Struggling to Write: Learner Identity and Agency
in a Pre-University Intensive
English for Academic Purposes Program
Submitted by Elizabeth Howell, to the University of Exeter as a
dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Education in TESOL,
October 2008
This dissertation is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright
material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper
acknowledgement.
I certify that all material in this dissertation which is not my own work has been
identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the
award of a degree by this or any other University.
Signature: ___E.Howell____________________
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to Mum for her inspiration, to Joe for his support, and to
my students, without whom this study would not have been possible.
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Abstract
This small-scale ethnographic research study investigated student perceptions of social
identity and agency and the usefulness of the construct of the Community of Practice
for struggling writers in the context of a pre-university EAP program. The
appropriateness of socio-cultural theories in language teaching and learning today stems
from social constructivist and social interactionist theories of the role of language in the
discursive construction of society, knowledge and power. This study problematised
these constructs in the development of writing for learners in a pre-university Higher
Education context. Comparing data from focal students who were struggling with
writing and from students who were more successful, the biographies of struggling
students and their awareness of their futures, or imagined selves and communities,
revealed not only learning histories in which they had radically different identities as
learners and writers, but also a lack of clarity about their learning trajectory in the
writing program. There was no apparent lack of investment in learning among the focal
students, who identified themselves as weak writers, although there was frustration and
anger at their predicament. The data suggest that they did not identify with the learning
community at the start of the project, probably because they resisted belonging to a
community which labeled them as failures. During the study a variety of means were
used to elicit participants’ perceptions of their status as novice writers and to support
their learning trajectory on an individual basis by elucidating the reasons for and
requirements of academic writing. By the end of the study the focal students had
developed more awareness of the subject positions the writing trajectory afforded them
and had chosen ways in which to continue along their learning path. The Community of
Practice appears to have potential as a means of supporting the roles of EAP students
and teachers as members of the academic community of practice.
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Acknowledgements
I gratefully acknowledge the help of my tutors, Jill Cadorath and Sarah Rich, the advice
of my examiners, John Norrish and Susan Riley, and the support of Ed.D. TESOL
Dubai program leader Salah Troudi, as I struggled to write this dissertation.
My friends Helen Oliver and Heather Morrell provided unstinting academic support and
encouragement throughout the whole process, for which I am extremely thankful.
Discussions with the CAEL coordinators, Dianne Moffitt and Tina Peresson, with the
IELTS Coordinator, Mark Dawson-Smith, and with CAEL teachers, in particular
Cynthia Gale, Ruth Holmes, Maria Persson, Margaret Standing and Christina Gera,
provided helpful teacher voices during the data analysis process.
Thanks are also due to Brian Findsen, Lester Finch, Maureen Marra, Carol Tebbutt,
Angela Reid, Wendy Buchanan, Rebecca Vane and other colleagues who stood by me
and cheered me on through the long period of doctoral study.
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Table of Contents
Dedication ......................................................................................................................... 2
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 3
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 4
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. 5
List of Tables................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 1 ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Introduction to the Research Study ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.1 Identity, Agency and Community in Critical Second Language Learning ..Error!
Bookmark not defined.
1.2 Language Proficiency and Academic Literacy in Higher Education ...........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
1.3 Special Language Provision for Struggling Writers .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
1.3.1 Writing across the Curriculum and Content-Based Instruction ............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
1.3.2 Diagnostic assessment and tutorial support . Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.3.3 English for Academic Purposes programs ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.4 The Rationale for this Research Study ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.5 The Focus of this Research Study ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.6 Personal Commitment to this Project .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.7 The Significance of this Research Study ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.8 Research Questions ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.9 Conclusion .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Chapter Two .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Background to this Study ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1 The Research Context ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1.1 International students in Higher Education in New Zealand ................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2.1.2 The acculturation of students from the Middle East in New Zealand...Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2.2 The Intensive English Language Program in this Study .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
2.2.1 Placement assessment of students ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.2.2 Curriculum design in this English for Academic Purposes program ....Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2.2.3 Teaching materials for English for Academic Purposes programs .......Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2.2.4 Teaching writing in this English for Academic Purposes program ......Error!
Bookmark not defined.
2.3 The Challenge of Writing in English .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4 Language Proficiency Assessment at Placement Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.5 Advising Students of their Diagnosis and Prognosis ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
2.6 The Research Study Focus in Context ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Three .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Review of the Literature.................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1 Literacy: a Complex Construct ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.1 Basic literacy or basic writing? .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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3.1.2 Distinguishing critical literacy from critical thinking . Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.1.3 Distinguishing academic literacy from language proficiency measures
................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1.4 Developing academic literacy in a multiple literacy framework ..........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.1.5 The Arabic language: the challenge of writing ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.2 The Expository Essay in Writing Theory Development .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.2.1 The traditional-audiolingual paradigm of writing as form Error! Bookmark
not defined.
3.2.2 The psycholinguistic-communicative paradigm of writing as meaning
................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2.2.1 Situated cognition and communities: making meaning in context Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.2.2.2 Genre as social discourse ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.2.3 The socio-cultural paradigm of writing as identity construction ..........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.2.3.1 English for Academic Purposes in the socio-cultural paradigm ....Error!
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3.2.3.2 Discourse, disciplinary culture and boundaries ... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.2.4 The critical-discursive paradigm of writing as power. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
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3.3 The Expository Essay as a Heuristic for Teaching Academic English ........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.3.1 Topic content for academic English courses Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.2 Lexical content in academic English courses.............. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.3.3 Construction of meaning in essay tasks ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.3.4 Teaching materials and methods for academic English .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
3.3.5 Teacher feedback versus assessment of writing.......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.4 The Socio-Cultural Turn in Second Language Acquisition ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
3.4.1 Focus on the learner: identity ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1.1 Social psychology and identity ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1.2 The impact of teacher identity............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1.3 Socio-cultural theory and identity ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1.4
Ecological linguistics and identity ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.1.5 Critical Discourse and identity .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2 The agentive turn in social practice research Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2.1 Psychological theories of agency as motivation .. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.4.2.2 Agency as investment in learning and access to resources ............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2.3 Agency in the writing classroom........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.2.4 Agency as desire and struggle ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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3.4.3 The Community of Practice ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4.3.1 Implementation and critique of the Community of Practice ..........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
3.4.3.2 Transfer of learning versus situated learning ....... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
3.5 Conclusion to the Review ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Four ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Research Methodology.................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.1 Research Stance, Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
4.2 Research Context and Rationale ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3 Research Participants .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.4 Research Ethics ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.5 Research Questions ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6 Research Methods ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.1 Interviews ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.2 Focus groups and group interviews ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.3 Questionnaires .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.4 Essays ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.5 Observation in teaching support classes and the self-access centre ......Error!
Bookmark not defined.
4.6.6 Vocabulary tests ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.6.7 Emails from former students ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.7 Procedure for Data Collection............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.8 Data Analysis and Triangulation ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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4.9 Limitations of the Study ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Five .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Analysis and Discussion of the Data in Response to ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Research Question 1 ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1 Quantitative Data obtained in Response to Research Question 1: What are
struggling students’ perceptions of their experiences of learning to write expository
essays in this EAP program? ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.1 Language skills questionnaire ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1.2 Writing Skills and Literacy Background Questionnaires.. Error! Bookmark
not defined.
5.1.3 Nation’s Vocabulary Level Test data ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2 Interview Data in Response to Research Question 1 ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.1
Student perceptions of writing expository essays ...... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.1.1 Spelling ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.2 Punctuation............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.3 Writing speed ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.4 Lack of vocabulary................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.5 Optional or fixed essay topics ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.6 Essay structure ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.7 Process writing – three drafts ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.1.8 Translation into first language while writing ....... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
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5.2.2 Student perceptions of writing program structure ....... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.2.1 Course content ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.2.2 Assessment with multiple trait descriptors .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.2.3 Placement .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.2.4 Repeating courses on account of failure in writing .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
5.2.2.5 Recommendations concerning the program ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.3 Student perceptions of teaching ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.4 Student awareness of their learning trajectories.......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.2.4.1 Prior learning in English ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.4.2 Investment in language learning ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.4.3 IELTS test perceptions and progress..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.4.4 Future goals in education ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.5 Strategic awareness of learning .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.5.1 Learning strategies ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.5.2 Independent learning ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.5.3 Support groups ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2.5.4 Graded readers ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.3 Essay Data: Comparing Writing in English and Arabic .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
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5.4 Observation Data from Class and Learning Resource Centre . Error! Bookmark
not defined.
5.4.1 Handwriting and letter shapes ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4.2 Syllable formation and Arabic diacritical marks ........ Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.4.3 Teacher and whiteboard focus in class ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Six ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Analysis and Discussion of the Data in Response to Research Questions 2, 3 and 4
......................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1 Forging New Identities.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1.1 Identities as readers .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1.2 Identities as writers .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2 Fight, Flight or Change: Making Agentive Choices ...... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
6.2.1 Fight ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2.2 Flight ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2.3 Strategies for improving vocabulary and spelling .. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
6.2.4 Metacognitive awareness of essay writing .............. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
6.2.5 Motivation, investment, or desire in learning and success................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
6.2.6 Anxiety over writing assessment and the learning process ...............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
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6.3 The Writing Program as a Community of Practice ............ Error! Bookmark not
defined.
6.3.1 The structure of a Community of Practice ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3.2 Goals in a community of practice ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3.3 Reification and participation ........................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3.4 Shared practice and boundaries with the target community .................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
6.3.5 Rules and power relations, roles and labelling in class ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
6.3.6 Physical resources ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3.7 Symbolic resources ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.4 Conclusion to the Findings ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Seven ................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Implications, Recommendations and Conclusions ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1 Implications of the Findings................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.1 Pedagogic perspectives of identity, agency and community ................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
7.1.2 Identity, agency, community and principled pedagogy .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
7.1.3 Individual goal setting, investment, desire and motivation...................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4 Program weaknesses .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4.1 Support for ideas and voice ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4.2 Teaching focus on handwriting, phonemes/graphemes .................Error!
Bookmark not defined.
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7.1.4.3 Teaching and learning vocabulary ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4.4 Teaching and learning writing .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4.5 Writing assessment................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1.4.6 Essay topics and peer and teacher feedback ........ Error! Bookmark not
defined.
7.1.4.7 Learning resource centre, library and online learning Error! Bookmark
not defined.
7.2 Recommendations ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2.1 Placement decisions ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2.2 Reification and documentation .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2.3 Participation ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2.4 Learning from the past, adapting to the present .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
7.2.5 Teaching writing .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2.6 The division of labour .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.3 Conclusions ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix A ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Individual interview schedule: ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Focus group schedule: ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix B ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sample focal student profile Bassem .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix C ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Language Skills Questionnaire ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Writing Skills Questionnaire ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Literacy Background Questionnaire ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Appendix D ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 1 Language Skills Questionnaire Responses of All Students N=106 ..........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 2 Item 20: Number of students self-evaluating with writing problems .......Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 3 Item 20: Arabic speakers self-evaluating with writing problems .............Error!
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Appendix E ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4 Writing Skills Qu’aire Responses of non-Arabic speakers N= 44 ............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 5 Writing Skills Questionnaire Responses of Arabic speakers N=29 ...........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 6 Literacy Background Qu’aire Responses of non-Arabic speakers N=44 ..Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Table 7 Literacy Background Qu’aire Responses of Arabic speakers N=29 .........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Appendix F ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sample Essays from CAEL7 ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Essay # 3 (Focal student Bassem) ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Essay # 1 (anonymous CAEL7 student) ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Essay # 4 (anonymous CAEL7 student) ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix G ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Process Essays by Focal Student Bassem CAEL5 .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Draft 1 ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Draft 2 ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Draft 3 (As typed by Bassem) ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix H ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Written Communication Descriptors Student Version CAEL2-5 .. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Appendix I....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Writing Portfolio Marking Schedule ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix J ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Invitation to join the study .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix K ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Consent Form .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix L ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
School of Education and Lifelong Learning ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Certificate of ethical research approval........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ....................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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List of Tables
Table 1 Focal students
114
Table 2 Current students
114
Table 3 Former students
114
Table 4 Data collection procedures
126
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