Television in the Lives of Our Children: Schramm – “focusing on the way
children made use of television, the functions if performed for them, and the satisfactions or
gratifications they derived from viewing”; children watched to be entertained, to acquire new
info, to participate in social activities associated w/ viewing (Lowery & DeFleur 388)
 1st major study of TV’s effects on children in US – uses and grats perspective
Agenda-Setting: McCombs and Shaw: media tell us not what to think – but what to think
about
SLIDE: Violence and Media: social unrest during 60s: National Commission of the
Causes and Prevention of Violence’s Media Task Force – “conclude that television had to be
considered a possible contributing factor in explaining why there were so many forms of
violent behavior in American society” (Lowery & DeFleur 391); extended in cultivation
research
First 50 years of research contributed to : demise of Magic Bullet Theory; Uses and
Gratifications Theory; Agenda Setting Theory; Adoption of Innovation Theory; 2-Step Flow
and Diffusion of Info; Limited Effects; Modeling Theory (people act out patterns of
behavior – these depictions serve as imitable models); Social Expectations Theory (can learn
norms, roles and other components of social organization from media); Cultivation Theory
(George Gerbner – heavy viewers see world as more violent)
First 4-year journalism programs in early 20th century emphasized journalism education in
conjunction with the liberal arts, particularly the social sciences” (Sloan 4)
1920s & 30s: journalism: training in occupational skills were heart of journalism programs
1940s: theoretical research added to courses in law and history
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OUR PROGRAM DRAWS ON THIS HISTORY – BUT ALIGNS ITSELF MORE
WITH THE HUMANITIES…. BREAK
HUMANITIES MAP
SLIDE: Great Books
Late 1800s: clash between Charles Eliot of Harvard and James McCosh of Princeton: Eliot
introduced “free elective” system at Harvard, “in the name of self-reliance, diversity, and
individual freedom”; McCosh supported “trinity of studies” – distribution requirements in
language and literature, science, and philosophy (Roosevelt 5)
Post-WWI: Columbia required Contemporary Civilization “to prepare students to
become active and informed citizens”; Stanford required History of Western Civ;
University of Chicago adopted “great books” curriculum (Roosevelt)
Media Studies draws from
 Rhetoric
 Linguistics (e.g., Semiotics)
 Literary criticism: biographical studies of major authors; historical approaches to
artworks and their place in genealogy of styles, forms thematic; New Criticism (close
readings of ‘the texts themselves’); formalism (“defamiliarize” reality); generative
model of language
 Hermeneutics (“clarify the nature and conditions of interpretation, with reference
both to the text and to the activity of the reader” [21]; Ricoeur);
 Phenomenology (“defensive reaction against the reductionism, in the form of
either positivism of ‘psychologism,’ which was then seen to threaten a
humanistic understanding of consciousness as a lived and interpreted whole;
phenomenological tradition insisted on the unique qualities and insights of
ordinary human experience; interpretive studies of social life; Husserl – “to the
things themselves,” human consciousness, or intentionality, is always
intentionality of something;
 Art history: Gombrich provided tools for examining form, perspective, color,
iconography in film and tv; Panofsky’s iconology; media studies took up art
history’s only marginal interest in relationship between arts and their social context
 Film Studies: “academic research on film from the outset defined it primarily as an
art form”; “Growing out of literary studies in several national contexts, film
studies have remained comparatively segregated from other media studies” (31);
“Film scholarship remains characterized by its aesthetic research questions, its
‘textual’ analyses, and its grand theory” (32); constructivist and formalist traditions;
realist tradition; the gaze; minor interest in film production and reception
10
“the long rule of national-political histories and economic histories tended to relegate
cultural history to general and media history in particular to the margins of historical
study.
“particularly in the twentieth century with the emergence of the Annales historians and
British historians of society and the working class that cultural practice appeared as
an object of increasing historical interest” – interest in a “broadly Gramscian notion of
hegemony, in which consensus and the means of its construction were central topics of
interest” (Uricchio 25)
SLIDE: Film School (arrived 1950s)
1916: First film course offered at Columbia
1919: Lenin created first film school in Moscow
1929: First film school in US @ USC

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

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Culture and media were instead institutionalized as specialized arts or
humanities disciplines such as art history, literary studies, and musicology
Found support in strategic alliances with cultural institutions as museums,
galleries, concert halls, publishing houses”
generally blind to media forms and texts perceived as popular, commercial, or
multiple” – “strict exclusion of mass media from the academic study of ‘art’
media”
“initially defined its interests almost in opposition to commercial production,
focusing instead upon the medium’s history, its aesthetic markers, and the
development of a set of academic disciplinary terms and practices” – “latter terms
relied heavily upon the fields of art history and literary criticism” (Uricchio 27)
“study of the film medium would center on the study of texts” (Uricchio 25)
Mid 1970s: new interest in “‘bottom-up’ history” + “shift from author-dominated or
literary expert-dominated notions of textual meaning, to the meanings which literary
texts actually encountered in the world of readers” (Uricchio 27)
“shift away from the canon drew it both to popular film and to that moving-image
medium most often encountered in the world – television” + “emergence of cultural
studies as an autonomous sphere of activity” (Uricchio 27)
Cultural studies: “fascination with the ‘lived reality’ of cultural participants,” “redefinitions
within the social sciences,” diverse methods, “politicized notion of popular cultural
reception,” “focusing less on text-specific of institution-specific endeavors, and more on
the situations of producers, texts and readers in the world and their encounters with one
another” (Uricchio 27-8)
1970s-80s: research into early cinema
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SLIDE: 1979 Int’l Federation of Film Archives conference in Brighton, England: new film
historians – looked into “production histories, stylistic trends, the period’s
reception,…effectively breaking with the teleological trends of the past by re-positioning
this body of films simultaneously as the culmination of various nineteenth-century
representational efforts, and as a catalogue of unexpected possibilities or a yet-to-be
disciplined medium” – embraced “media dispositif (a concept which links apparatus, the
cultural imagination, and constructions of public)” (Uricchio 28-9)
SLIDE: “medium was positioned within intertextual and intermedial networks” –
“grounded historical positioning” – “Scholars began to situate cinema within
representational systems with longer histories than the cinema’s such as the theater,
the magic lantern and photography” – considered “how publics constructed themselves
around dime museums, fairgrounds, and scientific spectacles” (Uricchio 29)
“shift from medium-specific histories – film’s history in particular – to media history”
– “Film’s own history and developmental trajectory, and its assumed agency with regard to
‘derivative’ media such as television, have been recast in the light of an array of precedent
technologies, practices, and notions of mediation” (Uricchio 23)
MAY SEEM LIKE TWO VERY SEPARATE TRADITIONS – BUT AS MEDIA
HISTORIAN JOHN DURHAM PETERS SHOWS, THE TRADITIONS MIGHT
HAVE CONVERGED, HAD INSTITUTIONAL POLITICS AND RIVALRIES
NOT GOTTEN IN THE WAY – BREAK
CONVERGING TRADITIONS
Three major treatises on history of mass comm. research published in 1980s by major figures
in the field: Stuart Hall, James Carey, Elihu Katz, which represented, in turn
 critical study of ideology; humanistic study of communication and culture; and
empirical study of media effects
Figures they cite are tied together at Columbia University in the 1930s
SLIDE: Dewey, Lazarsfeld, Adorno
Columbia of 1930s: John Dewey was professor emeritus of philosophy; Lazarsfeld about to
be hired by sociology dept; exiled Institute for Social Research housed there; Adorno
employed by the Institute and collaborated w/ Lazarsfeld on ‘Radio Project” at Princeton –
before the project moved to Columbia
SLIDE: “Key figures of pragmatism, social research, and Western Marxism converged in
one place…. Social philosophy, empirical social research, and critical social theory all
converged on a common intellectual problem: how to understand new centralized
forms of symbolic control over populaces.” (Peters 135)
12

All interested in the “audience” – Dewey in the democratic public, Adorno in
workings of promotional culture, Lazarsfeld in radio audience
SLIDE: “Katz and Lazarsfeld do social science; Carey and Dewey do social philosophy;
Hall and Gramsci do social critique. The first pair studies influence, the second pair
theorizes participation, the last unmasks domination. The core object for each is,
respectively, the media and minds, democracy and culture, and ideology and power.”
(Peters 138)
“Due to a curious institutional history, communication research inherited only a meager
portion of the debate about mass media in the 1920s and 1930s… Hall shows that the
taboo idea of powerful media in the effects tradition served as a code word for
Marxism; Carey shows that in seeking to refute so-called mass society theory, the effects
tradition shunted aside American pragmatism with its worries about the political role of
communication in shaping or undermining democracy. The making of the field, then,
excluded rival traditions that could have added much to it.” (Peters 137)
SLIDE: “Liberal, social democratic, and Marxist political philosophies have roots in
the 19th century but have not, until recently, been placed side by side as live options in
communication research…. [W]e must see how the institutional field shut down fruitful
paths of inquiry into the place of communication in modern life and society.” (Peters
138)
“Hopefully, the range of forefathers – and foremothers – will grow as inquiry is freed to take
the best ideas from anywhere, regardless of provenance.” (Peters 138)
SLIDE: “The convergence of the three traditions in the late 1930s at Columbia was only a
microcosm of a much larger and ragged debate in North America and Europe in the years
between the wars about what we have come to call – with reluctance, enthusiasm, or habit –
mass communication. A diverse company included Dewey, Walter Lippmann, George
Herbert Mead, Lewis Mumford, Kenneth Burke, Margaret Mead, Robert Park,
Harold Lasswell, Floyd Allport, Robert Lynd, Edward Bernays, Robert Merton,
Lazarsfeld, I.A. Richards, F.R. and Q.D. Leavis, Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers,
Rudolf Arnheim, Georg Lukács, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter
Benjamin, Leo Lowenthal, and Antonio Gramsci, for example, all explored the meaning,
in their ways, of new forms of mass culture. Thinkers of this period faced the economic,
political, and spiritual fallout of World War I, the rise of mass production, fascist politics,
broadcasting, audience measurement, public relations, and survey research, for example.”
(Peters 137)
BREAK
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DRAWING THE FIELD’S BORDERS?
SLIDE: “The boundaries of the field of communications have been unclear from the
beginnings. Somewhere between the liberal arts/humanities and the social sciences,
communications exists in a contested space where advocates of different methods and
positions have attempted to define the field and police intruders and trespassers. Despite
several decades of attempts to define and institutionalize the field of communications, there
seems to be no general agreement concerning its subject-matter, method, or institutional
home. In different universities, communications is sometimes placed in humanities
departments, sometimes in the social sciences, and generally in schools of communications.
But the boundaries of the various departments within schools of communications are drawn
differently, with the study of mass-mediated communications and culture, sometimes housed
in Departments of Communication, Radio/Television/Film, Speech Communication,
Theatre Arts, or Journalism departments. Many of these departments combine study of
mass-mediated communication and culture with courses in production, thus further
bifurcating the field between academic study and professional training, between theory and
practice” (Kellner 1995).
HOW DO WE MAP THIS?!
SLIDE:
Meyrowitz (1994): “no common understanding of what the subject matter of
the field is” (qtd Williams 4)
Golding and Murdock (1978): “embracing a staggering and often unbounded
range of interests and topics’ (qtd Williams 4)
Levy and Gurevitch (1994): “impression of a field that is everywhere and
nowhere” (qtd Williams 4)
Problems: “field’s insularity from developments outside its institutional
boundaries, its belated and grudging acknowledgment of European social and
literary theory notwithstanding, has been the utter lack of interest in communication
– the field, not the subject – by the leading scholars of other disciplines” (Beniger 18)
SLIDE:
Rather than lament that communication isn’t one of the six social sciences, we should
regard it as a “newer, nascent way of organizing inquiry” (Peters 132)
“we cannot succeed in academia by imitating the established fields. We have to
boldly strike out in a popular and interdisciplinary manner that runs directly counter
to the dominant trends in the academy” (McChesney 100)
Move from 3R’s – reading (input, decoding), ‘riting (output, encoding), ‘rithmetic
(computation or processing) – rooted in post-war pedagogical models, to 4C’s:
cognition, culture, control, communication – a model in which “communication might
find a more distinct place among the social sciences, by virtue of its several theoretical and
14
methodological subfields that would necessarily center on the exchange and flow of
information quite apart from considerations of cognition and culture per se.” (Beniger 23)
SLIDE:
“…disciplines are defined not by cores of knowledge (i.e., epistemologies) but by
views of Being (i.e., ontologies) (Shepherd 83)
“Discipline is derived from the Latin disciplina: instruction of disciples. Disciples, in
turn, are instructed in a doctrine (and by ‘doctors’) – they are ‘indoctrinated.’”
(Shepherd 83)
“Disciplines are defined more by faith than knowledge; their beliefs and
practices depend on views of Being which they witness, not cores of
knowledge that they claim.” (Shepherd 84)
“Academic disciplines…are distinguished not by the parcels of existence that they
study, but by the views of existence they afford.” (Shepherd 84)
“…it is precisely the nature and purpose of disciplines and their disciples to forward a
unique view of Being among all the alternatives and say, ‘There is something primary, or
essential, about this particular view.’ Disciplines depend on disciples acting as advocates
for the ontology they forward, making implicit and explicit arguments that their view
‘matters.’” (Shepherd 84)
Could conceive of communication as “cross-disciplinary,” achieving
legitimacy through its association with other disciplines; as anti-disciplinary,
just as much a rhetorical construction as any other discipline; or it could argue “for a
definition of communication as foundational” and conceive of a Being grounded
in communication, a life “communicationally constructed” (Shepherd 90)
SLIDE:
“Our fields are defined less and less by the professional passport we bear than by the
literatures we read, teach, and contribute to.” (Peters 133) – FIELDS ARE DEFINED
THROUGH THEIR PRACTICE
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STRIKE OUT ON A NEW PATH – YET MAINTAIN TIES TO LIBERAL
ARTS; CANNOT CREATE OUR OWN ITINERARIES W/OUT BEING
CONSCIOUS OF THE ENTIRE NETWORK MAP
SLIDE: SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS
“...many critical communication scholars reveal a shocking ignorance of the entire
tradition of critical social and political thought over the past 200 years…. Many critical
scholars appear to have learned most of their theory from reading people like Foucault or
Stuart Hall or, God held us, Baudrillard.” (McChesney 99) – few reference Marx, Engels,
Luxembourg Lenin, Lukacs, Adorno, Habermas, Veblen, DuBous, Sweezy, Mills
“We must make sure that our students, regardless of their eventual area of
specialization, receive a rigorous grounding in political and social theory, radical and
mainstream. And we might want to take a good dose of the medicine ourselves.”
(McChesney 99)
cannot examine racism or sexism without connecting those issues to political economy
(McChesney)
“The argument that rejected the universality and neutrality of mainstream social science has
evolved into a rejection of the very notions of truth, rationality, reason, science, logic, or
evidence…[W]e are informed that science is a white male invention to maintain
hegemonic rule over the ‘other,’ and that there is no such thing as truth. Linked to
antiracist and antisexist sentiments, these irrationalist claims can even sound
progressive, but critical communication scholars need to evaluate them with the
greatest care.” (McChesney 101)
SLIDE: “New media literacies include the traditional literacy that evolved with print
culture as well as the newer forms of literacy within mass and digital media…. [We] must
expand [our] required competencies, not push aside old skills to make room for the new.
Beyond core literacy, students need research skills…. Students also need to develop
technical skills…. Yet, to reduce the new media literacies to technical skills would be a
mistake on the order of confusing penmanship with composition….
As media literacy advocates have claimed during the past several decades, students
must also acquire a basic understanding of the ways media representations structure our
perceptions of the world; the economic and cultural contexts within which mass media is
produced and circulated; the motives and goals that shape the media they consume; and
alternative practices that operate outside the commercial mainstream” (Jenkins 19-20)
SLIDE: If we continue to view ‘making’ and ‘analyzing’ as mutually exclusive
categories, then our students will never receive the full benefits of what media
studies as a field of practices and knowledges has to offer.” (Hershfield & McCarthy
112)
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NOT PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
Criticizes the “traditional division of journalism departments into industrial sequences…and
the development of curricula designed specifically to train students in each sequence
to fill particular job slots in the working world is not unlike the process of training
workers to fill slots on an assembly line” (Shoemaker 150)
SLIDE: “Flexibility must be a valued characteristic of communication workers, and
generating flexibility requires a different sort of education than that needed to train
somebody to fill a slot. The need for increased critical thinking skills cannot be
underestimated… It is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information that
will allow communicators to train themselves to take on future jobs… We must give our
students a general communication education with a large conceptually based core of classes.
There will still be a place for classes that give students technical skills for entry-level
jobs, but these must be subordinate to classes that teach critical thinking, law,
history, mass media and society, international communication, and so on.”
(Shoemaker 150-1)
SLIDE; O’Grady: Media studies = “the exploration of the creation, the aesthetics, and
the psychological, social, and environmental impact of the art forms of photography,
cinematography, videography, radio, recordings, and tapes within the broad framework of
general education in the humanities” -- the “new humanities” (O’Grady 116-7)
READ: O’Grady’s Model for Media Studies Curriculum: instruction in “new
image-making technologies…while simultaneously being exposed, through film
rentals, slide collections, and exhibitions, to the best work of the past and
present”; “discussions of theory and aesthetics; topics not ‘taught’ as formal
units but regarded as perpetual and ultimate concerns. This whole process of
viewing, making, comparing, debating was conceived as one
undivided…stream of creation” + instruction in “humanities – literature,
philosophy, music, and the fine arts – the experiencing and formal analysis of
the great texts, compositions, and art works from the beginning of civilization
to the present” – “image-makers…should be rooted in the ways in which man
had imaged forth himself and his concerns in the traditional media which
continue to be lively and influential.” + behavioral sciences – “creators of media
should be knowledgeable about and responsible for the psychic and social
consequences of their work” (O’Grady 123) + community involvement
SLIDE: John Culkin:
the fact of the present is that the moving image is being used in an ever-increasing
way to convey information and to shape attitudes and values. Our culture is too close
to what is happening to be able to gauge the extent of influence
The sheer amount of time spent with film and television is impressive enough to
forestall the need for conjuring up fear-filled threats about the effects of the new
media. The consumers are there already. The images touch on their political
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and economic decisions; they comment incessantly on the very style and
meaning of what it means to be human. Intelligent and critical consumers are
likely to end up as the best kinds of humans...
So long as the schools neglect this art form, the audience will be at the mercy
of those who seek to manipulate them and will remain intellectually
impoverished in an art form that is closer to them than many others (Culkin)
“Media studies represents the arts and humanities in a new key.” (Culkin, on dept website)
http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html
OUR PROGRAM’S APPROACH: THEORY + PRACTICE +
MANAGEMENT (Interview w/ Peter Haratonik, September 10, 2008)
Media Studies @ The New School has always been conceived as a liberal art
John Culkin, founder of our program, regarded film studies as a means of engaging with
works, like literature and art, that reflect the human experience
Center for Understanding Media designed for educators – school teachers, administrators,
librarians, institutional media specialists
 Based on premise that, just as one learns reading through writing, one learns
how to teach media literacy and criticism by learning how to make it
 Image- and sound-making are becoming necessary literacies; teachers must
learn how to teach their students
 NOT a pre-professional program, but intended to help people understand the
mechanism
Early Days: canon started w/ McLuhan, included Mumford, Tony Schwartz, Murray
Schafer – many of whom also taught in the program; language and culture theory; canonical
film w/ Richard Maynard
 Course on film & fiction, supplemented w/ course on adaptation – thus, translation
from theory to practice
 No European theorists, no cultural studies
 Eventual shift into cultural studies, identity
People who knew McLuhan before Understanding Media:
 O’Grady: Media Study @ Buffalo: artists using media tell us about the future
 Lou Forsdale @ Teacher College: A/V education
 Neil Postman: critical approach, ludditism
 John Culkin: pragmatic approach: media change is inevitable – make something good
out of it
o Deweyan tradition
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Mapping your own Place (connecting to traditions, ontologies
from website rdg)
Mapping Academic Social Networks: http://www.orgnet.com/cases.html -- Try “Co
Authorship Networks”
SLIDE: Fletcher: Promiscious Ideas
Knowing the traditions in which you’re working
Journals in the field, Professional Conferences
SLIDE: Fletcher: Mapping Knowledge Gaps
SLIDE: Fletcher: Knowing How to Fill In Those Gaps
SLIDE: Fletcher: Avoiding Cliches
 “I take a cliché and try to organize its forms to make it monumental. The difference
is often not great, but it is crucial.” – Roy Lichtenstein
 “A cliché is a bankrupt idea.” – John McConnell
 ‘The cliché is dead poetry”

“Everything has been said before but because no one listens you always have to say
it again”
SLIDE: Fletcher: May Ray on Improv
Starting from where you are
Lindlof and Taylor (2002) say that "we problematize experience by noticing gaps and
dislocations in our own explanations" of particular things or happenings (p. 74). "We might
sense an incongruity, an irony, a contradiction, an ambiguity, or a mystery in a situation."
"Or we find ourselves in a new situation, one that defies our ability to explain it. Or we
imaginatively put ourselves in the place of others who are confused or mystified."
"Or we experience moments that prick at our moral conscience." (Lindlof & Taylor)
SLIDE: Fletcher: Personal Identity: Thumbprint
"[r]emember that who you are has a central place in the research process because you
bring your own thoughts, aspirations and feelings, and your own ethnicity, race,
class, gender, sexual orientation, occupation, family background, schooling, etc., to
your research”… While this personal "baggage" is commonly regarded as "bias" that
we must shed in order to achieve objectivity, Maxwell argues that "what you bring to
the research from your background and identity" can be conceived as a "valuable
component of research"; we should consider how to capitalize on our experiential
knowledge (qtd in Robson, p. 50).
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SLIDE: Fletcher: Calvino
SLIDE: Fletcher: Researcher Personality
SLIDE: Fletcher: Types of Thinking
 Postpositivist
 Socially Constructed Knowledge
 Advocacy/ Participatory Knowledge
 Pragmatic Knowledge
Ontological Approach Informs Theoretical Framework and Appropriate Methods
Methodolatry
There is a superbly non-conformist view of method and approach in Mary Daly’s
Webster’s First Intergalactic Wickedary of the English Language:
Methodolatry (n): common form of academic idolatry; glorification of the
god Method; boxing knowledge into prefabricated fields, thereby hiding
threads of connectedness, hindering New Discoveries, preventing the raising
of New Questions, erasing ideas that do not fit into Respectable Categories
of Questions and Answers (Daly 1987).
I have a feeling that there is a lot of this about. There have been a number of
attempts to categorize...methodology. This ‘boxing’ of methods is, in my view,
isolationist. It suggests either/or scenarios. One is either a supporter of the
naturalist approach, or one is a supporter of the scientific approach; the study is
either goal-oriented or goal-free; I am labeled a behaviorist if I watch what [people]
are doing, or a follower of the school of cognitive psychology if I try to find out
what visitors have learnt…; I use the tools of either the anthropologist, or the
ethnographer, or the sociologist, or the psychologist, or the media critic; you either
do quantitative work, or you do qualitative work; you do it either before the event or
after; you either observe or you ask.
SLIDE: I, however, do not make such ‘either/or’ choices. I am an unashamed
pluralist who uses multiple methodologies as part of an evaluation scenario which
has the clear intention of providing answers to the questions my colleagues want
answered. I use multiple methods to give greater rigor, reliability and depth to
the work I do. Each element is designed both to test and to complement the
findings of other elements. The different methods add layers of information
but also provide a means of identifying inconsistencies and weaknesses.
(Sarah Bicknell, “Here to Help: Evaluation and Effectiveness” In Eilean HooperGreenhill, Ed., Museum, Media, Message (Museum Meanings) (Routledge, 1999): 2834).
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So, in short: you needn't be a methodological purist. The challenge is to find a
complementary combination of methods -- all appropriate for your research problem
or project -- that, together, provide for greater "rigor, reliability, and depth."
CHANCE
SLIDE: Fletcher: Bricolage
SLIDE: Fletcher: Cut-ups
SLIDE: Fletcher: Taking Chances
SLIDE: Fletcher: Joining Incompatible Ideas
SLIDE: Fletcher: Staring
SLIDE: Fletcher: Visualizing – Seeing Things that May Not Be There
SLIDE: Fletcher: Sensing
SLIDE: Fletcher: Looking w/ Other Senses
SLIDE: Fletcher: Looking CRITICALLY
SLIDE: Fletcher: Knowing How to Ask Questions
SLIDE: Fletcher: Idea vs. Notion
Must be able to answer the So What? question
SLIDE: Fletcher: Mapping Your Mind
Intellectual Autobiog
Assignment: Intellectual Autobiography: Due October 6 at 6pm.
 Before you commit yourself to a research or creative project, it’s a good idea to reflect
on what brought you here, to graduate school, in order to better understand how your
personal history shaped the paradigms and perspectives that you bring to media studies.
At the same time, it is important to project yourself into the future, to ask yourself where
you want to be five, ten, twenty years from now. In a four- to five-page double-space
paper (into which you’re welcome to integrate graphics) consider the following
questions: What are your intellectual and creative histories, and how have those
intertwined histories led you to grad school? What intellectual or creative models have
most profoundly impacted your development? Think about favorite authors, media
creators, teachers, classes, schools of thought, etc. What are your intellectual and creative
interests within the field? What media-related questions and problems excite you? What
do you want to study, what would you like to learn, to enable you to follow those
intellectual and creative interests? What theories, learning models, and modes of
presentation (written, auditory, visual, etc.) do you feel most comfortable with? What
contribution – intellectual, political, creative, etc. – do you want to make to the field?
Keep in mind that this is not a personal autobiography – that is, it is not intended to
be a cathartic exercise, or to provide an opportunity for you to reflect on your emotional
development, past relationships, or other similar personal life events. Rather, an
intellectual autobiography is the history of your brain, of yourself as a thinking, creative
being; as a student of media studies. Please include a complete bibliography (in either
MLA or APA style) if appropriate.
 By October 6, submit your autobiography to your TA. After you’ve received his/her
feedback and considered – and, ideally, incorporated – the recommended revisions, post
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it to your website. Keep adding images, videos, audio files, etc., that help to flesh out this
“map of [your] imagination.”
C. WRIGHT MILLS
“Only by conversations in which experienced thinkers exchange information about their
actual ways of working can a useful sense of method and theory be imparted to the
beginning student.” (Mills)
SLIDE: “…the most admirable thinkers within the scholarly community…do not split their
work from their lives….[T]hey want to use each for the enrichment of the other….
What this means is that you must learn to use your life experience in your intellectual
work: continually to examine and interpret it. In this sense craftsmanship is the center of
yourself and you are personally involved in every intellectual product upon which you may
work. To say that you can ‘have experience,’ means, for one thing, that your past plays into
and affects your present, and that it defines your capacity for future experience. As a social
scientist, you have to control this rather elaborate interplay, to capture what you experience
and sort it out; only in this way can you hope to use it to guide and test your reflection, and
in the process shape yourself as an intellectual craftsman. But how can you do this? One
answer is: you must set up a file, which is, I suppose, a sociologist’s way of saying: - keep a
journal….In such a file as I am going to describe, there is joined personal experience and
professional activities, studies under way and studies planned. In this file, you, as an
intellectual craftsman, will try to get together what you are doing intellectually and what you
are experiencing as a person. Here you will not be afraid to use your experience and relate it
directly to various works in progress. By serving as a check on repetitious work, your file also
enables you to conserve your energy. It also encouraged you to capture ‘fringe-thoughts’:
various ideas which may be by-products of everyday life, snatched of conversations
overheard on the street, or, for that matter, dreams. Once noted, these may lead to more
systematic thinking, as well as lend intellectual relevance to more directed experience.”
(Mills)
“To be able to trust yet to be skeptical of your own experience, I have come to believe, is
one mark of the mature worker.” (Mills)
SLIDE: “By keeping an adequate file and thus developing self-reflective habits, you learn
how to keep your inner world awake. Whether you feel strongly about events or ideas you
must try not to let them pass from your mind, but instead to formulate them for your files
and in so doing draw out their implications, show yourself either how foolish these feelings
or ideas are, or how they might be articulated into productive shape. The file also helps you
build up the habit of writing. You cannot ‘keep your hand in’ if you do not write something
at least every week. In developing the file, you can experiment as a writer and thus, as they
say, develop your powers of expression. To maintain a file is to engage in the controlled
experience.” (Mills)
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“One of the very worst things that happens to social scientists is that they feel the need to
write of their ‘plans’ on only one occasion: when they are going to ask for money for a
specific piece of research or ‘a project.’… It is bound in some degree to be
salesmanship….[T]he project is likely to be ‘presented,’ rounded out in some arbitrary
manner long before it ought to be… A practicing social scientist ought periodically to review
‘the state of my problems and plans.’….
Any working social scientist who is well on his or her way ought at all times to have
so many plans, which is to say ideas, that the question is always, which of them am I, ought
I, to work on next? You should keep a special little file for your master agenda, which you
write and rewrite just for yourself and perhaps for discussion with friends.” (Mills)
“A widespread, informal interchange of such reviews of ‘the state of my problems’ among
working social scientists is, I suggest, the only basis for an adequate statement of ‘the leading
problems of social science.’…. Three kinds of interludes – on problems, methods, theory –
ought to come out of the work of social scientists, and lead into it again; they should be
shaped by work-in-progress and to some extent guide that work. It is for such interludes that
a professional association finds its intellectual reason for being.” (Mills)
 Field is defined by its practice
 Importance of study groups, discussion groups – e.g., online disc sections
SLIDE: “Under various topics in your file there are ideas, personal notes, excerpts from
books, bibliographic items and outlines of projects…. [S]ort all these items into a master file
of ‘projects,’ with many subdivisions. The topics, of course, change, sometimes quite
frequently.” (Mills)
“…the use of the file encouraged expansion of the categories which you use in your
thinking. And the way in which these categories change, some being dropped and others
being added is an index of your intellectual progress and breadth.” (Mills)
“You will have to acquire the habit of taking a large volume of notes from any worth-while
book you read… The first step in translating experience, either o other people’s writing, or
of your own life, into the intellectual sphere, is to give it form….
Your notes may turn out, as mine do, to be of two sorts: in reading certain very
important books you try to grasp the structure of the writer’s argument, and take notes
accordingly; but more frequently, and after a few years of independent work, rather than
read entire books, you will very often read parts of many books from the point of view of
some particular theme or topic in which you are interested and concerning which you have
plans in your file. Therefore, you will take notes which do not fairly represent the books you
read. You are using this particular idea, this particular fact, for the realization of your own
projects.” (Mills)
Outline a project: “the idea and the plan came out of my files… After making my crude
outline I examined my entire file, not only those parts of it that obviously bore on my topic,
but also those which seemed to have no relevance whatsoever. Imagination is often
successfully invited by putting together hitherto isolated items, by finding unsuspected
connections…. It is a sort of logic of combination, and ‘chance’ sometimes plays a curiously
23
large part in it. In a relaxed way, you try to engage your intellectual resources, as exemplified
in the file, with the new theme.” (Mills)
Lit Map / Lit Review
James R. Ackerman & Robert W. Karrow, Jr. Maps: Finding Our Place in the World (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2007)
Janet Abrams & Peter Hall, Eds., Else/Where Mapping: New Cartographies and Territories
(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Design Institute, 2006)
Minna Aslama, Kalle Siira, Ronald Rice, Pekka Aula, “Mapping Communication and Media
Research in the U.S.” Communication Research Centre, University of Helsinki, Research
Report (February 2007).
James Beniger, “Communication – Embrace the Subject, not the Field” Journal of
Communication 43:3 (Summer 1993): 18+
Giuliana Bruno, Atlas of Emotion: Journeys in Art, Architecture, and Film (New York; Verso,
2002)
John Culkin, “Why Study the Media” excerpt from doctoral dissertation, Harvard Graduate
School of Education (1964): http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article430.html
Brenda Dervin and Mei Song, “Communication as a Field – Historical Origins, Diversity as
Strength/Weakness, Orientation Toward Research in the Public Interest: 54 Brief
Ruminations from Field Grandparents, Parents, and a Few Feisty Grandchildren”
International Communication Association Annual Meeting May 27-31, 2004, New Orleans, LA.
Katharine Harmon, You Are Here: Personal Geographies and Other Maps of the Imagination (New
York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2004).
Joanne Hershfield & Anna McCarthy, “Media Practice: Notes Toward a Critical Production
Studies” Cinema Journal 36:3 (Spring 1997): 108-112.
Henry Jenkins, “Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for
the 21st Century” [white paper] Building the Field of Digital Media and Learning (MacArthur
Foundation, 2006): http://tinyurl.com/2tegjl
Klaus Bruhn Jensen, “The Humanities in Media and Communication Research” In Klaus
Bruhn Jensen, Ed., A Handbook of Media and Communication Research: Qualitative and Quantitative
Methodologies (New York: Routledge, 2002): 16-39.
Klaus Bruhn Jensen, “Media Reception” In Klaus Bruhn Jensen, Ed., A Handbook of Media
and Communication Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Methodologies (New York: Routledge,
2002): 156-170.
24
Douglas Kellner, “Media Communications vs. Cultural Studies: Overcoming the Divide”
Communication Theory 5:2 (1995): 162-177.
Shearon A. Lowery and Melvin L. DeFleur, Milestones in Mass Communication Research: Media
Effects, 3rd Ed. (White Plains, Longman, 1995).
Robert McChesney, “Critical Communication Research at the Crossroads” Journal of
Communication 43:4 (Autumn 1993): 98+
C. Wright Mills, “On Intellectual Craftsmanship” Appendix to The Sociological Imagination
(Oxford University Press, 1959).
Graham Murdock, “Media, Culture and Modern Times: Social Science Investigations” In
Klaus Bruhn Jensen, Ed., A Handbook of Media and Communication Research: Qualitative and
Quantitative Methodologies (New York: Routledge, 2002): 40-57.
Gerald O’Grady, “The Preparation of Teachers of Media,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 3:3
Special Issue: Film, New Media, and Aesthetic Education (July 1969): 113-134.
John Durham Peters, “Genealogical Notes on ‘The Field’” Journal of Communication 43:4
(Autumn 1993): 132-.
David Rumsey Map Collection: http://www.davidrumsey.com/gmaps.html
Grace Roosevelt, “The Triumph of the Market and the Decline of Liberal Education:
Implications for Civic Life” Teachers College Record (2006): http://www.tcrecord.org/
Gregory Shepherd, “Building a Discipline of Communication” Journal of Communication 43:3
(Summer 1993): 83+
Pamela J. Shoemaker, “Communication in Crisis: Theory, Curricula, and Power” Journal of
Communication 43:4 (Autumn 1993)
William David Sloan, Makers of the Media Mind: Journalism Educators and Their Ideas (Lawrence
Earlbaum, 1990).
William Uricchio, “Historicizing Media in Transition” In David Thorburn & Henry Jenkins,
Eds., Rethinking Media Change: The Aesthetics of Transition (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003):
23-38.
Kevin Williams, Understanding Media Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
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