Article for Dialogue Australasia Journal
“Sport and Spirituality; An Ancient Connection for our Modern Times.”
“To have religion, you need to have heroic forms to try to live up to. You need to have a
pattern of symbols and myths that a person can grow old with. You need to have a way to
exhilarate the human body, and desire, and will, and the sense of beauty. All these things you
have in sports.” (Novak 1976)
This article will argue that religion and sport are two of the most enduring and widely
practiced activities known to humanity and that they are inextricably linked. The terms
“religion” and “spirituality” will be used interchangeably and the lenses of History,
Sociology, Psychology, Ethics, and Theology will be used to compare the functions and
experiences of sport and spirituality. The Australian love affair with sport will be examined
as will the role of the media in creating myths and heroes (often through the extensive use of
religious metaphors in sports journalism). The peculiarly Christian use of sport as an
evangelical tool will also be explored, along with the ways in which sport and a “Christ-like”
approach to life may at times fit well and at other times involve a clash of values.
HISTORY.
Sport has been a form of “diversion” for human beings for thousands of years. It has been a
source of gathering, belonging, enjoyment, competition, play, preparation for war, violence
and divine blessing. In fact wherever it began in the ancient world it had a religious
connotation because everything did. From the Igbo tribes of West Africa with their wrestling
bouts to the Mayan civilizations of South America with their violent “ball” sports (usually
involving an opponent’s severed head), ancient cultures sought the blessing of the gods
through their games.
The most famous examples emerged in Ancient Greece in the early 700’s BCE. The Pythean,
Isthmian, Nemean, Athenaic and Olympic games were sacred festivals and an integral part of
the religious life of the Hellenes. Those who took part did so in order to serve their particular
god. For example the Olympic games honoured Zeus, the Isthmian games were in honour of
Poseidon and Delphi and the Nemean games honoured Apollo.
Eventually the Olympic Games took precedence and although the reasons behind their origins
remain a mystery, they soon followed a pattern with funeral rites to Pelops and sacrifices to
Zeus. “The athletic events were held in order to persuade the god to return from the dead, to
reappear in the form of a new shoot emerging from the dark earth into the light of day.”
(Drees 1968)
The competition evolved over time from the simple stade race (one length of the stadium) in
776BC to an elaborate program of foot and chariot races, boxing and wrestling (and a
combination of the two called the pankration), along with discus and javelin. The last day
included a banquet where the gods were solemnly thanked for their sponsorship of the games,
and the winners were rewarded with olive branches from the sacred grove of Zeus.
Only Greek “freemen” could compete and legend has it that the competitors were naked and
women were thrown off a cliff if they attended. The Games required a truce to be declared
between the frequently warring Greek states, a reminder that politics and religion have
always been part of the Olympic Games. Eventually the Romans developed the “Isolympics”
which became extremely violent and in 393 CE, the Christian emperor Theodosius closed the
games because they were seen as a form of pagan worship and idolatry. Socrates and Plato
were two of the famous competitors. Socrates remained supportive of the games and their
celebration of form and fitness but Plato was to reject them as “worldly” and in a state of
“decay” as his philosophy evolved.
For the next 1500 years, the Christian church regarded sport as a temptation of the body and
an invitation to gambling and “fleshly pursuits.” Influenced by the writings of St Paul and the
ascetic monastic traditions of the Dark and Middle Ages, the Church encouraged self denial
and the priority of the soul over the body. Ironically many of our modern games (such as
cricket and tennis) have their origins in the recreational activities of the monks. The Puritans
took this condemnation of worldly pleasures and games of chance to a new level until the
theological and social breakthrough that came to be known as “Muscular Christianity.”
By the mid 19th century in England the Industrial Revolution saw a huge migration of young
men to the cities with time and money on their hands (and subsequent gambling, prostitution
and health issues), the growth of the British Empire and need to train a growing number of
soldiers and public servants, and the perceived ‘over-feminisation’ of the Church of England.
In response to these social pressures, people like Charles Kingsley, (an American clergyman,
novelist and social reformer living in England), began to preach a gospel of; “physical &
moral health to be found on the fields of play,” and developed a theology of “training boys in
daring, temper endurance, self restraint, fairness, and honour.” Britain’s public schools
picked up on this idea of “godliness and good learning,” and developed a curriculum of
Classics mixed with rowing, cricket, rugby and football. The purpose became a moral one to
create Christian gentlemen; “godliness, good learning and good names comprised a potent
trinity in Victorian public schools.” (Baker 1992)
These ideas were formative in the creation of the modern Olympic Games. In 1875, a 12yr
old Pierre de Coubertin was deeply moved by the classic “Tom Brown’s Schooldays” (an
account of student life at Rugby school in England eulogising its famous headmaster Thomas
Arnold). Coubertin later made a ‘pilgrimage’ to Rugby where he had a profound experience
at the foot of Arnold’s tombstone, seeing; “the cornerstone of the British Empire, created by
the mixture of piety and athletic prowess espoused by many of the English public schools.”
The doctrine of ‘Olympism’ that Coubertin then developed drew on liberal Anglicanism and
his own French Catholicism of the time. He saw sport as a form of new religion with its own
dogmas and rituals, but especially with “religious feelings”. And so the 1st modern Olympic
Games were “resurrected” intentionally on Easter Sunday, 5 April 1896, symbolically of
course in Athens. The morning began with a holy mass for athletes in the main cathedral with
a sermon preached by Coubertin’s mentor, the French Dominican friar Fr Henri Didon. At
11am Greek royal family arrived to hear a choir sing the ‘Te Deum.’ At the stadium a new
Olympic hymn was sung to “The immortal Spirit of antiquity, Father of the true, the good and
the beautiful.” Prayers were then led by both Catholic and Protestant church leaders.
Coubertin’s ‘secular, reconstructed faith’ had an evangelist’s fervour as he poured vast
amounts of time, money and energy into making the modern Olympic Games happen. ‘Have
faith in it pour out your strength in it, make its hope your own,’ he wrote. He saw; athletes as
disciples of a new ‘muscular religion’, spectators and coaches as the ‘laity of sport’, and the
International Olympic Committee as ‘a college of disinterested priests.’ He wanted athletes to
be imbued with ‘a sense of the moral grandeur of the games so that their vulgar competition
could be transformed and sanctified.’ And he wanted ceremonies with ‘symbolic power of
multiple significance’ that he knew always need; a sense of history, an educational content,
an artistic projection, and an underlying religious element.
The other ‘fruits’ of Muscular Christianity were; sports evangelism (including chaplaincies),
the YMCA, YWCA and Scouting movements and the huge commitment of time and money
for sport in the religious school system that continues to the present day.
EVANGELISM
Evangelical Christians grew, under the influence of Muscular Christianity, to see the Bible as
containing the elements of a theology of sport and leisure (eg; rest on the Sabbath, ‘be still
and know that I am God,’ train and harden the body to ‘bring it under subjection’, tell the
Good News of Jesus to all people by whatever means you are able, run the race and keep the
faith, use your talents in all areas of life, and perhaps above all the idea that the body is a
‘temple for the holy spirit’). Consequently sports ministries were developed by many
churches and para-church groups as a leisure time activity with the intention of helping
people become aware of their need for a relationship with God.
Sport had become accepted as a way of building character, and some American evangelists
even use a term known as “Christmanship” for physical and spiritual health and the
modelling of a good life. Christmanship was seen to encourage athletes to “live out
characteristics, attitudes and skills that emulate Christ and conform to his image in the arena
of competition.” (Linville 2003).
Christian athletes, the evangelists claim, need to learn to; put others first, respect coaches and
referees (especially when contentious decisions are made), and show utter respect for
opponents (which may include encouraging them and wishing them well). Sport can be an
ideal evangelical tool, especially for young men from troubled backgrounds. It allows the
evangelist to get up “close and personal” and may lead to very enjoyable relationships. With
time, space, tools, money and people to help, sports ministry is seen as a great way of getting
involved with a church, or maybe even leading them to faith. In the 20th century, Billy
Graham, the great American evangelist often invited famous athletes to give their testimonies
at his rallies and people like Eric Lidell (of “Chariots of Fire” fame) used their sporting
success to share their Christian message.
Contact sports pose a particular challenge to spiritual athletes (remembering of course that
martial arts have a spiritual foundation), and there is a tension between having “winners” who
become enticing role models and playing fairly and “putting the other first” or “turning the
other cheek.” Interestingly, athletes from Eastern religions tend to be far less concerned with
winning. The goal is much more about living “fully in the moment” which enhances
performance but is far less competitive.
Sports chaplaincy is a growing area with nearly 200 chaplains to elite sporting teams in
Australia. International organisations such as Athletes in Action, Christians in Sport,
Fellowship of Christian Athletes, and many others support international teams who travel the
world “spreading the gospel” through sport.
SOCIOLOGY
Sociological studies dating back to the early 20th century noticed the ways in which sport can
function LIKE a religion for many people. As the traditional expressions of religion decline
(particularly in the Western world), sport is filling part of the void. “If I were to show a
visitor to the United States as single recurring event which has come to characterise
American folk religion, the Super Bowl would be it.” (Mathison 1987)
Edwards (1973), a sociologist writes that highly competitive sport has;

a body of formally stated beliefs,

is accepted and followed with great passion by masses of people

‘saints’ or heroes from the past who manifest the values of the game

ruling ‘patriarchs’ or coaches

administrators and managers who control sporting bodies

‘gods’ or superstars who influence those who watch the games

‘shrines’ or halls of fame, trophy rooms and cabinets

commandments and great sayings and stories

hymns and chants to unify and gather people

scribes or journalists who record the great stories and help to create heroes and myths

the promotion of the dominant values of a society

and ‘houses of worship’ where millions congregate to bear witness to the
manifestations of their ‘faith’ [i.e. Edwards actually sees sport as ‘a secular, quasi
religious institution’].
Other sociologists such as Eitzen and Sage, Coakley, Durkheim and Albanese all talk about
sport and religion’s parallel offering of; sacred time and space, escape from the pain and
drudgery of life, transcendent experiences, exercising forms of social control, a sense of
belonging, ritualising to the extent of extraordinary fetishes and superstitions, and the ability
to create societal myths, heroes and legends.
In some cultures, people (often from under-privileged backgrounds), spend large amounts of
money on the team uniform, buying pay TV, naming their children after their sporting heroes,
purchasing expensive tickets to games and joining tribal groups who will resort to violence if
necessary. Sport can indeed function like a religion for many people.
ETHICS
In the Ancient Greek sporting games 3 societal values were emphasised;
1) philotimia (love of honour) from the idea that citizens were encouraged to donate
charitably to their societies. In the Greek games athletes often competed on behalf of
their sponsor and communities and were honoured upon their return
2) philonikia (love of victory or winning) from the idea that a healthy democracy
involves competition for the rewards of life. This was eulogised by the odes of Pindar
where the conduct of winning athletes was carefully monitored and losers were seen
as slinking home in shame.
3) dikaiosune (justice, fairness and honesty) upon which laws were based, but retaliation
in sport was alright for those who overstepped the mark.
In Muscular Christianity the ethical emphasis was on;
•
preparation for the challenges of life
•
teaching respect for others and the rules of society
•
encouraging patient endurance and unflagging moral courage
•
the educational value of defeat and failure
•
extension of the chivalric and ascetic belief that the body was to be trained and
brought under subjection to protect the weak and advance righteous causes
•
self reliance, self control, vigour and the development of character
•
Empire building, i.e. creating soldiers and public servants who would serve with
honour and self sacrifice
Athletes enjoy a remarkably wide range of ethical options such as; whether to intimidate an
opponent; how to react to victory or defeat; how vigorously to tackle an opponent; whether or
not to help an opponent to their feet; whether or not to expose oneself to physical harm;
whether or not to exploit an opponent’s injury; whether or not to ‘walk’ in cricket; whether or
not to acknowledge touching a ball over the boundary line, and many more. All of these
decisions are not bound by the rules of the game, the ‘spirit’ maybe but not the rules.
A real challenge occurs when the athlete’s own value system may be “higher” or more
ethically developed than the rules of a particular contest. Social customs and self interest
appear to be the factors that influence a sportsperson’s ethical decisions. Social custom
dictates a moral action because ‘everybody does it,’ eg; winning having priority over playing
fairly. Disturbingly; “as athletes become more immersed in the cultural context of
competitive sports; they appear to become more receptive to rule violations and increased
violence.” (McIntosh 1979)
Self interest is where an athlete’s decisions are based on what they find pleasurable in the
short term or most compatible with their life goals for the longer term. Actions are judged
good and moral because they are focussed on achieving the ends to which the athletes are
committed (usually winning). From anabolic steroids to stopping the clock with fake injuries,
examples of this ethic abound.
Therefore Christian sporting ethicists call on athletes to play to the best of their God-given
ability, as free as possible from social custom and self interest, and exhibiting a parallel
commitment to Christian living. This provides a great opportunity for evangelism and a
chance for athletes to challenge the popular culture and to practice and model good morals.
PSYCHOLOGY
Religious athletes report that their faith helps them to; conquer fear, overcome weariness,
emerge from form slumps and negative attitudes, develop a detachment from anxiety that
allows them to perform to their peak, and can act like a spur to achievement and a painkiller
for failure.
Researches talk about peak experiences in sport which are “moments of highest happiness
and fulfilment when an individual entertains feelings of; unity, inner peace, wholeness of
being, loss of fears and inhibitions.” (Maslow 1968)
Csikszentmihalyi (1975) talks about flow experiences which are felt in a “subjective state
that frequently accompanies activities we find intrinsically rewarding.” Here sporting
subjects report; a merging of actions and awareness, a centring of attention, and a heightened
sense of control of one’s own actions and the external environment. These things can be
experienced in many forms of human activities but Csikszentmihalyi calls play the “flow
experience par excellence.”
Murphy and White (1978) classified the altered states of consciousness reported by athletes
into 11 categories; acute well-being, peace, calm, stillness, detachment, freedom, flying,
weightlessness, ecstasy, power and control, being in the present, instinctive action and
surrender, mystery and awe, feelings of immortality and unity. Their study led them to
conclude that; sport has enormous power to sweep us beyond the ordinary sense of self, to
evoke capacities that generally have been regarded as mystical, occult or religious.
The research indicates that; high risk sports like mountain climbing, long range sea voyages
(especially alone), and long distance running (with its prolonged discomfort) are more likely
to invoke religious experiences than low risk team games.
So why do these religious experiences seem to occur so often in sport? Hoffman (1992)
argues for a leisurely disposition associated with intense aesthetic experiences. Such a
disposition is a basic feature of play (which is often used as a metaphor for the religious life).
Van der Leeuw (1963) writes; The meeting of God with man, of man with God is holy play.
For this reason, the game points beyond itself, downward, to the simple, ordinary rhythm of
life; upward to the highest forms of existence which strive toward a communion with the
other, and finally for a meeting with God.
Expectant alertness is part of a leisure mind-set, and it is perhaps the isolated nature of sports
like rock climbing and long distance running that opens one up to the divine rather than their
risk factor or prolonged discomfort. It has been argued that sport provides the right spiritual
ecology for contemplation and religious experience.
But perhaps above all there exists in the mind of ‘spiritual’ athletes the belief that sport acts
as a primary reinforcer of social values and goals; that is it supports and sanctifies the belief
that achievement, hard work, success and discipline are the chief ways to godliness.
With regard to the psychology of sports fans (an abbreviation by the way of the word fanatic), there is a seeking not just for entertainment but also for the satisfaction of the inner
drive for perfection, success and absolute victory. This helps explain some people’s
inordinate identification with sports heroes in our culture as we vicariously achieve the self
glory (through them) that we never experience in our every day lives. “Pro football is sick
society’s projection of itself into public spectacle,” (McMurty 1972).
Eitzen and Sage (1997) have argued that religion can be used to help athletes and coaches
deal with stressful situations and they state that prayer is perhaps the most frequently
employed use of religion by coaches and athletes. Examples of prayer’s use in sport are for;
protection, good performance, victory, building unity and cohesion, ritual (eg; Lord’s prayer
or 23rd Psalm), dealing with uncertainties, maintaining traditions or even social control,
sanctifying performance, and mental rehearsal and focus.
Clearly then, understanding the role of religion and spirituality (especially prayer) in a
‘religious’ athlete’s life, is a vital consideration for the coach, sports psychologist, chaplain
and even sports administrators.
THEOLOGY
The Ancient Olympics, Michael Novak (1976) argues, combined the worship of the gods and
festivals to honour the state and this has been “the classic position of sport” ever since.
Sports, he argues, flow outward into action from a deep natural impulse that is radically
religious. This is an impulse of; freedom, respect for rituals, a zest for symbolic meaning, and
a longing for perfection.
And even though the athlete may not be religious, the impulses are religious;
•
The asceticism and dedication of preparation
•
A sense of respect for the mysteries of one’s own body and soul
•
For powers not in one’s own control
•
By a sense of awe for the place and time of competition
•
By a sense of fate
•
By a felt sense of comradeship and destiny, and
•
By a sense of participation in the rhythms and tides of nature itself.
Novak also argues that sports are organised and dramatised in a religious way and they; feed
a deep human hunger, place us in touch with our dimly perceived role within the cosmos, and
provide an experience of godliness
Sports, he says, can drive us “godward” as manifestations of will, intellect and passion that
drive people to submit to great bodily dangers, even to the danger of death. Novak is
particularly interested in the cosmic struggle that sports provide in which human survival and
moral courage are not assured. Sport has the power to exhilarate and depress people through
its symbolic rituals and depth. Many people don’t watch sport to pass the time. The outcome
affects them, they really care and they are drawn into mysteries of youth and aging, perfect
action and decay, fortune and misfortune, strategy and contingency, and rituals concerning
human survival.
Susan Saint Sing (2001) argues for a sense of the metaphysical in sport, the arête of ancient
Greek athletics; a pursuit and ideal to strive for, a balance of body, soul, mind and character
along with the values of grace, perfection and strength.
Sport, she writes may be a “thing of beauty,” a perfection of the human being in its ultimate
realisation of exertion and movement, where God’s perfect will is for flesh and blood to move
within spirit in ultimate form. She talks about us as “God’s design.” He chose us to be
muscle and mass with the ability to move in myriad ways. Play, she says, is an archetype of
goodness and joy, a cluster of energy mirroring the last memories of the perfect human state
and union with God-the Garden of Eden.
A champion, she says, is someone greater than the event because they have taken their walk
with the mythical in the empty stadiums or rain drenched tracks. They have touched the gods
of despair and courage and we who have not yet accomplished this-seek them to applaud,
study and worship them That’s why we fill stadiums, to try and take a small part of this
‘champion quality’ for ourselves.
Champions have been given much and much should be expected of them. Sport must help
them and us to transcend our basest nature. When you pursue the basic excellence of being a
good person, like you pursue the gold medal, then you can’t fail to be a winner and a true
champion. True champions:
•
know what is ethical and moral
•
play, coach and teach with integrity
•
understand that winning is a 50/50 proposition, but if you play your very best and
compete to be excellent, then you never lose, you are always a winner
•
if goodness keeps you, your team, your program on a path of excellence-not to be
deterred by winning or losing, then winning takes care of itself
•
there are no shortcuts to excellence (especially cheating in any form)
•
show respect to opponents, the game and self
•
as people who love sport and exercise, become champions of common sense,
character, order and fair play
AUSTRALIANS AND SPORT
Many writers believe that the passion and commitment of so many Australian men to sport
bears the hallmarks of a vibrant spirituality. It is for some a chosen way of being, connecting
with others, and contributing to personal and social well-being; “beneficially rearranging
their internal furniture” (McCowan). Men, he argues, seem to require an opponent or
challenge in order to better understand themselves and their relative strengths and
weaknesses. Through competition and conflict, a man’s sense of power can be tested. This
teaches; relinquishment of control, perseverance against difficult odds and appropriate
toughness to address wrongdoing and to achieve one’s best.
If you really want to hear Australians-especially Australian men-getting excited about ritual,
doctrine and tradition; if you really want to see a congregation of Australians standing and
singing with passion and commitment; if you really want to understand how intensely
Australians can debate a moral issue…listen to them talking about sport, or go and watch a
major sporting contest. (McKay 1999)
Historically it is also important to remember that Australia was colonised when sport was
becoming more and more important to “mother England”. It was recognised that the convicts
would need games. Our climate, manly pioneering image and need to ease masculine
aggression among the predominantly male society, meant sport played a vital social function.
There were also large areas of cheap land to build sports fields and race tracks and a growing
amount of leisure time. A “squattocracy” was emerging with the values Muscular
Christianity, cities were being built, and the English passion for amusements and games was
prevalent.
Keith Dunstan in his book “Knockers” writes that sport is the ultimate super-religion, the one
thing every Australian believes in passionately. Not to be keen on sport is therefore unclean,
unmanly, even homosexual and definitely contrary to the ethics of the super religion of the
nation. Sport is a major influence on our culture. Indeed Australia had a national cricket
team before it became a nation. Yet the churches attitude toward sport gets little attention
from historians.
THE MEDIA
Finally, the media plays a vital role in the creation of myths, heroes and legends. Take the
example of the Sunday Times article in WA the day after Ben Cousins’ comeback game in
2007; The second coming of Ben Cousins is all West Coast fans have dreamed of for weeksand last night at Subiaco Oval he gave them a comeback to remember. Ben Cousins (the
prodigal son) went from pariah to Messiah as he joined his team mates in the blue and gold
for the first time since his drug-related suspension.”(Braden Quartermaine)
Terms such as a ‘baptism of fire’, ‘the greatest comeback since Lazarus’ and a ‘god-like
performance’ abound and they seem to work in sports journalism. When asked why, here
were some reporter’s responses;

Sport is an extreme human experience like war or religion

Religious metaphors are in our mind because we are told sport is LIKE a religion

Aussies don’t take offence at religious metaphors

Large numbers in society ‘worship’ sports heroes so we use religious language

Religious metaphors are easy and quickly build atmosphere and occasion

Gladiatorial contests have religious undertones

There must be a sub-conscious link
Perhaps more than any other area the media reinforces the link between sport and spirituality
and its relevance to our time and our culture. In conclusion, it is perhaps at the deepest subconscious levels that the link remains the strongest (which is how metaphors, images and
rituals work). There is no doubt that sport and spirituality both touch the depths of the human
soul, both illuminate the human journey and both offer extreme experiences as well as
opportunities for re-creation and play.
Rev Canon Richard Pengelley
Chaplain St George’s College
Lecturer Sport Science, Exercise and Health, UWA
richardp@cyllene.uwa.edu.au, 6488 2363
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