THE IMPACT OF THE FEDERAL WORK-STUDY PROGRAM AT THE WILSON
JOINT UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT’S (WJUSD) AFTER SCHOOL EDUCATION
AND SAFETY (ASES) PROGRAM
Ami Minh Tripp
B.A., University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1998
THESIS
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
in
EDUCATION
(Higher Education Leadership)
at
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO
SPRING
2012
THE IMPACT OF THE FEDERAL WORK-STUDY PROGRAM AT THE WILSON
JOINT UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT’S (WJUSD) AFTER SCHOOL EDUCATION
AND SAFETY (ASES) PROGRAM
A Thesis
by
Ami M. Tripp
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Rosemary Blanchard
__________________________________, Second Reader
Dr. Virginia Dixon
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Ami M. Tripp
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the thesis.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator
Dr. Geni Cowan
Educational Leadership & Policy Studies
iii
___________________
Date
Abstract
of
THE IMPACT OF THE FEDERAL WORK-STUDY PROGRAM AT THE WILSON
JOINT UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT’S (WJUSD) AFTER SCHOOL EDUCATION
AND SAFETY (ASES) PROGRAM
by
Ami M. Tripp
Brief Literature Review
Community Service-Learning (CSL) is one of the most pervasive education
innovations of the past generation and has demonstrated much success in connecting
schooling with community service. The growth of CSL in the US is due to the work of
Campus Compact, a national coalition of college and university presidents supporting
student education for responsible citizenship. It is a form of experiential learning in
which education is reinforced by community service (Hunter & Brisbin, 2000).
Participation in CSL as part of college has been found to have more positive benefits for
students than does participating in typical volunteer community service (Vogelgesang &
Astin, 2000).
Statement of the Problem
Working while enrolled is perhaps a major activity among America’s diverse
undergraduate population. According to the Department of Education (2010), 85% of
student workers are employed off-campus working, on average, 27 hours per week.
Consequently, this study was conducted to better understand the impact of the offiv
campus Federal Work-Study (FWS) Program at Wilson Joint Unified School District
ASES Program. To date, there has not been a formal evaluation done of the FWS
program and its affect at the district.
Methodology
Multiple searches and search strategies were employed addressing the relationship
between student employment and higher education outcomes. This included an
examination of educational and psychological databases (ERIC) available through the
library system at California State University, Sacramento.
After the review of on-line articles, interview questions were generated based on
the collected information from previous student employment studies. In order to gather
the necessary data, the descriptive method was used, employing the qualitative approach.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Although CSL opportunities are often offered as part of an academic course
experience (e.g. Butcher & Hall, 1998; Kretchmar, 2001), CSL does not have to be linked
to a specific course. Gray (2000) suggests that the development of institutional service
activities provides quality educational experiences for students while simultaneously
offering benefits to the college.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Dr. Rosemary Blanchard
______________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you Lord for your many blessings; I would not have made it this far
without you, as the head, in my life. I am truly blessed. Thank you, Dr. Rosemary
Blanchard, who has been the ideal thesis advisor. Your sage advice, insightful criticisms,
and patient encouragement aided the writing of this thesis in innumerable ways. I would
also like to thank Dr. Chavez and Dr. Cowan who have spent many hours molding me to
be a better writer.
vi
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis
To Curt, thank you for being steady and strong and good and kind. Hold my hand and
walk with me through the coming seasons…the graduations and the growing up and
getting older. All of it is possible with you by my side. Together we’ll watch our
children take wing. The ride is breathtakingly wondrous. I pray it lasts far into our
twilight years. Until then, I’ll enjoy not always knowing where I end and you begin. I
love you always and forever.
To my tribe (all 7 of you), thank you for reminding me of the importance of family,
quality time spent together, and cuddles;
To my Mom for instilling in me the importance of hard work and higher education;
To my friends, old and new, and to my Angelsmay you always be motivated
and emboldened to reach for the stars.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................. vi
Dedication ........................................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... x
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1.
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
Background ............................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 10
Definition of Terms............................................................................................... 12
Limitations of the Study........................................................................................ 16
Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 18
Summary ............................................................................................................... 23
Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis ....................................................... 24
2.
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................ 25
Higher Education and Civil Engagement ............................................................. 25
Benefits to the FWS Students ............................................................................... 31
Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital .................................................................................. 35
Theories of Giving in Community Service-Learning Relationships .................... 45
Benefits to the University ..................................................................................... 51
The Value of Community Service-Learning to the Community and Students of
Color ..................................................................................................................... 56
The Experience of Schooling for Low-Income Minority Students ...................... 63
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 69
3.
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 72
Setting of the Study............................................................................................... 73
Population and Sample ......................................................................................... 80
viii
Design of the Study............................................................................................... 85
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 89
Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 92
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 94
4.
DATA ANALYSIS & FINDINGS ............................................................................ 99
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 102
Findings............................................................................................................... 110
Research Question 1 ........................................................................................... 110
Research Question 2 ........................................................................................... 116
Research Question 3 ........................................................................................... 124
5.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................... 130
Summary ............................................................................................................. 130
Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 143
Recommendations ............................................................................................... 145
Appendix A. Survey...................................................................................................... 154
References ....................................................................................................................... 156
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1.
Wilson’s Demographics (City of Wilson, 2011) ............................................ 79
2.
Likert Scale ..................................................................................................... 94
3.
Coding Categories ......................................................................................... 101
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1.
Community Cultural Wealth ........................................................................... 40
2.
Inductive Process Framework of Academic Research Collaborations ........... 54
3.
Undergraduate Student Populations Headcount, Fall 1999-2011 ................... 74
4.
UC Divine Total 2010-11Work Study Disbursed by Program Type .............. 76
5.
UC Divine Total 2010-11 Work Study Disbursed by Funding Source .......... 76
6.
WJUSD Information for Student Enrollment (2009-2010) ............................ 77
7.
WJUSD 2+ Years Tutors ................................................................................ 81
8.
WJUSD Tutors by Grade Level ...................................................................... 82
9.
Breakdown of Tutors by Gender..................................................................... 82
10.
Breakdown of Female Tutors by Ethnicity ..................................................... 83
11.
Breakdown of Male Tutors by Ethnicity ........................................................ 83
12.
Number of Tutors Employed at WJUSD ........................................................ 84
13.
Unforeseen Expectations .............................................................................. 104
14.
Future Contributions to the Local Community ............................................. 105
15.
Further Development of Skills ...................................................................... 107
16.
Direction of Life has changed since Tutoring Job ........................................ 108
17.
Satisfaction with the FWS Program .............................................................. 109
xi
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
A common component of any mission and goals statement at an institution of
higher learning traditionally includes the institution's desire to deliver enriched learning
experiences that engage its students and promote student success. The University of
California [UC], Divine’s (2010) Philosophy of Purpose states:
UC Divine has a history of focused attention on undergraduate education.
The central elements of a liberal education—the arts and languages, history and
philosophy and the sciences—offer the opportunity for a broad general education
combined with specialization in a scholarly discipline. Coupled with this are
manifold opportunities for personal development through programs for academic
enrichment, including undergraduate research, work-learn experiences and
extracurricular student life […] (para. 4)
The campus has a commitment to advancing teaching and scholarly work
in the arts, humanities and the social sciences, studies that also enrich the life of
each person and society as a whole [...] (para. 6)
The life of UC Divine extends beyond teaching and study to service to the
region, state, nation, and the world. This is given in many forms: cooperative
extension to agriculture and education; medical services to central California and
beyond through the multifaceted UC Divine Medical Center in Sacramento;
2
diverse educational programs of University Extension that share knowledge with
the region; voluntary contributions of faculty, staff and students; and athletic and
cultural programs for the campus and community at large […] (para. 8)
UC Divine remains committed to its human values: caring and personal
relationships, collaborative and thoughtful work, all within a human-scale
environment. These special qualities are sustained by intellectual strength within
a collegial community whose members share a deep desire for teaching and
learning, for an abiding commitment to discovering and applying new knowledge
(para. 10).
Though this seems straight forward, the implications and working definition of
student success are not always reflective of the same outcomes. Some researchers would
point to grade point averages (GPA) and graduation rates to define student success while
others would review placement rates among graduates, length of time to degree
completion, and the level of debt at time of departure from college. Habley and Schuh
(2007) stated, “The current measures of institutional success are the percentage of
students who enroll, the percentage that stay, and the percentage who subsequently
graduate” (p. 359). This definition describes student success strictly from the perspective
of the institution and its need to assess student success within its own reporting structure.
As Habley and Schuh (2007) further pointed out, the assumptions supporting
these measures of success are flawed as not every student enrolls with the intent to earn a
degree at that college. For these students, the definition of student success can be as
simple as the desire to earn the necessary pre-requisites to transfer to another institution
3
or gain skills that will enable them to move up the employment ladder or secure
employment in a new emerging field perhaps due to job loss. Additionally, not all
students enter with the intent to finish on the institution’s prescribed timetable as many
work full-time and attend part-time while meeting family obligations. Some will drop
out, either planned or unplanned, taking time off to handle family matters such as
childcare or eldercare issues. Others will encounter workplace issues such as time
conflicts with class schedules which prohibit enrollment and may never return to finish
their degrees. Some will find it necessary to withdraw due to financial matters that
impact their ability to pay tuition. These and other situations often lead to longer time to
completion. Based upon National Center for Education Statistics [NCES] (2011) data
collected for the period of 2009-2010, 57% of students who enrolled at four-year
institutions completed a bachelor’s degree within six years at the institution at which they
started.
Regardless of the students’ reasons for dropping out or not re-enrolling, higher
educational institutions are still held accountable for students’ success. The
accountability measures are imposed by various governmental agencies, accrediting
bodies, and others who define student success in terms of completers for meeting funding
formulas and report student success in statistical comparisons where graduation rates may
be used for rankings. These measures traditionally reflect student retention and degree
completion statistics but do not necessarily represent student success. Faced with
circumstances such as these, institutions must become more focused on “creating
conditions that matter” (Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh, Whitt, & Associates, 2005, p. 145). These
4
conditions are within the institution’s span of control. They further reported that “What
students do during college counts more for what they learn and whether they will persist
in college” (p. 8). They further advised that colleges must allocate sufficient resources
and organize learning opportunities and services to encourage students to become
engaged to derive the benefits from such activities. Opportunities for students to more
frequently interact with the community, faculty, staff, and their peers will help to foster
student success. As Kuh et al. (2005) suggested, “Students learn firsthand to think about
and solve practical problems by interacting with members inside and outside the
classrooms” (p. 207).
Studies conducted relative to college student development showed that the time
and level of effort students devote to related educational activities or as Kuh et al. (2005)
described through their research, “educational purposeful activities” (p. 207) is the single
best predictor of their learning and personal development. The degree of personal
involvement and the investment of time is a contributing factor to student retention and
success.
The level of student interaction can be impacted by numerous elements outside
the control of the institution. One such element is student employment while enrolled in
college. College students are increasingly likely to work while attending school. During
the 2009-10 academic year, 78% of undergraduates worked while they were enrolled.
The share of students who work has remained virtually unchanged since the federal
government first began asking students detailed questions about their employment in the
mid-1990s. On average, employed students spend almost 30 hours per week working
5
while enrolled. Researchers have reported similarly over the past decade that
approximately 57% of students work full or part-time (Broadbridge & Swanson, 2005;
Furr & Elling, 2000). In 2009, the American Council on Education (ACE) reported,
Regardless of age, gender, race/ethnicity, dependency or marital status,
enrollment status, types of institution attended, or even income or educational and
living expenses, 70-80 percent of students work while they are enrolled…and
…23 percent of full-time students work more than 35 or more hours per week
while enrolled. (pp. 1-2)
The ACE (2009) further reported: Students are more likely to work than they are
to live on campus, to study full time, to attend a four-year college or university, or
to apply for or receive financial aid. Students work regardless of the type of
institution they attend, their age or family responsibilities, or even their family
income or educational living expenses. Working while enrolled is perhaps the
single most common major activity among America’s diverse undergraduate
population. (p. 2)
Even though the value of work, either part-time or full-time, has been associated
with numerous studies on student retention, success, and even employment upon
graduation, there has been little research conducted that exclusively examines the
relationship between off-campus employment, particularly those students employed in
Community Service positions through the Federal Work-Study program, and the impact
that the Federal Work-Study program has in the community as well as the lives of the
university students working in these positions.
6
Community service is the donation of one’s time and skills to fill a need in the
society; it is an American tradition with deep roots. During his travels during the 1830s,
Alexis de Tocqueville, found that the ethic of service “prompts [Americans] to assist one
another and inclines them willingly to sacrifice a portion of their time and property to the
welfare of the state” (Tocqueville, Stone & Mennell, 1980, p. 196). Through this ethic of
service, Americans express their belief in the importance of individual effort and concern
for others. One way in which this value has been passed on to younger generations is
through the inclusion opportunities in colleges across the nation, where students begin to
develop their roles as active members of the community who make contributions to
addressing community needs. The idea that the nation’s schools serve as a crucial place
for students to learn this ethic has been corroborated by research by scholars such as John
Dewey. Based on his work on education, Dewey (1997) found that the habits of
democracy are most effectively achieved when students, educators, and community
members actively work together to address society’s needs. Consequently, a Higher
Education Research Institute annual survey demonstrates that concern for others among
college freshmen in 2008 was the strongest it has been in the past 25 years, with two of
three (66%) entering freshmen saying that they believe it is essential or very important to
help others who are in need.
Furthermore, literacy campaigns, food banks, and other community service
programs now engage a substantial proportion of American youth, with the most active
participation typically occurring among college students. According to one national
survey (National Resource Center for The First-Year Experience and Students in
7
Transition [NRC], 2001) nearly two out of three college students have performed
community service work during the previous year. Observers in the popular media have
attached enormous significant to this trend, seeing in it a herald of renewed idealism and
social awareness among young people. Likewise, educational theorists and policymakers
look toward service as a potentially valuable supplement to conventional forms of civic
and moral education. This view is supported by a small body of research (Astin & Sax,
1998; Cosden, Morrison, Albanese & Macias, 2001) indicating that participation in
community service is associated with positive developmental outcomes, including an
enhanced sense of responsibility and concern for others.
Another concept similar to citizenship education is Community Service-Learning
(CSL). Community Service-Learning is one of the most pervasive education innovations
of the past generation and has demonstrated much success in connecting schooling with
community service. The growth of Community Service-Learning in the US is due, in
large part, to the work of Campus Compact, a national coalition of more than 1,100
college and university presidents supporting student education for responsible citizenship,
and the funding of program and course development grants awarded by Learn and Serve
America, a program initiative of the Corporation for National and Community Service. It
is a form of experiential learning in which education is reinforced by community service
(Hunter & Brisbin, 2000). It is believed, and there is growing evidence to show, that
participation in Community Service-Learning can foster civic responsibility among
college students. In fact, participation in Community Service-Learning as part of college
8
has been found to have more positive benefits for students than does participating in
typical volunteer community service (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda & Lee, 2000).
To foster Community Service-Learning at UC Divine, students participate in the
Federal Work-Study (FWS) program and those who work at the local Wilson Joint
Unified School District (WJUSD) within the After School Education and Safety Program
(ASES) do so under The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 established “to stimulate
and promote the part-time employment of students, particularly students from lowincome families, in institutions of higher education who are in need of the earnings from
such employment to pursue courses of study at such institutions” (Section 101). To
achieve this objective, the federal government disburses money to postsecondary
education institutions, which, in turn, use the funds to subsidize the wages of the FWS
students. The FWS program is one of the three campus-based federal financial assistance
program that, based on program regulations and guidelines, allow postsecondary
education institutions some discretion in providing a mix of financial aid to needy
students. Institutions or other eligible employers fund the remaining portion. Usually,
the federal portion of wages is 75%. The program is currently authorized under Part C,
Title IV, of the Higher Education Act of 1965, as amended by the Educational
Amendments of 1968, 1972, 1980, 1986, 1992, and 1998. Work-study programs are a
model of structured learning that mixes academic education with practical work
experience. Advocates of the work-study programs believe that students perform best
when they actively participate in their education, and learn the most when they can apply
their school lessons within a real-world context.
9
Today, employers prefer that graduates have at least some work experience prior
to graduation. Pursuing a work-study job is an excellent way for students to differentiate
themselves from other applicants by demonstrating applied knowledge, career
experience, and commitment to a particular field.
Subsequently, the Student Employment Center at UC Divine defines Community
Service-Learning in the following two ways:
1. Promote learning through active participation in service experiences.
2. Provides an opportunity for students to use skills and knowledge in real-life
situations.
Furthermore, California’s public education system is immense: more than six
million students in about 9,900 schools, which are governed by almost 1,000 elected
school boards and regulated by a complex Education Code. They are funded through a
finance system largely controlled by the legislature and governor.
Thus, the focus of this study centers specifically on Wilson Joint Unified School
District (WJUSD) ASES Program, a rural farming town 15 minutes north of UC Divine.
Wilson is composed of an ethnically and economically diverse population in a mixture of
housing sizes and types. The core downtown has more than 140 years of preserved
architectural history. More modern neighborhoods have been built to provide pedestrianfriendly neighborhoods with easy access to public transit and local shopping centers.
From its founding, in 1850, Wilson has maintained its “small town feel” with pedestrianoriented, architecturally diverse and tree lined neighborhoods.
10
Statement of the Problem
During the 2009-2010 academic year, regardless of age, gender, race/ethnicity,
dependency or marital status, enrollment status, type of institutions attended, or even
income or educational and living expenses, 70-80% of students work while they were
enrolled. Consequently, the number of college students working off-campus has
continued to grow as students are faced with decreasing financial aid, rising costs of
education, greater personal financial commitments, and the need to secure employment
upon graduation (Afterschool Centers on Education [ACE], 2010; Boehner & McKeon,
2003; Miller, Danner & Staten, 2008). The financial burden of college tuition is
significant and rising. In light of the increasing price of college, many families are facing
significant challenges in financing their children’s education. The evidence shows that as
one response to the financial burden of college tuition, students are working more while
in college. Students work regardless of the type of institution they attend, their age or
family responsibilities, or even their family income or educational and living expenses.
Working while enrolled is perhaps the single most common major activity among
America’s diverse undergraduate population. Moreover, according to the US Department
of Education (2010) 85% of student workers are employed off-campus working, on
average, 27 hours per week. As a result, this study was driven by the desire to better
understand the impact of the off-campus FWS program at Wilson Joint Unified School
District ASES Program. To date, there has not been a formal evaluation done of the FWS
program and its affect at the district.
11
Furthermore, education reformers, policy makers, teachers, scholars, and citizens
have become concerned about what they perceive to be the disconnection between
schools and society. Recent efforts to bridge the chasms between academe and
community, students and schooling, and citizens and government (among other social,
cultural, and economic chasms) have begun to look closely at efforts to engage students
as citizens and leaders in a democratic community. At the forefront of these efforts in
systems of higher education is Community Service-Learning, or learning that combines
service to the community with classroom or academic learning.
Scholars in economics, nursing, and communication have put forward designs for
teaching and learning within a Community Service-Learning format. Civic engagement
is a central theme among several Community Service-Learning scholars, who argue that
Community Service-Learning should promote and extend students’ participation in
democracy and community. Common among these discussions of engagement is the
notion of Community Service-Learning as the acquisition of skill sets that will help
students participate, problem solve, and become civic-minded leaders. Battistoni (1997),
for example, attempting to summarize most of his and others’ efforts to develop students
as “engaged citizens,” identified three essential areas that should guide practical skill
development of Community Service-Learners: intellectual understanding, communication
and problem solving, and public judgment and imagination. Intellectual understanding
develops students’ cognitive abilities to make connections between theories and
application, and think critically about their experiences and assumptions about people and
society. Communication and problem-solving skills allow people to participate
12
productively in any civil society. Battistoni identified speech, argument, listening, and
persuasive communication as skills essential to problem-solving in a democracy. Public
judgment and imagination acts as a kind of moral compass, helping students to locate
themselves and reposition their understandings of others. Consequently, with civic
engagement in mind, the three questions below were used as a framework for this study.
1. Has the Community Service position at WJUSD encouraged creativity
through working cooperatively with members of the community toward new
solutions? What are the areas of success?
2. Has the Community Service position at WJUSD ASES Program contributed
to intellectual understanding of how course work is connected to real life
situations? What are the social/emotional outcomes?
3. Has the UC Divine FWS Community Service workers developed a positive
relationship with members of WJUSD community? What is the significance
of this relationship?
Definition of Terms
Academic Performance Index (API): A score used to measure of a school’s
progress toward state goals. The API takes into consideration factors such as socioeconomic status, ethnicity, mobility, and percent of English learner students. The index
numbers run from 200-1000.
After School Education and Safety Program: This program is the result of the
2002 voter-approved initiative, Proposition 49. This proposition amended California
13
Education Code (EC) 8482 to expand and rename the former Before and After School
Learning and Safe Neighborhood Partnerships Program. The ASES Program funds the
establishment of local after school education and enrichment programs. These programs
are created through partnerships between schools and local community resources to
provide literacy, academic enrichment and safe constructive alternatives for students in
kindergarten through ninth grade (K-9). Funding is designed to: (1) maintain existing
before and after school program funding; and (2) provide eligibility to all elementary and
middle schools that submit quality applications throughout California. The current
funding level for the ASES program is $550 million.
Classification in College: A term used to define the students’ class standing in this
research as self-reported in the interview. It can be coded as freshman, sophomore,
junior, senior, or unclassified.
Community Cultural Wealth: The knowledge, skills, abilities, and contacts
students have to navigate through school. It includes aspirational capital, linguistic
capital, familial capital, social capital, navigational capital, and resistance capital.
Community Service: Services that are identified by an institution of higher
education through formal or informal consultation with local nonprofit, government, and
community-based organizations, as designed to improve the quality of life for community
residents, particularly low-income individuals, or to solve particular problems related to
their needs.
Community Service-Learning: The term "service-learning" means a method under
which students or participants learn and develop through active participation in
14
thoughtfully organized service that is conducted in and meets the needs of a community;
is coordinated with an elementary school, secondary school, institution of higher
education, or community-service program and with the community; helps foster civic
responsibility; is integrated into the educational components of the community-service
program.
Cultural Capital: The term cultural capital refers to non-financial social assets;
they may be educational or intellectual, which might promote social mobility beyond
economic means.
Cultural capital is a sociological concept that has gained widespread popularity
since it was first articulated by Pierre Bourdieu. For Bourdieu (1985), capital acts as a
social relation within a system of exchange, and the term is extended to all the goods
material and symbolic, without distinction, that present themselves as rare and worthy of
being sought after in a particular social formation and cultural capital acts as a social
relation within a system of exchange that includes the accumulated cultural knowledge
that confers power and status.
Federal Work-Study Program: A federally financed program that arranges for
students to combine employment and college study; the employment may be an integral
part of the academic program (as in cooperative education or internships) or simply a
means of paying for college.
Full-Time Students: Students enrolled in 12 or more credits in a given semester or
term. This is consistent with common practice in higher education and reflects the
definition of fulltime enrollment for students receiving federal financial aid.
15
Low Income: Students are classified as low income if they qualify for free or
reduced lunch based on California’s income standards.
No Child Left Behind: A federal law designed to improve schools through more
local control, more parental involvement and choice, and increased accountability for
student achievement at the local level.
Off-Campus Employment: Any type of paid work where the place of employment
is located off the campus of the institution that the students attend and the employer is not
the institution.
Part-Time Employment: Paid on or off-campus work that is 20 hours or less per
week.
Retention: A campus-based phenomenon used to describe the ability of a
particular college or university to successfully graduate students who initially enroll at
that institution (Berger & Lyon, 2005). Tinto (1987) has also defined retention as the
percentage or number of students that remain at the same college or university from a
specified point in their academic enrollment. It is common practice to measure retention
from semester to semester from the point in which students initially enters to the point
they graduate or ceases to be enrolled without completing the prescribed course of study.
Tinto examined and described various stages of retention and causes for students’ early
departure from college.
Student Success: There is no single definition for student success as it is reported
using multiple dimensions which commonly reflect persistence rates and graduation rates
(Henry, Wills & Nixon, 2005). For purposes of this study, student success is the result of
16
the students’ time and effort spent working that promote and support their engagement
within the learning environment (Kuh, 2005).
Limitations of the Study
Methodological limitations of this study include sample size. Sample sizes are
typically smaller in qualitative research. This is because one occurrence of a piece of
data, or a code, is all that is necessary to ensure that it becomes part of the analysis
framework. However, it remains true that sample sizes that are too small it will be
difficult to find significant relationships from the data, as statistical tests normally require
a larger sample size to ensure a representative distribution of the population and to be
considered representative of groups of people to whom results will be generalized or
transferred. Conversely, sample sizes that are too large do not permit the deep,
naturalistic, and inductive analysis that defines qualitative inquiry. The sample size used
in this research is relatively small as compared to the population of students employed on
and off-campus.
Further, there was a lack of data on this specific topic of study. A lack of data or
of reliable data limits the scope of analysis as well as become a significant obstacle in
finding a trend and a meaningful relationship. Moreover, there are no available data
representing other substantial time commitments by students, such as intercollegiate
athletics, drama, music, etc., that were considered for analysis. Likewise, the literature
on this specific area of study was almost replete.
17
Third, this study relied on self-reported data, which is limited by the fact that it
rarely can be independently verified. In other words, what people say, whether in face to
face interviews, focus groups, or on questionnaires, need to be taken at face value. In
addition, self-reported data contain several potential sources of bias that should be noted
as limitations: (1) selective memory (remembering or not remembering experiences or
events that occurred at some point in the past); (2) telescoping (recalling events that
occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time); (3) attribution (the act of
attributing positive events and outcomes to one's own agency but attributing negative
events and outcomes to external forces); and, (4) exaggeration (the act of representing
outcomes or embellishing events as more significant than is actually suggested from other
data).
Possible limitations of the researcher include bias of the population being studied.
Bias is when a person, place, or thing is viewed or shown in a consistently inaccurate
way. It is usually negative, though one can have a positive bias as well. Since working
with the Federal Work-Study Community Service-Learning students and seeing firsthand the positive impact they have on the community, this researcher believes that this
program benefits all who are involved. Because of this, there may have been a
noncritical review of the stated problem, selecting the data to be studied, considered what
may have been omitted, the manner in which events were ordered, how the population is
represented, and how to use possible words with a positive or negative connotation.
Lastly, another restraint of the study consists of the generalization of the findings;
it is limited to a large four year public university whose FWS program has grown to 28%
18
of federal funds being used in the local community, specifically Wilson Joint Unified
School District. Further, the generalization of the findings is limited to participants who
have been working off-campus at WJUSD ASES Program for at least two plus years.
Significance of the Study
Research related to student employment, including both on and off-campus, over
the past twenty years reported both the positive and negative effects of student
employment citing correlations between specific numbers of hours worked on students’
GPAs, persistence, graduation rates, and level of debt upon graduation (Astin, 1993;
Bradburn, 2002; Furr & Elling, 2000; King, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Pike,
Kuh & Massa-McKinley, 2008). Research has also quantified the impact of on-campus
student employment and its relationship to persistence and graduation. According to
King’s 2002 study of 12,000 undergraduates, students who work more than 15 hours per
week are less likely to graduate in four years. King also found that those who work fewer
than 15 hours are actually more likely to graduate in four years than those who do not
work at all. Moreover, students who work long hours may be more likely to drop out of
school and never receive a college degree (Astin, 1993). Identifying the effects of work
on college students has many implications and even though there have been numerous
studies done, little research could be found that examined the impact of the FWS program
to the local community. It has been well documented that the more engaged students are,
both inside and outside the classroom, the greater their opportunities to gain support and
encouragement (Astin, 1993). This engagement contributes to student success.
19
Educational researchers have shown that frequent, meaningful interactions between
students and their employers are important to learning and personal development (Astin,
1977, 1985, 1993; Bean, 2005; Kuh et al., 2008; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1979, 1981;
Tinto, 1993).
Likewise, No Child Left Behind (NCLB) states that all students must be
proficient in reading and mathematics by 2014; in addition to this mandate, schools must
make adequate progress to reach this goal. These goals are measured by standardized
tests given during each school year. The test scores are measured in scale score and in
proficiency levels; those students who score low are in need of interventions in order to
make the state and federal requirements.
The most common intervention in a K-6 school setting is one-on-one tutor time.
In this setting, students are given extra instruction in mathematics, language arts, science,
social studies, etc., as well as assistance with their homework. Under current operations
and guidelines, the FWS program has not been evaluated for its significance or influence
in the Wilson community. Therefore, this study will examine the influence that the FWS
program has in the local community, specifically, Wilson Joint Unified School District.
The evaluation of the FWS program at WJUSD ASES Program will consist of an analysis
of qualitative data collected through surveys, face to face interviews, and observations at
the school sites.
The size of the FWS program has grown substantially since its introduction in
fiscal year (FY) 1965. At that time, the federal appropriation was $55.7 million. Federal
appropriations then increased to $550 million by FY 1980 and remained in the mid to
20
high $500 million range throughout most of the 1980s. Appropriations increased to the
low $600 million range in the early 1990s. In FY 1997, the program received a
substantial increase in funding of more than $200 million, bringing it to more than $800
million. Federal appropriations for FY 2000 were a record high of $934 million. Further,
the administration had requested more than $1 billion for FWS in the 2001 budget.
Consequently, federal support increased by more than $300 million for the 2009 fiscal
year, bringing the total allocation to $1,417, 322,000, to expand the number of students
participating in the program. Moreover, the program also received $200 million in
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 funds (US Department of Education,
2010).
Intent of the FWS program throughout the 1990s was to increase the participation
of FWS students in community service, which is designed to improve the quality of life
for local communities, particularly low-income individuals and families. Since July 1,
1994, postsecondary education institutions have been required to spend at least five
percent of their FWS authorization to compensate students in community service jobs.
Community service opportunities were expanded in 1997 with the beginning of
the America Reads Challenge. America Reads was developed to increase the reading
proficiency of the nation’s children. In 1994, for example, 40% of fourth graders scored
below the basic reading level on the National Assessment of Educational Progress.
Furthermore, research has shown that children who are not reading independently by the
end of the third grade tend to fall behind the rest of their classmates, become uninterested
and frustrated with school, and drop out before graduating (Barton, 2005; Condly, 2006).
21
In response, the administration launched the America Reads Challenge in 1996 with one
major objective: To have all children reading well and independently by the end of the
third grade.
In an effort to increase the America Reads Challenge volunteer workforce, the
administration looked toward colleges and universities and their FWS programs. When
federal funding for the FWS program increased in fiscal year 1997, postsecondary
institutions were encouraged to devote a large portion of the increase to fund community
service jobs, especially those that involved tutoring preschool and elementary school
students in reading. In addition, the US Secretary of Education announced an America
Reads FWS waiver where FWS program funds could be used to pay up to 100% of the
wages for any FWS students who tutor preschool or elementary school children
(releasing institutions from the usual 25% matching requirement for FWS jobs). During
the first full year of the program in award year 1997-98, more than 1,100 postsecondary
institutions participated in America Reads and more than 22,000 FWS students served as
reading tutors. As of January 2009, nearly 3,400 postsecondary institutions are
participating in this program.
The Higher Education Act (HEA) amendments of 1998 created new program
regulations and new initiatives have been developed to increase the involvement of FWS
students in community service. On July 1, 1998, the US Department of Education
extended the FWS waiver of institutional matching requirements to FWS students
tutoring in Family Literacy projects. Specifically, FWS program funds can now be used
to pay 100% of the wages for any FWS student who tutors preschool age and elementary
22
school children, as well as their parents and caregivers. In October 1999, the Family
Literacy activities subject to the 100% waiver were expanded to include training tutors,
performing administrative tasks such as coordinating tutors schedules, working as an
instructional aide, or preparing family literacy materials. In July 1999, America Counts
was initiated by the Administration to improve the mathematic skills of youth. To
support this effort, the federal government will also cover 100% of the wages of FWS
students serving as math tutors for elementary through ninth grade students.
Finally, the HEA amendments of 1998 enacted two additional program changes
that took effect in the 2000-2001 award years. Institutions will be required to raise their
percentage of FWS funds devoted to compensating students employed in community
service activities to at least seven percent. In addition, institutions will be required to
have a reading tutor program.
The Federal Work-Study program provide students with practical work
experience as well as financial aid, and the potential benefits derived from this experience
should not be overlooked. At a minimum, students learn general job-related skills.
Under the best of circumstances, work-study jobs can provide students with a chance to
explore career opportunities, to gain a better understanding of how knowledge gained in
school is applied for a job after graduation. It may even lead to an offer of a permanent
position.
The proceeding comment is from a work-study student who discussed her
involvement in the community and the meaning she derives from her tutoring position at
a local elementary school at Wilson Joint Unified School District. This statement gives
23
voice to a form of learning that may be termed “citizenship education” in that a concern
for the social good lies at the heart of the educational experience (Delve, Mintz &
Stewart, 1990). This student is reflective of others described throughout this paper who,
through participation in Community Service-Learning, explores their own identities and
what it means to contribute to something larger than their individual lives.
I learn more through my community service work than I ever do in any of my
classes at school. Talking to students from diverse backgrounds provides so much
insight that people just can’t imagine. I study all these different theories in
political science and sociology, but until you get a chance to see how the social
world influences people’s everyday lives, it just doesn’t have that much meaning.
Summary
Like many Universities, UC Divine aspires to deliver enriched, quality education
and learning experiences that engage students and foster success. While there are many
definitions of student success as well as many arguments for and against Community
Service Learning, this study has focused on the impact of the Federal Work-Study
program, in particular its FWS eligible student population, on a local community, Wilson
Joint Unified School District.
It is a goal of this study to determine 1) What are the social, emotional, and
academic/intellectual outcomes for the UC Divine FWS students engaging in the tutoring
of elementary school students in WJUSD ASES Program? In what areas has the
community service positions at WJUSD contributed to the academic/intellectual
24
development of the UC Divine FWS students? 2) Has the community service position at
WJUSD ASES Program contributed to greater understanding of how course work is
connected to real life situations? 3) What relationships have developed between the UC
Divine FWS students serving as tutors in WJUSD elementary schools and various
members/stakeholders in the Wilson community? What are the significances of these
relationships?
Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis
Chapter 2 contains the review of related literature and research related to the
problem being investigated such as the role of higher education and civic engagement,
the benefits of community service learning with regards to Federal Work-Study (FWS)
eligible work-study students, the benefits of the Federal Work-Study program to the
community, and the benefits of the FWS to the University. It further delves into the
value of Community Service-Learning to communities and students of color, the
experience of schooling for low income minority students as well as the sources of
strength and resiliency for low income minority students, Bourdieu’s cultural capital, and
community cultural wealth. The methodology, setting of the study, population and
sample, data collection, instrumentation, and data analysis will be presented in Chapter 3.
The data analysis and findings to emerge from the study will be contained in Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 will encompass a summary of the study and findings, conclusions drawn from
the findings, and recommendations for further study.
25
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
Higher Education and Civic Engagement
Although the focus of this study is on the community service aspect of the Federal
Work-Study program, little to no information was found when conducting a literature
review of said program as administered in the community. Consequently, Community
Service-Learning was determined to be the most similar, though the University of
California, Divine’s off-campus Community Service Federal Work-Study (FWS)
program does not have the formal classroom component. However, that does not mean
that the participants of the FWS program do not gain real life skills that will further their
education and career.
However, before proceeding it is important to discuss the similarities and
differences between Community Service and Community Service-Learning. Community
Service is service or activity that is performed by someone or a group of people for the
benefit of the public or its institutions. The goals of the Community Service model is
often similar to the Community Service-Learning model, however, all similarities end
there. People who perform Community Service typically do so of their own free will or
as part of a citizenship requirement, the requirements from the courts, and from their
school, to meet the prerequisites of a class.
The primary difference between these two concepts is the direct connection
Community Service-Learning has to the academic mission. Typically, Community
26
Service-Learning includes student participation in community service but with additional
learning objectives often associated with a student’s program of study. For example, a
student majoring in social work may participate in service activities at a local homeless
shelter in conjunction with a course of study on urban poverty. Specific activities
designed to assist the student in processing his or her experience are included as part of
the Community Service-Learning project. The student, for example, may be expected to
write a reflective paper describing the experience and/or there may be small group
interactions among students involved in similar kinds of experiences. The learning
objective might be to help students interpret social and economic policies through a more
advanced understanding of the lived experiences of homeless citizens. In this light,
Community Service-Learning seeks to connect community service experiences with
tangible learning outcomes.
Where Community Service-Learning strives to connect community service
encounters with learning objectives, Community Service does not typically include an
academic component. It further leaves the planning to be the responsibility of the
agency. Thirdly, student learning is likely to take place, although not the focus for the
service. Having a strong emphasis on providing a “service,” community service
programs are primarily intended to benefit the recipient of the service activity (Furco,
1996). School sponsored community service programs are intended primarily to foster
students’ civic participation and ethical (values) development (Delve et al., 1990).
A number of the institutions and amenities that appear inherent to US
communities today actually can be traced back to Benjamin Franklin’s civic initiatives in
27
mid-18th-century Philadelphia. Franklin’s drive for self-improvement tied naturally into
a desire to improve the world around him. As a young tradesman in Philadelphia,
Franklin’s ambition, mixed with his intellectual energy and sociable nature, made him a
natural leader of public projects.
In 1727, Franklin gathered eleven friends to form the Junto, a club that met
weekly to discuss ways of working together for the benefit of themselves and the
Philadelphia community. Over several decades of activity, Franklin and his associates
enriched community life in Philadelphia by establishing a lending library, hospital,
school, fire brigade, insurance company, learned society, and militia. Franklin also led
various efforts for public safety: he supervised the lighting, cleaning, and paving of
Philadelphia streets and designed a fireplace that conserved fuel while avoiding house
fires.
This activity teaches students about Franklin’s contributions to the Philadelphia
community and asks them to consider the lasting effects of his work on American
communities. Students experience Franklin’s public spirit and appreciate the value of his
civic initiatives by creating collages that depict plans for improving their own
communities.
Furthermore, the vision of Community Service and Community Service-Learning
is captured most pointedly in the philosophical work of John Dewey, in which education
is fundamentally linked to the social good and what it means to exist in relation to others.
The concept was preserved when Jacoby and Associates (1996) defined Community
Service-Learning as “a form of experiential education in which students engage in
28
activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities
intentionally designed to promote student learning and development” (p. 5).
Subsequently, the distinctively local orientation of Dewey’s thought, in regard to
community, democracy, and education, also coincides with the perspectives of
contemporary advocates of Community Service-Learning. Raised in a small Vermont
town, Dewey (1997) believed that community life consisted of local streets and
neighborhoods “In its deepest and richest sense,” he wrote, “a community must always
remain a matter of face-to-face intercourse” (p. 16). Additionally, “There is no substitute
for the vitality and depth of close and direct intercourse and attachment…Democracy
begins at home, and its home is the neighborly community” (Benson & Harkavy, 1999, p.
17).
Inspired by both the emerging field of psychology and the political discourse of
the turn of the 20th century in the US, Dewey (1927) was an impassioned advocate for the
social function of education in a democracy. He expressed concerns in The Public and
Its Problems, that local communities were being displaced by a mobile, impersonal
society. Dewey predicted that this displacement would lead to citizen apathy and
disengagement. Education should, therefore, develop the capacities of all citizens to be
active contributors to their communities.
Dewey’s (1927) vision for education also underlies the contemporary Community
Service-Learning movement. Although Dewey focused on primary and secondary
schools, his ideals have been adapted and extended to colleges and universities. The
convictions that education must center on society’s most pressing problems, particularly
29
the reconstruction of democratic community, that it engage students in community
service and prepare them for lifelong commitment to civic involvement and social
reconstruction, and that it embody the same principles of democratic participation,
reflection, and experimentalism that are to be encouraged in the wider community,
informs the ideals, and practice of Community Service-Learning (Barber, 1993, Benson
& Harkavy, 1991, 1999; Hatcher & Bringle, 1997; Keith, 1994; Rhoads, 1997; Saltmarsh,
1996).
There are a number of purposes of education in a democracy which align with
Dewey’s educational philosophy (Benson, Harkavy & Puckett, 2007) and the pedagogy
of Community Service-Learning (Hatcher & Bringle, 1997; Saltmarsh, 1996). Education
must develop individual capacities to engage citizens in association with one another to
promote humane conditions, habits of mind that transmit cultural values from one
generation to the next and contribute to a stable society, and citizens who can readily
adapt to the future, “for we do not live in a settled and finished world, but in one which is
going on, and where our main task is prospective” (Dewey, 1927, p. 151). Dewey’s
educational philosophy has been called “pragmatic” and “practical knowledge” because it
“integrated liberal and useful knowledge into action for the purpose of transforming the
environment” (Nkulu, 2005, p. 21). Dewey’s rationality can be interpreted as a form of
action intended to engage the learner in both critical reflection and problem-solving to
improve social conditions (Westbrook, 1991). The civic outcomes of Community
Service-Learning resonate with Dewey’s emphasis on the responsibility of all citizens to
take an active role in their community (Dewey, 1927).
30
Although Community Service-Learning often is specifically tied to classroom
related community service in which concrete learning objectives exist, some would
suggest that student involvement in community service may be tied to out-of-class
learning objectives and thus constitute a form of Community Service-Learning as well
(Jacoby & Associates, 1996; Rhoads, 1997). From this perspective, student affairs
professionals who involve students in community service activities may engage in the
practice of Community Service-Learning when there are clearly articulated strategies
designed to bridge experiential and developmental learning. The confusion between
“class-related” versus “out-of-class related” Community Service-Learning led Rhoads
and Howard (1998) to adopt the term “academic Service-Learning” to distinguish the
formal curriculum from the informal curriculum. Howard (1993), for example, defined
academic Service-Learning as a “pedagogical model that intentionally integrates
academic learning and relevant community service” (p. 22). For Howard, there are four
components of academic Service-Learning. First, it is a pedagogical model and is
therefore to be understood as a teaching methodology. Second, academic ServiceLearning is intentional; that is, there are specific goals and objectives tying the service
experience to course work. Third, there is integration between experiential and academic
learning. Finally, the service experience must be relevant to the course of study.
From an educational standpoint, it makes sense to link community service
activities with intentional learning objectives whenever possible. Obviously, when
student participation in community service can be connected to specific learning
activities involving reflection, group interaction, and writing, their experience is likely to
31
have a great impact on student learning and move into the realm of Community ServiceLearning for the FWS students (Cooper, 1998; Eyler, Giles & Schmiede, 1996).
Benefits to the FWS Students
Two of the most important issues facing educators and community organizations
are: how can young people be motivated to be involved in the community activities, and
how can long-term commitment be developed once they are involved? For many, the
first impulse is to require community service. There are increased calls for mandatory
service as a way to recapture American’s sense of community (Markus, Howard & King,
1993). At the University of California, Divine, more and more faculty now requires
service in their classes. Many of them hope to change how to educate, but also hope to
foster lifelong commitment to service amongst their students.
Community Service-Learning has gained recognition as a curricular strategy that
yields multiple positive outcomes for students. In addition to academic gains (Ash,
Clayton & Atkinson, 2005; Batchelder & Root, 1994; Gray, Ondaatje, Fricker, &
Geschwind, 2000; Markus et al., 1993; Osborne, Hammerich & Hensley, 1998; Reeb,
Sammon & Isackson. 1999; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000), students in Community
Service-Learning programs have experiences that enhance personal and civic
development during their undergraduate education and beyond (Eyler & Giles, 1999;
Eyler, Giles, Stenson & Gray, 2001). To the degree that Community Service-Learning
results in perceptions of enhanced leaning and academic engagement of students,
Community Service-Learning experiences can contribute to overall satisfaction with
32
college (Astin & Sax, 1998) and, possibly, persistence (Osborne et al., 1998). Also, as a
“mature education reform,” Community Service-Learning has important implications for
the first-year experiences of undergraduates (Gardner, 2002).
Community Service-Learning programs have been positively linked to students’
personal and development, racial, and cultural understanding, civic engagement,
academic learning, and many other outcomes (Astin et al., 2000; Billig, 2003; Eyler &
Giles, 1999; Eyler, Giles & Braxton, 1997). In particular, this type of educational
experience might positively affect academic persistence and retention in college
(Garlough, 2003; Tinto, 1993; Vogelgesang, Ikeda, Gilmartin & Keup, 2002).
Community Service-Learning further benefits students by connecting academic
material to personal experience and public issues, promoting critical thinking, perspective
transformation, and reflective judgment (Eyler & Giles, 1999), and enabling students to
develop a “caring self” (Rhoads, 1997). Although approaches to Community ServiceLearning vary, it is a powerful tool to connect colleges and students to their communities.
Community Service-Learning creates the opportunity for deeper understanding with civic
engagement and promotes the joint problem solving that is integral to society.
In a review of the literature, Stukas, Snyder and Clary (1999) found specific
benefits of Community Service-Learning for the student, such as increased self-esteem
and developing career goals. Similarly, Eyler and Giles (1999) found positive outcomes
related to students’ acceptance of people from diverse backgrounds; personal
development, such as a greater self-knowledge; and interpersonal development, such as
increased leadership and community skills.
33
Participation in Community Service-Learning experiences has been further
demonstrated to profit students in other important ways. Numerous studies have
documented the effectiveness of Community Service-Learning as a tool for fostering
students’ civic responsibility, their acceptance of diversity, and their leadership skills as
they move on to assuming roles in their communities as committed and engaged citizens
(Brandell & Hinck, 1997; Eyler & Giles, 1996; Giles & Eyler, 1994; Kendrick, 1996;
Markus et al., 1993; Myers-Lipton, 1996; Shumer & Belbas, 1996). Community ServiceLearning has also been shown to have a powerful impact on students’ moral, socialcognitive, and emotional development (Batchelder & Root, 1994; Eyler & Giles, 1996;
Eyler & Giles, 1994; Kendrick, 1996; Ostrow, 1995; Rhoads, 1997). Participation in
Community Service-Learning has been identified as an important contributor to students’
engagement in and commitment to school (Sax & Astin, 1997).
In addition, students who participate in Community Service-Learning may build a
sense of connectedness to their larger society, gain skills to succeed in life, establish a
connection to lifelong learning, and increase the likelihood of lifelong community service
and civic altruism (Blyth, Saito & Berkas, 1997; Morris, 1992; Rhoads, 1997). Also, it
was found that students who participate in Community Service-Learning have reduced
problem behaviors, perform better in school, report enhanced social, identity,
psychological, and intellectual development (Conrad & Hedlin, 1987; Ferrari &
Chapman, 1999; Limerick & Burgess-Limerick, 1992; Rutter & Newmann, 1989; Moore
& Allen, 1996; Raskoff & Sundeen, 1994; Waterman, 1997; Yates & Youniss, 1996), and
34
claim broadened perceptions of service and future commitments to community service
(Gibboney, 1966).
When students enter a university, they most likely have an outlook that has been
influenced by their home, town, and school. Leaving these comfortable environments for
the first time, while occasionally nerve-racking, provides an experience like no other. In
college, it is important that views are challenged and opinions are formed through the
different experiences encountered. Community Service-Learning is one of those
experiences. By stepping out of their “comfort zone,” students are forced to participate in
activities they normally would not. Being thrown into unfamiliar environments might
make students feel awkward at first, but after a while they will be able to see their labor
positively effecting members of the community around them. Whether students walk
away pleased with the experience or not, they will walk away with a different perspective
about people and community, influenced by the service they perform. This influence will
be helpful in shaping the people that will enter into the “real world” once students leave
college.
In addition to providing new experiences and learning atmospheres, Community
Service-Learning helps students foster lasting friendships with their peers. When
students unite to achieve a common goal, they work together, problem solve, and focus
on a purpose. Through this type of group arrangement, students will likely bond with
their fellow group members. Establishing friendships is an essential part of the college
experience, and Community Service-Learning is an outlet for forming those bonds. By
working on projects that positively impact the community around them, students might
35
feel a collective sense of accomplishment and pride that they will share for the rest of
their college career. From that point on, whenever group members run into each other,
they will have that commonality as a basis for creating a relationship.
Bourdieu’s Cultural Capital
The concept of cultural capital, defined as high status cultural signals used in
cultural and social selection, was first developed by Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude
Passeron to analyze the impact of culture on the class system and on the relationship
between action and social structure. The authors were first concerned with “the
contribution made by the educational system [and family socialization] to the
reproduction of the structure of power relationships and symbolic relationships between
classes, by contributing to the reproduction of the structure of distribution of cultural
capital among these classes” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990, p. 487). The cultural capital
hypothesis is based on the finding that family background is reflected in differential
academic rewards, termed the educational reproduction relationship. A casual ordering
for the reproduction process is; 1) family background directly affects cultural capital, the
background effect; 2) cultural capital directly affects academic rewards, the cultural
capital effect; hence 3) family background affects academic rewards indirectly through
cultural capital, the transformation relationship. Empirically, educational reproduction is
demonstrated in the extent to which family background affects academic rewards,
regardless of the intervening processes.
36
Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1990) argument on social reproduction is in some
respects similar to the arguments made by researchers who studied the discriminatory
character of schools by looking at language interaction patterns (Heath, 1982; 1983),
counseling and placement (Cicourel & Kitsuse, 1969), and the implementation of the
curriculum (Anyon, 1981). These studies have all pointed to the subtle and not so subtle
ways that formally meritocratic establishments help to reinvent systems of social order.
However, rather than interpreting these patterns as examples of an individual’s or
school’s discriminatory behavior, Bourdieu and Passeron saw these behaviors as
institutionalized. Their analysis was more structural, and as such provided a
sociologically more powerful framework for explaining the “taken-for-granted routines”
of daily life. Furthermore, beginning with DiMaggio (1982), extensive successions of
quantitative work has discovered that different measures of cultural capital are positively
associated with academic accomplishment and with educational achievement (Cheadle,
2008; Crook, 1997; De Graaf, De Graaf & Kraaykamp, 2000; DiMaggio & Mohr, 1985;
Dumais, 2002; Katsillis & Rubinson, 1990). Additionally, both quantitative and
qualitative investigations have sought to characterize the process through which cultural
capital produces educational attainment, for example, via teacher’s misconceptions of
children’s cultural capital as academic intelligence (Dumais, 2006).
The educational system is designed to value and reward cultural capital. This
structural mechanism suggests that teachers and other gatekeepers systematically
misjudge children’s cultural capital, namely, their demonstrated familiarity with highstatus cultural signals as indicators of actual academic brilliance and develop upwardly
37
biased attitudes of children. These upwardly biased perceptions produce positive and
possibly cumulative returns because children who possess cultural capital receive favored
treatment from educators and friends already from a very early stage in the educational
career. Consequently, returns to cultural capital are symbolic, such as an aura of
“academic brilliance,” but also concrete, such as better intellectual advancement due to
preferential treatment and more feedbacks from teachers and peers.
A close reading of Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1990) work on cultural capital
suggested that the authors group a large number of types of cultural attitudes,
preferences, behaviors, and goods under this concept. For example, in Inheritors
(Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990), cultural capital consists of informal academic standards
which are also a class attributes of the dominant class. These standards and attributes are:
Informal knowledge about the school, traditional humanist culture, linguistic competence
and specific attitudes, or personal style, creativity, distinction and brilliance.
Consequently, why is cultural capital important? The concept of cultural capital
is important because it has improved understanding of the process through which social
stratification systems are preserved. As noted by Bielby (1981), Cicourel and Mehan
(1984), and Knorr-Cetina and Cicourel (1981), while the effect of social origin on
educational and occupational outcomes is among the most studied topics in the
sociological literature, little progress has been made toward understanding how this
relationship is reproduced. Bourdieu and Passeron’s work (1990) received wide-spread
attention at first because it proposed a novel view of the process by which social and
cultural resources of family life shape academic success in a subtle and pervasive fashion.
38
These authors’ earlier work showed that apparently neutral academic standards are laden
with specific cultural class resources learned at home. Following Berstein’s (1964, 1977)
observation that working class and middle class children are taught different language
(codes) at home, Bourdieu and Passeron (1990) argued that other types of preference,
attitudes and behaviors, such as familiarity with high culture, are valued in school
settings, while being more typical of the culture transmitted in “dominant classes” (i.e.,
upper middle and middle class) families.
Cultural capital promotes educational success through different channels
(Bourdieu, 1977; Bourdieu & Passeron, 1990). First, children inherit cultural capital
from their parents, either passively via exposure to parents’ cultural capital or actively via
parents’ deliberate efforts to transfer cultural capital to children (Cheung & Andersen
2003; Lareau, 2003). This cultural capital is embedded in children’s knowledge,
language, and mannerisms; namely, in what Bourdieu calls their habitus (Dumais, 2002;
Swartz, 1997). Thus, cultural capital provides children with cultural endowments and, in
its embodied state, with skills with which to reveal their cultural talents.
While Bourdieu’s (1990) work sought to provide a structural critique of social and
cultural reproduction, his theory of cultural capital has been used to assert that some
communities are culturally wealthy while others are culturally poor. This interpretation
of Bourdieu exposed White, middle class culture as the standard and therefore, all other
forms and representations of ‘culture’ are assessed in comparison to this norm. In other
words, cultural capital is not just inherited or possessed by the middle class, but rather it
suggests to an accumulation of specific forms of knowledge, skills, and capabilities that
39
are appreciated by privileged groups in society. For example, middle or upper class
students may have access to a computer at home and therefore can learn numerous
computer-related vocabulary and technological skills before arriving at school. These
students have acquired cultural capital because computer-related jargon and technological
talents are valued in the school setting. On the other hand, a working class Chicana/o
student whose mother works in the fields may bring a different vocabulary, perhaps in
two languages (English and Spanish) to school, along with methods of conducting
errands on the city bus and translating mail, phone calls, and coupons for her/his mother
(Orellana, 2001). This cultural knowledge is very valuable to the student and her/his
family, but is not necessarily considered to carry any capital in the school context. So,
are there forms of cultural capital that marginalized groups bring to the table that
traditional cultural capital theory does not recognize or value?
Indeed, Communities of Color nurture cultural wealth through at least six forms
of capital such as aspirational, navigational, social, linguistic, familial, and resistant
capital (Auerbach, 2001; Delgado Bernal, 1997, 2001; Orellana, 2001; Solórzano &
Delgado Bernal, 2001; Stanton-Salazar, 2001). These various forms of capital are not
mutually exclusive or static, but rather are dynamic processes that build on one another as
part of community cultural wealth. For example, aspirational capital is the ability to hold
onto hope in the face of systematized inequality and often without the means to make
such dreams a reality. Yet, aspirations are established within social and familial contexts,
often through linguistic storytelling and advice that offer specific navigational goals to
40
resist repressive conditions. Therefore, aspirational capital overlaps with each of the
other forms of capital, social, familial, navigational, linguistic and resistant.
Figure 1
Community Cultural Wealth
Above is a model of community cultural wealth (Oliver & Shapiro, 1995).
Between 2000 and 2010, the Hispanic population increased by 15.2 million,
accounting for over half of the 27.3 million increases in the total population of the United
States. More than half of the growth in the total US population between 2000 and 2010
was because of the increase in the Hispanic population. By 2010, Hispanics comprised
16% of the total US population of 308.7 million.
By examining data on Hispanics provided a profile of their educational,
economic, and family status. In 2010, there were seven million Hispanics age 16 years
and over in the US. Overall, the Hispanic population increased by 52% in 2010,
compared with 17% for African American women and seven percent for White women
(US Census Bureau, 2010). Not unexpectedly, 54% of Hispanics are poor or near poor
and have the lowest percentage of high school graduates (57.5%), as well as the highest
41
dropout rate (22.5% for males; 19.1% for females) as compared to all other racial and
ethnic groups. The lack of education attainment is closely associated with high levels of
poverty that hinders opportunities for their social mobility and intergenerational mobility.
Over the next decades, Hispanics will constitute more than 40% of new labor force
entrants (National Council of La Raza, 2010). These dates are compelling because
education is often a prerequisite for entering higher-paying occupations, and Hispanics’
earnings are greatly affected by the education they have attained. Among Hispanics aged
25 years and over who are participants of the labor force in 2010, those with less than a
high school diploma were the largest group. Data show that 62% of Hispanics in the
labor force were high school graduates with no college and 14% were college graduates
(US Census Bureau, 2010). Higher educational attainment generally results in higher
labor force participation, lower unemployment rates, and resources for investment in the
future of one’s children. Thus, current low-income Hispanics who are the mothers of
young Hispanic children have limited economic resources to invest in their children.
Hispanic families and their children confront special challenges as an outcome of
the intersection of ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, and receptivity by the host
society (Romo & Fablo, 1996; Romo, 1998; Walsh, 1991; Alejandro, 2002). These
challenges are not directly associated with Hispanic cultural assets, as Hispanic cultural
capital has not been easily translated into social capital in US society.
On the other hand, Cultural wealth can be defined as a set of values and norms
that guide behavior. The resilience literature identifies three domains that are associated
with resilient individuals: internal resources, family climate, and social environment
42
(Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Brooke, 1994; The National Alliance for Hispanic Health,
2000). The cultural assets of Hispanic families are consistent with defined resilient
characteristics and include: having religious faith, emphasizing a collective orientation,
valuing children and engaging in multiple affective gestures from early on, teaching
children values which include responsibility to others, collective responsibility,
respecting elders and authority figures, and sibling responsibility, and valuing civility
such as the expression of politeness and helpful behaviors (Trueba, 2002; GonzalezRamos, Zayas & Cohen, 1998; Sotomayor, 1991; Rodríguez, 1999). Yet anchors or role
models that encourage development of self-discipline through positive feedback,
problem-solving skills, and access to resources are not readily available to Hispanics in
their community and school environment. Resiliency is a transactional process that
shapes one’s sense of self-esteem and sense of mastery, and requires self-discipline to be
sustained. Inherent to the continued development of resiliency, the environment in which
a Hispanic functions, schools in this case, must value the cultural assets and strengths
they bring as social capital on which to build their academic success.
Social capital has been conceptualized in many different forms to include family
and community resources and social networks of civic engagement (Bourdieu, 1985;
Putnam, 1993, 1995; Portes, 2000). Through social capital, Hispanic families can
translate and transmit their cultural assets across generations. Family benefits and
resources, if mediated by non-family networks such as teachers and principals in schools,
can be used as a means for upper mobility (Portes, 2000).
43
Schools have an important effect on the development of human capital, combined
with the social and political environments that enable norms to develop and shape social
structure (Bourdieu, 1985; North, 1990; The World Bank, 1998). For example, the
support of bilingual schools and the use of Latino cultural representations, such as family
stories, would contribute to promoting an educational structure that is more receptive and
valuing of Hispanic culture. According to Gándara (2000), family stories were examples
of cultural capital that helped students achieve academically.
The concept of social capital, as noted by Portes (2000) provided some
explanatory power for understanding the historical and contemporary underachievement
of low-income historically underrepresented Hispanics. The Hispanic culture and the
host society have discordant value bases for individual achievement and social
interactions that contribute to exclusionary and discriminatory practices in the
educational system. For Hispanics, “culture is the center of individual self-value”
(Alejandro, 2002, p. 28). Yet, education is transformational and schools reproduce and
transmit social capital with little acknowledgement of difference. Hence, students are
consumers of the host culture in their efforts to survive (Coleman, 1988; Bourdieu, 1977,
1985). For low-income Hispanics, the conflict of familial values with host culture values
of independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness combined with stereotypic, negative,
and unwelcoming attitudes of school personnel, hinder their learning process and
achievement (Trueba, 1999; Alejandro, 2002). Cultural assets need to be valued within
the societal structure in which they operate so as to strengthen Hispanic family and child
infrastructure; if cultural assets do not produce economic wealth, the assets erode in their
44
interaction with a devaluing society. The process of erosion is most highly associated
with the consequences of poverty and the consequent lack of value placed on all the lost
potential experienced by that community. Poverty erodes cultural assets as it depletes the
sense of self-identity and cultural identity.
The basic argument is to improve academic success; school personnel need
awareness and knowledge of how to translate cultural wealth–ethnic values, customs,
traditions and language–into social capital for Hispanic children. Investments in both
Hispanic children and their families include providing informational resources to the
parents on the importance of education in this society, the process of entering college and
mechanisms for financial assistance, and, as an intergenerational approach, the
identification of ethnic specific and appropriate mentors for Hispanic children and their
families, for example, via university Federal Work-Study students who come from
similar socioeconomic and educational backgrounds. In acknowledging and encouraging
a strong ethnic identity and providing students with academic skills, especially in math
and science, as well as the knowledge to negotiate educational systems in the US, schools
would assume a major role in translating academic aspirations into social capital
(Williams, 2002). Translating cultural wealth into social capital will foster resilience and
hope among young students of color and increase their opportunities to develop
cognitively, emotionally, and behaviorally.
Education is the key path to economic and political integration of Hispanics into
US society. The incorporation of a student’s language, culture, and experiences is a
central principle of good education practice (Trueba, 1999) and at odds with the historic
45
inequity of dismissing and ignoring the low achievement of Hispanic children and youth.
Equity calls for a humanizing and rigorous pedagogy for all. Educational institutions,
joined by Hispanic educators, students, parents, and FWS tutors must seek ways to assure
the civil rights of Hispanics to educational equity. Hispanic culture holds the keys to the
educational future of Hispanic youth if efforts are made to translate their cultural wealth
into social capital to improve academic success.
Theories of Giving in Community Service-Learning Relationships
In addition to understanding the need to incorporate cultural wealth to capitalize
on the education in order to achieve academic success, it is also important to recognize
the motives of those Federal Work-Study students who continue to return to the same
tutoring position. Consequently, it is important to understand Giving Theories because it
“informs us about an important aspect of human behavior; donating voluntarily to support
the establishment, operations, and survival of organizations and programs in the nonprofit
sector” (Ott, 2001, p. 127). It is then believed that giving theories can also inform the
Community Service-Learning relationship; the exchange of service by students for
knowledge and experience from community partners. In other words, the staff members
at nonprofit organizations who agree to participate in Community Service-Learning
programs are as motivated by a desire to give valuable learning experiences to the student
as much as the desire to receive something of value from the student. Thus, the
relationship between community partners and Community Service-Learning students is a
46
reciprocal relationship motivated by a complex combination of egoistic (self-serving) and
altruistic (other-serving) factors.
As community partner representatives choose whether to participate in
Community Service-Learning, they must consider what they will be required to give to
the relationship and balance this with what they and their organization will receive. They
will give of their time; meeting with students to provide information and educate them
about the organization. Staffers may also need to train the student, as they would any
volunteer, to perform specific functions within the organization. Depending on the task,
the training may be financially costly, in addition to staff time away from the office. The
community partner representative must decide whether they are willing to give their time,
expertise, and organizational resources to the students. To that extent, the motivations of
the staffers, or the organizations themselves, are somewhat like those of individuals who
donate time or money to a charity.
Scholars examining motivations of individuals to donate their time, talents, and
treasure to charitable organizations also found that motivations for donating time and
expertise mimic the motivations to give money (Ott, 2001). Theories of giving suggest
that cultural norms, emotions, and perceived self-interest all converge to trigger acts of
giving. Altruistic motivations arise from internalized abstract norms of justice and
environmental factors such as culture and institutions (Wolfe, 1998). An individual’s
inclination to give is reinforced by social norms in their community (Piliavin & Libby,
1985/1986). For many, a desire to give derives from the pleasure received from knowing
one’s gifts will be used to support causes in which one believes, or from the more general
47
satisfaction of providing resources to those in need or to someone with whom one
empathizes (Batson et al., 1991; Frank, 1996).
These various influences that lead individuals and organizations to donate to
others frequently commingle the altruistic sense of duty to give with other more selfserving motivations such as the accumulation of prestige, access to important social
networks, and tax deduction benefits (Ostrower, 1995). That these various effects—some
more altruistic, some more egoistic—are frequently intertwined does not mean that one
trumps the other. They, in fact, co-exist to form a multifaceted series of intentions on the
part of the giver (Frank, 1996). Donors may anticipate receiving something of benefit to
society, through the work their donation finances, as well as receiving something of
benefit for themselves, such as recognition or member benefits.
To better capture both the egoistic and altruistic components of giving, Mount’s
(1996) Model of Personal Donorship is used, which suggests a gift can be explained
through five factors: involvement, predominance, means, past behavior, and self-interest.
Although Mount uses her model to explain the generosity of a financial donation, this
model also helps explain the decision on the part of community partners to donate their
own time and talent as well as their organization’s treasure to a student in a Community
Service-Learning relationship.
Involvement, according to Mount (1996), “springs from expected satisfaction,”
while predominance is “the degree to which a cause stands out in an individual’s personal
hierarchy of philanthropic options” (p. 10). Involvement describes the psychological and
emotional satisfaction the staffer receives from contributing, in this case to the education
48
of a Community Service-Learning student. The donor feels personal satisfaction from
the gift based on their level of emotional involvement with the person or organization to
which they are giving. They are motivated to give based both on the altruistic desire to
help and the egoistic satisfaction they get from giving.
Predominance is based on how important a particular cause is to the donor. As
applied to Community Service-Learning, this suggests that the education of student
carries weight within the personal hierarchy of interests to which the community partner
staffer feels an emotional connection. If predominance exists because the staff supervisor
cares about the benefits that accrue to students from Community Service-Learning, then
the staff person is more likely to be willing to make a sizable investment in the
Community Service-Learning relationship.
Involvement and predominance are both complex considerations in the
Community Service-Learning Relationship. As with other motivational components,
these impulses include a mix of altruistic and egoistic elements. Community partners
may be altruistically motivated to assist students in furthering educational goals, give
back to the educational system in general, participate in a style of learning from which
the staffer may have benefited when in college, promote a general ideal of good
citizenship among students and the community at large, and work toward the mission of
the organization. They may also, however, have egoistic motivations related to the
satisfaction they anticipate feeling, based on the perception that the students will benefit
from the Community Service-Learning experience.
49
In the giving decision, the involvement and predominance components of the
model suggest that the emotional connection of the decision-maker to the university,
students, and Community Service-Learning will all be important elements in the decision.
The greater their affinity and desire to help the more likely they will make an investment
in that relationship.
This emotional connection will also be influenced by considerations such as
means and past behavior. As Mount (1996) suggested, donors are more likely to give,
and tend to give a larger gift, when they have the financial means to make a significant
difference to an organization. Similarly, a community partner who has the authority and
expertise to create a meaningful service experience for a student will be more motivated
to participate. Certainly the staff person must have the means, or authority, within the
organization to make the decision to take on a Community Service-Learning student.
More importantly, the “means” motivating participation in Community Service-Learning
are also the time, expertise, and experience that the staffer will be donating to the student.
A staff supervisor with a great deal of experience is more likely motivated to share that
knowledge with a student through a Community Service-Learning relationship.
In addition, an important part of understanding who will give and how much they
will give to a nonprofit is the donor’s past giving behavior. A donor who believes in a
certain cause and has given to an organization in the past is more likely to give, and give
more, to that organization in the future. Consequently, community partners who are
interested in giving to students through Community Service-Learning will also increase
their level of giving over time. Therefore, it is expected that the past behavior and
50
experiences of community partners, both as Community Service- Learning students
themselves and as community partners, will influence future participation in Community
Service- Learning. If the staff person has been involved as a community partner in
Community Service-Learning in the past, they are better able to evaluate potential
benefits of the Community Service-Learning relationship for the student and for the
community partner organization and its constituents. Expectations and satisfaction are
part of the cyclical understanding of donor motivations and behavior (Mount, 1996). The
more positive the staff supervisor’s expectation of positive outcomes and the higher their
level of past satisfaction, the more motivated they will be to agree to donate. The
motivations of the organizations and staff supervisors to participate in a particular
Community Service-Learning relationship are impacted by the expectations a staff person
has regarding potential outcomes, which are based in part on positive previous
experiences. Whether these experiences came when the supervisor was a student or
through their current position with a community partner organization, positive
impressions will make them more likely to want to contribute to future students. The
community partner wants to give to the student and will be more likely to do so when
previous experiences have been positive.
In the Community Service-Learning context, the employees directly involved
with Community Service-Learning students may be seeking assistance with work tasks
under their responsibility or with activities perceived to promote the organization’s
mission. Sometimes this will include the completion of products or services that the staff
supervisor or the organization does not have the resources to provide. It may also include
51
the desire to cultivate future volunteers and donors, promoting a positive image in the
community, fostering a constructive relationship with the university, and recruiting
potential new employees. Finally, self-interest-based motivations may also include those
associated with positive feelings that may accrue to the staff supervisor from the
perceived benefit they are giving to the student through the Community Service-Learning
experience.
Benefits to the University
Effective partnerships between agencies, schools, universities, businesses,
government, and residents are a vital part of community growth. Such collaboration
increases the likelihood that organizations reach a larger population, avoid duplication of
services, make better use of their resources and deal more effectively and thoroughly with
the myriad problems faced by communities (Hastad & Tymeson, 1997). With an
increasingly challenging social and economic environment, and scarcity of resources, it is
even more important that communities, including universities, reach out to one another in
an effort to build social capital.
Collaborations can be viewed in various forms, from offering general advice to
active participation, and may have diverse meanings to different members. University–
community partnerships are therefore best described as “the coming together of diverse
interests and people to achieve a common purpose via interactions, information sharing,
and coordination activities” (Jassawalla & Sashittal, 1998, p. 239). The concept of
community partnership is embedded in the broader notion of engagement; engagement is
52
intended to characterize the whole orientation of the university’s policy and practice
(Coldstream, 2003) towards “strenuous, thoughtful, argumentative interaction with the
non-university world” (Watson, 2003, p. 25). Essentially, engagement provides the
context in which partnerships can flourish, rather than their being a series of fragmented
links with industry (Coldstream, 2003).
Despite the importance of engagement between universities and communities,
academics have been reluctant to become involved in research partnerships for a range of
reasons that include: (a) lack of respect for community knowledge; (b) a view of
community members as objects, rather than partners, for research; (c) the perception that
collaborative research may lack rigor; (d) inadequate understanding about the benefits
collaboration may offer, (e) lack of research mentors conducting and informing
collaborations; and (f) lack of incentives, grants and rewards for conducting collaborative
research (Ahmed, Beck, Maurana & Newton, 2004). In addition, community engagement
has traditionally been undervalued in University review and promotion processes, thereby
discouraging academics from initiating partnerships (Commission on CommunityEngaged Scholarship in the Health Professions, 2005). Reluctance to engage in
partnerships is not always one-sided. Community members can be just as hesitant to
work with academics as they are often perceived to exist in an ivory tower, produce
research that is irrelevant to their needs, and can be paternalistic, manipulative, and
secretive (Ahmed et al., 2004).
However, studies have indicated that these views are gradually changing as the
competitive funding environment dictates that both parties work together to realize
53
institutional objectives (Kellet & Goldstein, 1999; Mead et al., 1999; Waddock & Walsh,
1999; Amabile Patterson & Wojcik, 2001; Foss, Bonaiuto, Johnson & Moreland, 2003).
In this context, many benefits arise from successful university–community partnerships.
These include: (a) new insights and learning; (b) better informed community practice; (c)
career enhancement for individuals involved with the partnership;(d) improvement in the
quality of teaching and learning; (e) increased opportunity for student employment; (f)
additional funding and access to information; (g) more frequent and higher-quality
publications; and (h) more rapid speed of internationalization (Davies, 1996; Landry &
Amara, 1998; Kellet & Goldstein, 1999; Mead et al., 1999; Amabile et al., 2001; Hollis,
2001).
Despite the importance of university–community partnerships, there is little
research to guide practice in this area. A model that has potential application to
university–community partnerships is Sargent and Water’s (2004) framework of
academic collaboration (Figure 2). It suggests that collaborations go through cycles that
consist of specific phases. The initiation phase focuses on the motivation of the
participants to be involved. Motivation is most often instrumental (due to
complementary skills, specific knowledge, data access and resume advantages) and
intrinsic (enjoyment of working together, building friendships/relationships), or both. In
the clarification phase participants clarify issues relating to the duration of the project(s),
scope of the project(s), the number of collaborators and goals. In the implementation
phase roles and responsibilities are identified. These are typically roles articulated from
the outset and may vary from that of mentor, colleague, apprentice or sponsor. The
54
fourth phase, completion, refers to how collaborators rate the success of their project in
terms of objective outcomes (e.g., publications), subjective outcomes (e.g., satisfaction
with the experience of collaborating) and learning outcomes (e.g., broadening content
knowledge). Additional important factors in this framework are interpersonal and
contextual processes. Interpersonal factors, such as trust, communication, mutual respect
and attraction between partners, influence the collaborative process. Contextual factors
include institutional issues (e.g., support from faculty members, information technology
and administrative staff), and national and international differences in climate (e.g.,
differences in career and institutional processes and strategies) that need to be taken into
account when planning collaborations. Given the importance of university community
partnerships to engagement, it is critical that more research is conducted in this area.
Figure 2
Inductive Process Framework of Academic Research Collaborations
55
In addition to altering perspectives, Community Service-Learning brings a
variation to the learning environment. The goal of all universities should be to educate
students with the use of several techniques and methods that stimulate the mind in
different ways. The most appealing part of Community Service-Learning is its unique
ability to dramatically change the normal learning environment. Community ServiceLearning offers the benefits of learning in different ways because it changes the
atmosphere from a typical classroom setting, to a hands-on situation that requires
participation different from usual classroom discussion. In order for students to
accomplish all that is necessary in university education, a curriculum with varied
teaching approaches should be adopted to acknowledge different learning styles.
Knowledge that is obtained through several experiences is more likely to impact and stay
with students. In her article, “Let's Learn about Learning Styles,” educational reviewer
from the Eclectic Home School Resource Center, Flint (2006) said that the way students'
process information is based on the choice of materials and the way in which they are
received. Community Service-Learning is a perfect way to expose college students to
new learning atmospheres.
Teaching with Community Service-Learning can encourage interactive teaching
methods and reciprocal learning between students and faculty, add new insights and
dimensions to class discussions, and lead to new avenues for research and publication. It
can also promote students' active learning; engage students with different learning styles,
and develop students' civic and leadership skills, boost course enrollment by attracting
highly motivated and engaged students, provide networking opportunities with engaged
56
staff in other disciplines, foster relationships between staff and community organizations,
which can open other opportunities for collaborative work as well as provide firsthand
knowledge of community issues; provide opportunities to be more involved in
community issues.
Community Service-Learning is a unique addition to curriculum that should be
taken into consideration by all colleges and universities. Its potential to accomplish great
things for students and community members is unparalleled. Not only does Community
Service-Learning open the eyes of students and give a new perspective, it provides a
different learning atmosphere and allows its participants to bond in a unique way.
Considering these factors, Community Service-Learning should be a university
requirement.
The Value of Community Service-Learning to the Community and Students of Color
The Federal Work-Study program, specifically impacts the community of Wilson,
California. Wilson is an agricultural area with a large immigrant workforce and a large
Spanish speaking community, with 32.8% English Learners. As will be discussed more
in Chapter 3, Wilson has many socio-economic characteristics which are consistent with
lower income minority communities of color.
If Community Service-Learning is bridging the distance between ivory tower and
brick houses, transforming neighborhoods, or increasing civic participation, the
community members would take notice. Community Service-Learning research on the
community perspective is rare and recent (Worrall, 2007), as it lacks financial and
57
motivational backing. The little existing research on the community focuses on the
partnership between the university and community as the unit of analysis (Clarke, 2003;
Dorado & Giles, 2004; Worrall, 2007). Results showed that the community benefits from
the partnering with the university by gaining access to resources and knowledge (Eyler,
Giles & Gray, 1999). Also, the community is more receptive to service established
collaboratively (Clarke, 2003; Dorado & Giles, 2004). The more engaged the community
is in planning and implementing the service, the more committed their partnership grows
over time (Worrall, 2007).
Although Community Service-Learning literature contains information on the
learning benefits that accrue to Community Service-Learning students (Astin & Sax,
1998; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kenny, 2002), it is relatively bereft of information on the
actual, rather than implied, service benefits to the community (Eyler et al., 1999; Ward &
Wolf-Wendel, 2000). The overall impression given by the Community Service-Learning
literature is that the value of the service to the community is more or less assumed. As
long as the program is well-designed, the value of the service is somehow assured.
Good partnerships are founded on trust, respect, mutual benefit, good
communication, and governance structures that allow democratic decision-making,
process improvement, and resource sharing (Benson & Harkavy, 2001; CommunityCampus Partnerships for Health [CCPH], 1999: Mihalynuk & Seifer, 2002; Schumaker,
Reed & Woods, 2000). More structured partnerships also include mutually agreed upon
vision, mission, goals, and evaluation (Mihalynuk & Seifer, 2002; Royer, 1999), and a
long-term commitment, particularly on the part of the higher education institution
58
(Maurasse, 2001; Mayfield & Lucas, 2000). Long-term, healthy, sustained partnerships
are grounded in personal relationships. They develop from relationships between people
and are usually sustained by those same individuals (Bringle & Hatcher, 2002; Dorado &
Giles, 2004; Holland, 2003; Mihalynuk & Seifer, 2002; Schumaker et al, 2000). In fact,
Community Service-Learning partnerships can be analogous to personal friendships or
romantic relationships, in terms of the forms they take and their patterns of evolution.
The closer the more committed the relationship, the stronger the notion that each partner
is a member of a single community (Bringle & Hatcher, 2002).
Engaging in relationships with members from local communities is central to the
higher education agenda (Maurasse, 2001) and many scholars and student affairs officers
(Benson et al., 2000; Boyer, 1990; Bringle et al., 1999; Enos & Morton, 2003) advocated
for community-campus partnerships to become a more intentional component of
actualizing the service mission of higher education. In particular, community-campus
partnerships have become recognized as linked to Community Service-Learning
initiatives for providing the Community Service-Learning experience for students and
evaluating its impact (Bailis, 2000; Bringle & Hatcher, 2002; Dorado & Giles, 2004;
Gelmon, Holland, Seifer, Shinnamon & Connors, 1998; Jacoby & Associates, 2003;
Jones, 2003). In the absence of community-campus partnerships, it is difficult to imagine
how Community Service-Learning might even exist. The sustainability to community
partnerships with higher education institutions requires attention to their motivations and
perceptions of the benefits of the partners from their own perspective.
59
Participating in Community Service-Learning makes a great deal of practical
sense for community organizations, particularly if they are nonprofit organizations that
often must do more with less. Participating in Community Service-Learning provides
“free” labor to help nonprofits fulfill their missions. This help can come in many
different forms such as direct service delivery (e.g., after school tutoring program) or
providing research/technical assistance that a community nonprofit organization has
neither time nor expertise to accomplish with its own staff (i.e., evaluating a program,
conducting a needs assessment).
Schmidt and Robby (2002), described the direct benefits to the "clients" the
community partner entities serve. Schmidt and Robby examined the value of Community
Service-Learning to the community by focusing on the clients directly served. They
found that tutoring by college student service learners’ enhanced children of color’s
academic outcomes; exposure to the possibility of higher education through interaction
with university students and the campus. The tutoring program was a joint project
between a university and a school district, so that staff from the university worked with
administrative staff and teachers from the school district to design, implement, and
evaluate the tutoring program. The authors concluded that this broad participation in
program development resulted in an effective project design and strong support for
implementation. Such program characteristics need to be explored further as to the
impact they have on community partner’s satisfaction and benefits.
Schmidt and Robby (2002) also found that the elementary students are generally
satisfied with the tutoring. They reported that they had enjoyed working with their tutor
60
and that they looked forward to their tutor each day, that their tutor helped them to learn,
and that they would choose the same tutor again. It was also found that children in the
tutoring program made stronger gains in testing. Moreover, the children of color who
were tutored by college students whose demographic characteristics and past school
history was more similar to them made more progress. Consequently, tutoring as a
Community Service-Learning activity by college students can have significant positive
effects on the children of the community in which they serve. It confirmed findings that
service is valued by those receiving it (Gray et al., 2000) and found that that the service
provided by college students in Community Service-Learning resulted in real positive
academic change in these children of color. Furthermore, it extended these findings by
exploring the effects of tutor characteristics on children’s perceived value and actual
academic gain.
Additionally, in examining Community Service-Learning partnerships in
secondary education, Abravanel (2003) found that while partnerships can meet education
and community goals for mutual benefit, there are seven critical points of difference
between educational institutions and community agencies – focus, purpose, project
organization, scheduling, access to project sites, measurements of success, and
assessment. Whereas community organizations tend to focus on products and specific
outcomes, educational institutions are oriented around student learning. The community
interest in products and specific outcomes is supported by Bushouse’s (2005) study of 14
community organizations, in which she found that community nonprofit organizations
preferred transactional relationships.
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Community representatives have said that they initially value Community
Service-Learning partnerships because they bring additional resources to the
organizations and provide the opportunity to educate future professionals and community
citizens (Basinger & Bartholomew, 2006; Gelmon et al., 1998; Liederman, Furco, Zapf &
Goss, 2003; Seifer & Vaughn, 2004). Vernon and Ward (1999) studied the nature of
relationships between universities and their surrounding communities, surveying 65
community members who were working with Community Service-Learning programs at
four colleges or universities. Ninety-two percent of those community members expressed
a positive view of the college or university in their town and 87% “agreed” or “strongly
agreed” that the university or college was perceived positively by other members of the
community. Seventy-seven percent of the respondents indicated that Community
Service-Learning students were “effective” or “very effective” in helping the agency
meet its goals. Sandy and Holland (2006) found that the opportunity to participate in the
education of college students was a primary motivating factor in community partners’
initial involvement in a Community Service-Learning partnership. Community partners
want to be involved in such development matters as student recruitment and orientation,
student reflection, faculty development, curriculum development, assessment, and
process improvement (Gelmon et al., 1998; Mihalynuk & Seifer, 2002). In addition,
community organizations actively involved in university-community partnerships
reported that these partnerships are most effective when they meet both short and longterm goals, include frequent and candid communication between partners, explicitly
value the community partner’s expertise and contributions, and build the community
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organization’s capacity to function. Moreover, community evaluations of student
performance in their organizations reported that student volunteers were reliable and
valuable in providing the services of the organization, respectful to staff and clients,
prompt, dressed and acted appropriately, and showed interest in the work of the
organization. Organizations have also reported that the contributions made by students
outweigh any costs associated with their training and supervision (Edwards, Mooney &
Heald, 2001; Ferrari & Worrall, 2000).
Conversely, for some community organizations that partner with colleges and
universities in Community Service-Learning, the presence of students can be a mixed
blessing. On the positive side, the students constitute a large pool of volunteers, many of
them highly motivated, who bring new energy, viewpoints, and ideas to the organization.
On the negative side, the students tend to stay in their service jobs for only a short time;
the student leaves the organization just as he or she is coming to understand its mission
and philosophy and is becoming competent and comfortable in helping with its work.
When the next quarter rolls around, the organization has to orient and train a whole new
group of student workers.
Additionally, the challenges to working with Community Service-Learning
programs include the time constraints of the academic calendar, students’ lack of
preparation, and incompatibility of students’ and organizations’ schedules (Sandy &
Holland, 2006; Vernon & Ward, 1999). Other challenges to working with students
included dealing with limitations of the students’ short-term commitment and the amount
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of training they required to serve effectively. Most community partners desired more
communication and coordination with university students.
Admittedly, more attention has been paid in recent years to the community and its
perspective. Ferrari and Worrall (2000) offered a program evaluation from the
perspective of staff at urban-base community partners, assessing student performance
using qualitative and quantitative items. The organization’s perception of students,
faculty, and community impacts of the Community Service-Learning experience are also
highlighted in other recent studies (Schmidt & Robby, 2002; Vernon & Ward, 1999).
While these studies help shed light on the community partner perspective, more research
is needed. Personal experiences call into question the assumed direction and value of the
service in Community Service-Learning, and suggest that the service component is
complex. Studies assessing the impact of Community Service-Learning must go further
to stand the reciprocal nature of the “service” in Community Service-Learning.
Moreover, the benefits of Community Service-Learning for students of color need to be
further researched and documented.
The Experience of Schooling for Low-Income Minority Students
Historically, children from poverty have been disproportionately placed at risk of
academic failure (Natriello, McDill & Pallas, 1990). Along with poverty, researchers
also have associated an individual’s status as a racial or cultural minority with academic
risk (Gordon & Yowell, 1994; Natriello et al., 1990). Beyond such individual factors,
schools that serve children of poverty and of color also may introduce risk factors by
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failing to provide a supportive school climate, by institutionalizing low academic
expectations, or by delivering inadequate educational resources. Finally, academic risks
may be associated with the potential discontinuity, or “lack of fit,” between the
behavioral patterns and values socialized in the context of low-income and minority
families and communities and those expected in the mainstream classroom and school
(Boykin, 1986; Delpit, 1995; Gordon & Yowell, 1994; Taylor, 1991). For instance,
Fordham and Ogbu (1986) argued that because African Americans have had limited
opportunities in America, they developed an “oppositional” culture that equated doing
well in school with “acting White” or “selling out.” Therefore, individual characteristics,
school characteristics, and the interactions between individual and school characteristics
all may contribute to a student’s risk of academic failure.
Increasingly, researchers (Neuman, 2009; Hattie, 2009; Tough; 2009) have begun
to look at the flip side of risk, and instead have focused on the factors that enable at-risk
students to “beat the odds” against achieving academic success. Borrowing primarily
from the field of developmental psychopathology, a growing body of educational
research has identified individual attributes that promote academic resiliency.
Developmental psychologists, such as Rutter (1987) and Garmezy (1991), have
recognized that among groups believed to be at high risk for developing particular
difficulties, many individuals emerge unscathed by adversity. The observation that only
one out of four children of alcoholic parents will become an alcoholic is a familiar
example of this phenomenon (Benard, 1991). The capacity for resilience varies from
individual to individual, and it may grow or decline over time, depending in part on
65
protective factors within the person that might prevent or mitigate the negative impacts of
stressful situations or conditions (Henderson & Milstein, 1996). Individual
characteristics of resilient children typically include an internal locus of control, high
self-esteem, high self-efficacy, and autonomy (Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1995).
Resilient children also are actively engaged in school (Finn & Rock, 1997), have strong
interpersonal skills, maintain healthy expectations, and have a high level of activity
(Benard, 1991). All of these characteristics highlight the underlying perseverance, strong
will, and positive disposition of the resilient child.
A substantial amount of work on resilient children has focused on historically
disadvantaged minorities of low socioeconomic status. In particular, educational
researchers have devoted considerable attention to academically successful African
American students (Clark, 1983; Connell, Spencer & Aber, 1994; Taylor, 1994; Winfield,
1991). This focus is understandable, in that minority students tend to be impacted by
poverty and other risk factors with a greater frequency than white students. Researchers
such as Taylor (1994) have pointed out additional risk factors associated with being an
African American, including daily experiences of discriminatory behavior from
individuals and institutions, and political, occupational, and residential restrictions
motivated by race.
Beyond the individual characteristics of resilient children, researchers have begun
to pay more attention to understanding how schools may affect students’ academic
resiliency. Resilience researchers noted that school environments may provide protective
factors that mitigates against school failure and that they may introduce additional
66
stressors and adversities that place students at even greater risk of academic failure. A
few researchers, such as Benard (1991), Henderson and Milstein (1996) and Wang et al.
(1995) have devoted considerable attention to the issue and have formulated theoretical
models of how schools may foster resiliency in students.
Consistently, resilience researchers cite the need for caring and supportive
teachers and tutors (Benard, 1991; Henderson & Milstein, 1996; Werner & Smith, 1989)
a safe and orderly school environment (Freiberg, Stein & Huang, 1995; Wang et al.,
1995); positive expectations for all children (Benard, 1991; Henderson & Milstein, 1996;
Rutter, Maughn, Mortimore, Ouston & Smith, 1979); opportunities for students to
become meaningfully and productively involved and engaged within the school (Benard,
1991; Braddock, Royster, Winfield & Hawkins, 1991; Finn & Rock, 1997), and efforts to
improve partnerships between the home and school (Comer, 1984; Masten, 1994; Wang
et al., 1994).
In the last decade, the rates of enrollment and retention of certain college students
of color have declined. Although attention to the need to diversify the student body and
create a welcoming climate has increased, success has been limited. In a social and
political climate where affirmative action is under attack and the means for ensuring
diversity are becoming narrower, there needs to be strategies for retaining students who
are able to enter higher education. Over the last few decades, professionals have
searched for generalized strategies and techniques to retain students, but often studies
have not examined the specific needs of students of color. Because students of color
often make up a much smaller percentage of students in studies, their experiences and
67
needs are often lost and go undetected. As Swail, Redd and Perna (2003) described the
United States will become significantly less white over the next fifty years, so these
issues are becoming more urgent.
It is also noteworthy to add that today about half of students with dreams and
aspirations based on their future receipt of an earned certificate or degree leave with that
dream either stalled or ended. Access and completion rates for African American,
Hispanic, and Native American students have always lagged behind white and Asian
students, as have those for low-income students and students with disabilities. Although
postsecondary enrollment rates for students of color are at levels similar to white and
Asian students, access to four-year colleges, especially our nation’s most selective
institutions, remains inequitable. Beyond access, students of color have not earned
degrees at the same rates as other students.
Education has a profound impact on both the individual and society, and it is one
of the surest ways to increase one’s social and economic levels and overcome the barriers
of poverty and deprived social conditions (Swail, 2000). Individuals with a bachelor’s
degree earn, on average, twice that of high school graduates and those with a professional
degree earn twice what individuals with a bachelor’s earn. Thus, the demand for
postsecondary education has increased greatly over the past several decades, with
enrollments up ten-fold since the mid-1900s to approximately 14 million.
Educational attainment levels continue to be substantially lower for African
Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians than for whites and Asians. In 2011, only
11% of Hispanics and 19% of Blacks in the US population age 25 and older had attained
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at least a bachelor’s degree, compared with 30% of whites and 52% of Asians (US
Census Bureau, 2010). A review of available data suggested that increasing the share of
students of color who attain a bachelor’s degree requires attention to four critical
junctures.
Research showed that the level of academic preparation in school is positively
related to high school graduation rates, college entrance examination scores,
predisposition toward college, college enrollment, representation at more selective
colleges and universities, rates of transfer from a two-year to a four-year institution,
progress toward earning a bachelor’s degree by age 30, college persistence rates, and
college completion rates (Gordon & Steele, 2003). Completing a rigorous curricular
program during the years of school appeared to be a more important predictor of college
persistence than test scores, particularly for African American and Hispanic students.
Only 46% of African Americans and 47% of Hispanics who first enrolled in a
four-year institution in 2009 to 2010 with the goal of completing a bachelor’s degree
actually completed a bachelor’s degree within six years, compared to 67% of whites and
72% of Asians. Six-year bachelor’s degree completion rates are also lower for African
Americans and Hispanics than for whites and Asians at both types of institutions (US
Census Bureau, 2010).
Programs and services are not enough to ensure success; monitoring student
progress is critical. Data and evidence (both quantitative and qualitative) on the success
of students must be collected and reviewed on a systemic and ongoing basis. It is also
important to think across the entire institution to successfully implement and lead a
69
retention effort as well as it should be noted that those FWS students who share similar
backgrounds to those they tutor at the elementary schools have had significant success
with retention as well as improvements in academic testing.
Conclusion
Community Service-Learning benefits students, schools, and agencies, as opposed
to compensatory or at-risk views of one side or the other (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Ferrari &
Chapman, 1999). In well-designed Community Service-Learning programs, the student,
school, and community site are integrated into the educational process: students learn to
create, plan, and prepare a course of action in real-life situations, with a sense of care for
others (Ferrari, & Geller, 1994; Ferrari & Jason, 1996; Keith, 1994; Markus et al., 1993;
Schine, 1997); universities build stronger links with their local communities (Kinsley &
McPherson, 1995; Sanders, 2001; Weil, 1996); and organizations have active citizens
better prepared to tackle future problems as well as address current dilemmas (Greene,
1998; Miller, 1997; Noley, 1977).
However, among the benefits of Community Service-Learning, there lie
problems. First, there is The Problem of Time. University education is built upon
numerous artificial constructions of time. Students take classes in credit hours, courses
are offered in terms, students take final examinations and graduate after amassing enough
hours over enough terms at the university. Ways of thinking about time can grow out of
a scientific conception of learning. Tagg (2003) suggested that common conceptions of
time in higher education result in a limited “time horizon,” that is, students and teachers
70
think they will have to live with the consequences of their actions at school for only a
brief time.
University-based conceptions of time and students' limited time horizon have long
been problems in Community Service-Learning. They manifest themselves in questions
about how many hours of Community Service-Learning are sufficient, and in efforts to
assess the outcomes of service based on the number of hours volunteered. Universitybased time constraints also show themselves in the difficult work of establishing a longterm partnership when students will be cycling through short-term service assignments at
partner organizations on a regular basis (Wallace, 2000).
Responses to the problem of time often take two paths: to encourage students
(often through incentives such as pay or university credit) to continue to serve once a
particular course is over, and to create partnerships that can endure after they leave. Both
of these approaches work within the university's model of time.
Second, there is The Problem of Activism vs. Service. One of the fiercest debates
during the past two decades in Community Service-Learning has been the question of
whether educators should encourage and support charitable service or political activism
(sometimes referred to as social change) among students. Many argued that direct
service is an important place to start, but not enough in itself; service must lead across a
hierarchical continuum to political activism. Morton (1995) argued that charitable
service and political activism are both important pieces, but what matters most is the
integrity and movement toward depth in either approach.
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Lastly, there is The Problem of Service. Some of the harshest criticisms of
Community Service-Learning have come from public intellectuals who approach
campus-community partnerships with a community perspective and political orientation.
Boyte (2004), co-director of the Center for Democracy and Citizenship at the University
of Minnesota, contended that Community Service-Learning routinely “neglects to teach
about root causes and power relationships, fails to stress productive impact, ignores
politics, and downplays the strengths and talents of those being served” (p. 12).
Similarly, the paradigmatic stance of service, Boyte (2004) argued the “outside expert”
(p. 11). Likewise, McKnight (1995) of the Asset-Based Community Development
Institute at Northwestern University, critiques the professional nature of service provision
which views people in communities for their deficiencies, rather than their assets.
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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Multiple searches and search strategies were employed addressing the relationship
between student employment and higher education outcomes. This included an
examination of educational and psychological databases (ERIC) available through the
library system at California State University, Sacramento. Search terms used included
“student employment,” “student work,” “college students,” “work-study,” and various
related expressions. In addition, the reference section of each article or book was
reviewed for other possible articles of interest.
Searches also included government documents from the National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES) using the same key words. References to significant NCES
documents also appeared in the reference sections of many articles that were located
through the database search. The NCES documents that were reviewed typically
included descriptive statistics and commentary.
These searches identified a variety of articles, each critically reviewed for this
study. The articles that were selected typically addressed issues of student employment
for individuals attending four-year institutions. Occasionally, articles involving two-year
institutions were included, although they generally referenced a comparison with a fouryear college. Articles that were representative of the broader issues under discussion
were also included, with a particular emphasis on those with contrasting conclusions and
methodological issues. Through this review of contemporary research on the benefits
73
and challenges associated with student employment while attending college, the
researcher was better able to situate the experience of the students in this study who
engage in Federal Work-Study supported employment while pursuing the baccalaureate
degrees at the University of California at Divine.
Setting of the Study
UC Divine is widely known for specialties in agriculture, viticulture and enology,
the biological sciences and veterinary medicine; teaching and research are grounded in a
century-plus tradition of excellence that stretches across all of the disciplines. The
University was founded in 1905, with the first students admitted in 1908. There are four
colleges (Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Biological Sciences, Engineering,
and Letters and Science) and six professional schools (Education, Law, Management,
Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, and the Betty Irene Moore School of Nursing).
As of fall 2010, there were 24,737 undergraduate (31,392 including graduate
students) students enrolled, with 17,696 (71.5%) receiving $323,008,706 in financial aid
(UC Financial Aid, 2010). There were a total of 378 Community Service-Learning workstudy students employed at WJUSD, Divine Joint Unified School District (DJUSD),
Dixon School District, and Sacramento Unified School District. Of those, 182 were
employed as reading tutors, amounting to $278,071 in hourly wages paid at 100% by
federal work-study dollars, 159 were employed as math tutors, with $335,959 paid at
100% by federal work-study dollars, and 37 were employed as tutors across all areas of
74
study, with which the federal work-study dollars paid $77,447 (UC Divine Student
Employment Center, 2011).
Figure 3
Undergraduate Student Populations Headcount, Fall 1999-2011
75
76
Figure 4
UC Divine Total 2010-11 Work-Study Disbursed by Program Type
Figure 5
UC Divine Total 2010-11 Work-Study Disbursed By Funding Source
Wilson, California is located approximately 12 miles north of Divine. The
population was 54,235 at the 2010 census. The largest ethnic population is White, with
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Hispanic being the second largest. Wilson is an agricultural area with a large immigrant
workforce and a large Spanish speaking community, with 32.8% English Learners. The
district includes students qualifying for free/assisted lunch (70.1%), students who are
academically performing below grade level, latchkey students, and schools with low
Academic Performance Index (API). Wilson Joint Unified School District’s API was
731 in 2010, with 800 as the statewide goal for all schools. Indeed, there are ten
elementary schools, two junior high schools, two high schools, one continuation school,
two continuation day schools, and one charter school. Wilson Joint Unified School
District (WJUSD) serves approximately 10,500 students with 480.5 Full-Time Equivalent
(FTE) Teachers. Below is the breakdown of students per grade for the 2009-2010
academic year as well as pertinent Wilson demographics.
Figure 6
WJUSD Information for Student Enrollment (2009-2010)
78
Figure 6 shows the Highest Education Level Attained by populations by
populations Age 25 years and older: The data represents the percentage of people in the
area over 25 who have attained a particular education level.
The Education Index for Zip Codes and places are comprised of a combination of
socio-demographic characteristics. These index scores are not based statistically upon
the performance of specific schools, programs or colleges located in these areas.
The data for Education Enrollment (Population Age 3+) represents the percentage of
people in the area over age of three who are currently enrolled at each type of learning
institution.
79
The Index score (100 = National Average) for an area is compared to the national
average of 100. A score of 200 indicates twice the national average, while 50 indicates
half the national average.
Table 1
Wilson’s Demographics (City of Wilson, 2011)
Race
White
58.1%
Hispanic
30.2%
Asian/Pacific Islander
5.2%
American Indian
1.2%
Black
1.7%
Other Races
3.6%
Household Income Base
18, 082
<$20,000
13.3%
$20,000-40,000
19.6%
$40,000-60,000
21.7%
$60,000-$75,000
13.2%
$75,000-$100,00
12.8%
>$100,000
19.4%
With a population of 55,460, Wilson’s unemployment rate is 8.3% with 29.1% of
the residents having earned a degree of higher education while 22.88% has some college.
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Shockingly, there are 69.12% of the population, aged three and older, who are not
enrolled in school.
Population and Sample
A Federal Work-Study award is determined based on financial need. Work-study
is an employment opportunity offered through the Financial Aid Office and is real, onthe-job training, and is a way to obtain important pre-graduation work experience. WorkStudy jobs will provide opportunity to develop skills, network, and build a solid reference
for future employment.
There are currently 138 Work-Study students employed at WJUSD ASES
Program. Thus, this number constitutes the population for this study. However, the
study will only consider those Federal Work-Study students who have been employed at
WJUSD After-School Education and Safety (ASES) Program for over two years. There
are a total of 89 work-study students who met these criteria. The survey was
administered via E-mail to all 89 of these Federal Work-Study students who met the
requirement of being employed at WJUSD ASES Program for two or more years.
Twenty-three are sophomores, 49 are juniors, and 17 are seniors, all from various areas of
study (UC Divine Student Employment Center, 2011). These constitute the sample who
the researcher sought to directly involve in the study. Further, a face-to-face interview
was conducted with ten randomly (four Hispanic females, one White female, one African
American female, one Chinese American female, and three Hispanic males) selected,
from the 89 who met the criteria, work-study students. The main advantage of face to
81
face or direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary,
clarify doubt, and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or
rephrasing the questions. The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the
respondent; any discomfort, stress and problems that the respondent experiences can be
detected through frowns, nervous taping and other body language, unconsciously
exhibited by any person. Of the 89 who completed the E-mail survey/questionnaire, 24
are White, 41 are Hispanic, two are African American, and 22 are Chinese American.
Seventeen are sophomores, 49 are juniors, and 23 are seniors. There were a total of 62
females and 27 males. The female tutors consisted of eight White, 35 Hispanics, two
African American, and 17 Chinese American. The male tutors had nine White, 16
Hispanics, and two Chinese Americans. There were 25 students who have been
employed for two years, 29 who have been employed three years, 22 for four years, 11
for five years, and two for six years (UC Divine Student Employment Center, 2011).
Figure 7
WJUSD 2+ Years Tutors
WJUSD 2+ Years Tutors
White (24)
Hispanic (41)
Afr. American (2)
25%
27%
2%
46%
Chinese American (22)
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Figure 8
WJUSD Tutors by Grade Level
WJUSD Tutors by Grade Level
Sophomores (17)
Juniors (49)
19%
26%
55%
Figure 9
Breakdown of Tutors by Gender
Gender
Male (27)
Female (62)
30%
70%
Seniors (23)
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Figure 10
Breakdown of Female Tutors by Ethnicity
Female Tutors by Ethnicity
White (8)
Hispanic (35)
African American (2)
Chinese American (17)
13%
27%
3%
57%
Figure 11
Breakdown of Male Tutors by Ethnicity
Male Tutors by Ethnicity
White (9)
Hispanic (16)
Chinese American (2)
8%
33%
59%
84
Figure 12
Number of Tutors Employed at WJUSD
Number of Students Employed
35
30
25
20
Number of Students Employed
15
10
5
0
2 years
3 years
4 years
5 years
6+ years
It should be noted that though the intent of this study was to explore the impact of
engaging in FWS employment in Wilson Joint Unified School District, based on
information gathered from WJUSD tutors who have worked two plus years at the district,
the researcher, through her interactions with the FWS students at their worksites has also
informally gathered information from community members, such as site coordinators
(two males, two females), teachers (one male, one female), principals (two females; one
male), ASES program coordinator (one male), and parents (two males, three females).
Within the process of informing site coordinators at the various elementary schools about
the FWS surveys and the interviews and consequently, interviewing the work-study tutors
at their work site, conversations with regards to the community members’ perception of
the work-study program and its tutors naturally arose between the researcher and the
various community members. With regards to these conversations, consent was given
85
verbally by the ASES Program Coordinator, a white man, a Hispanic male principal, two
White female principals, two bilingual female site coordinators, two bilingual male site
coordinators, a White male teacher, and a Hispanic female teacher, to the researcher to
transcribe the conversations. Furthermore, parents who noticed the researcher at the
school site willingly contributed their views regarding the work-study program and its
tutors. These discussions were initiated by the parents of the children being tutored, not
by the researcher. Conversations occurred at two different elementary schools between
the researcher and three bilingual Hispanic mothers and two white male stay at home
fathers who volunteer daily at their children’s school. The researcher did ask for consent
in transcribing the conversations as well as informed the parents of the potential of the
conversations being used within the analysis of the study. In every case in which a
community member was informed of the researcher’s study and asked for consent to the
conversation being transcribed (from memory, not from recording) by the researcher, the
fiend informant willingly gave consent. There was, in a fact, a great deal of community
support expressed for the FWS program and the presence of the UC Divine students. In
no case did the researcher transcribe from memory or otherwise statements of a minor.
Design of the Study
After the review of on-line articles, interview questions were generated based on
the collected information from previous student employment studies and test group. In
order to gather the necessary data, the descriptive method was used, employing the
qualitative approach. A total of 89 work-study students met the criteria of employment
86
with the same school district for two plus years. Those work-study student employees
who have been chosen in this study completed a Likert survey questionnaire combined
with open ended questions asking for elaboration in specific areas to evaluate their
contribution to WJUSD with regards to their work-study positions.
The credibility of findings and conclusions extensively depend on the quality of
the research design, data collection, data management, and data analysis. This chapter
will be dedicated to the description of the methods and procedures done in order to obtain
the data, how they will be analysed, interpreted, and how the conclusion will be met.
This section is to justify the means through which the study data was obtained, coded,
and analysed and will help in giving it purpose and strength as it will then be truthful and
analytical. All these will help in the processing of the data and the formulation of
conclusions. Specifically, this research covers the following: the research design and
method, the respondents or subjects to be studied the data collection instrument, and the
data analysis.
Data analysis is the most difficult and most crucial aspect of qualitative research.
Coding is one of the significant steps taken during analysis to organize and make sense of
textual data though the analysis of qualitative data is usually seen as arduous. The reason
why is because it is dynamic, intuitive, and creative process of inductive reasoning,
thinking and theorizing. Unlike some quantitative research, qualitative research usually
lacks a division of labor between data collectors and analysts. Throughout analysis,
researchers attempt to gain a deeper understanding of what they have studied and to
continually refine their interpretations. Researchers draw on their firsthand experience
87
with settings, informants or documents to interpret their data (Taylor & Bogdan, 1998).
The object of analyzing qualitative data is to determine the categories, relationships, and
assumptions that inform the respondents’ view of the world in general and of the topic in
particular (McCracken, 1988).
Consequently, raw data can be very interesting to look at, yet they do not help the
reader to understand the social world under scrutiny, and the way the participants view it,
unless such data have been systematically analyzed to illuminate an existent situation.
Therefore, coding or categorizing the data has an important role in analysis. It involves
subdividing the data as well as assigning categories (Dey, 1993). Codes or categories are
tags or labels for allocating units of meaning to the descriptive or inferential information
compiled during a study. Codes usually are attached to chunks of varying-sized words,
phrases, sentences or whole paragraphs, connected or unconnected to a specific setting.
They can take the form of a straightforward category label or a more complex one, for
example, a metaphor (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Seidel and Kelle (1995) viewed the
role of coding as noticing relevant phenomena; collecting examples of those phenomena;
and analyzing those phenomena in order to find commonalities, differences, patterns, and
structures. Creating categories triggers the construction of a conceptual scheme that suits
the data. This scheme helps the researcher to ask questions, to compare across data, to
change or drop categories and to make a hierarchical order of them.
Coding and analysis are not synonymous, though coding is a crucial aspect of
analysis. Qualitative data analysis is not a discrete procedure carried out at the final
stages of research. It is, indeed, an all-encompassing activity that continues throughout
88
the life of the project. Even if the researcher is not involved in a formal analysis of the
data at the initial stages of research, she might be thinking how to make sense of them
and what codes, categories or themes could be used to explain the phenomena.
In this research, descriptive methods of research were also used to gather
information about the present existing condition. The purpose of employing this method
is to describe the nature of a situation, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore
the cause/s of particular phenomena. The researcher opted to use this kind of research
considering the desire of the researcher to obtain first hand data from the respondents so
as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study.
The student participants were selected by means of records that are kept at the
Student Employment Center at UC Divine. These students are employed off-campus, at
Wilson Joint Unified School District in the ASES Program. This sampling method is
conducted where each member, who met the two plus employment requirement, had an
equal opportunity to become part of the sample. In order to conduct this sampling
strategy, the population was first defined using the Student Employment Center’s
database. All the members, who met the minimum employment requirement, were listed,
and then contacted, via E-mail, to solicit responses to the survey. For this purpose, a selfadministered survey questionnaire in Likert and open ended questions format was given
to the respondents to answer.
It should also be noted that the community members and the parents were chosen
by chance, due to the interaction that the researcher had with the community members as
well as the parents while at the school site interviewing work-study tutors. This was an
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unexpected addition to the study; however, the researcher found that the community
members’ reflections and views are just as important as the FWS tutors who work within
WJUSD. These community members are heavily involved with the school sites, thus
they saw the advantages of the FWS tutors as well as saw the financial benefits of the
FWS Program as administered by the university.
Data Collection
The survey-questionnaire method was the research instrument used for datagathering. The questionnaire was sent via E-mail to the selected students; they were
given two weeks to complete the questionnaire. Once returned, ten students were
randomly selected and contacted for a face to face interview because face-to-face
interviews have long been the dominant interview technique in the field of qualitative
research.
The qualitative method permits a flexible and iterative approach. The value of
qualitative research can best be understood by examining its characteristics. One of the
primary advantages of qualitative research is that it is more open to the adjusting and
refining of research ideas as an inquiry proceeds.
Also, the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the research setting, as in an
experimental study, but rather seeks to understand naturally occurring phenomena in their
naturally occurring states. Inductive reasoning, as opposed to deductive reasoning, is
common in qualitative research, along with content or holistic analysis in place of
statistical analysis (Meyer, 1993).
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Additionally, it was determined that the face to face interviews were needed to
take advantage of social cues that are missed in completing a survey-questionnaire.
Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee can give a
lot of extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a
question. On the other hand, this face to face interaction can lead to disturbing
interviewer effects, when the interviewer guides with his or her behavior the interviewee
in a special direction. This disadvantage can be diminished by using an interview
protocol and by the awareness of the interviewer of this effect.
Face-to-face interviews were conducted at the work site to insure that there is no
significant time delay between question and answer; the interviewer and interviewee can
directly react to what the other says or does. An advantage of this synchronous
communication is that the answer of the interviewee is more spontaneous, without an
extended reflection. But due to this synchronous character of the medium, the
interviewer must concentrate much more on the questions to be asked and the answers
given. Especially when an unstructured or semi structured interview list is used, and the
interviewer has to formulate questions as a result of the interactive nature of
communication.
Lastly, participant observation was also employed. Participant observation is a
qualitative method with roots in traditional ethnographic research, whose objective is to
help researchers learn the perspectives held by study populations. This qualitative
researcher presumes that there will be multiple perspectives within any given community.
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This researcher was interested both in knowing what those diverse perspectives are and in
understanding the interplay among them.
This researcher accomplished this through observation alone or by both observing
and participating, to varying degrees, in the study community’s daily activities.
Participant observation always takes place in community settings, in locations believed to
have some relevance to the research questions. The method is distinctive because the
researcher approaches participants in their own environment rather than having the
participants come to the researcher. Generally speaking, the researcher engaged in
participant observation tries to learn what life is like for an “insider” while remaining,
inevitably, an “outsider.”
While in these community settings, this researcher made careful, objective notes
about what was seen, recording all accounts and observations as field notes in a field
notebook. Informal conversation and interaction with members of the study population
were also important components of the method and was recorded in the field notes, in as
much detail as possible.
Data obtained through participant observation serve as a check against
participants’ subjective reporting of what they believe and do. Participant observation is
also useful for gaining an understanding of the physical, social, cultural, and economic
contexts in which study participants live; the relationships among and between people,
contexts, ideas, norms, and events; and people’s behaviors and activities – what they do,
how frequently, and with whom.
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In addition, the method enables researchers to develop a familiarity with the
cultural milieu that will prove invaluable throughout the project. It gives them a nuanced
understanding of context that can come only from personal experience. There is no
substitute for witnessing or participating in phenomena of human interaction – interaction
with other people, with places, with things, and with states of being such as age and
health status. Observing and participating are integral to understanding the breadth and
complexities of the human experience.
Through participant observation, researchers can also uncover factors important
for a thorough understanding of the research problem but that were unknown when the
study was designed. Thus, participant observation can help not only to understand data
collected through other methods (such as interviews and quantitative research methods),
but also to design questions for those methods that will give the best understanding of the
phenomenon being studied.
Instrumentation
A self-administered questionnaire was used for the data gathering process to get
qualitative data. The primary aim of the questionnaire is to determine the impact of the
Federal Work-Study program for those college students who are employed at the WJUSD
K through 6 elementary schools as well as the impact that the Community ServiceLearning position has on the University and the influence it has to the community in
which the students are employed.
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This research will use a mixture of Likert scale questions, open ended questions,
and participant observation. A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly found in
research that utilizes questionnaires. It is the most widely used approach to scaling
responses in survey research. Through open-ended questions, the researcher will be able
to glean more information from the interviewee. Participant observation will allow for
the researcher to observe FWS students in their work environment.
For this study, the survey-questionnaire instruments and participant observation
were used achieved the main objective of the study. A self-administered questionnaire
was distributed to the selected Federal Work-Study students. The questionnaire aimed to
answer the questions below:
1. Has the Community Service position at WJUSD encouraged creativity
through working cooperatively with members of the community toward new
solutions? What are the areas of success?
2. Has the Community Service position at WJUSD contributed to intellectual
understanding of how course work is connected to real life situations? What
are the social/emotional outcomes?
3. Has the UC Divine FWS Community Service workers developed a positive
relationship with members of WJUSD community? What is the significance
of this relationship?
The questionnaire was structured in such a way that respondents will be able to
answer it easily. Thus, the set of questionnaire was structured using the Likert format
with a five-point response scale. A Likert scale is a rating scale that requires the subject
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to indicate his or her degree of agreement or disagreement to a statement. In this type of
questionnaire, the respondents were given five response choices. These options served as
the quantification of the participants' agreement or disagreement on each question item.
Listed below are the designated quantifications used in the questionnaire.
Table 2
Likert Scale
1
Strongly Agree
2
Agree
3
Neutral
4
Disagree
5
Strongly Disagree
Data Analysis
The study utilized first hand data which comes from the chosen respondents who
answered the survey-questionnaires given to them as well as those who met with the
researcher for a face to face interview. Results of the survey will be incorporated into the
discussion below. Excerpts from the interview process were also integrated based on the
analysis. Relevant literatures to support the findings are also included.
In order to test the validity of the evaluation tool which was used for this study,
the questionnaire was tested on five randomly selected FWS students who work at
Wilson High School (WHS) in Wilson, in the Learning Skills Center. The survey was
also reviewed and given feedback by the coordinator of the WHS Learning Skills Center
as well as the administrator of the ASES Program. The five respondents and two
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administrators as well as their answers were not part of the actual study process and were
only used for testing purposes. After the questions have been answered, the respondents
were asked to give suggestions or any necessary corrections to improve the instrument
further. The questionnaire was modified based on the assessment and suggestions of the
sample respondents. Irrelevant questions were excluded, vague or difficult questions
were changed, and terminologies were simplified as to make the survey was more
comprehensive for the selected population.
As this study utilized human participants, certain issues were addressed. The
consideration of these issues is necessary for the purpose of ensuring the privacy as well
as the security of the participants. These issues were identified in advance so as prevent
future problems that could have risen during the research process. Among the significant
issues that were considered included consent, confidentiality, and data protection.
Coding: A Methodological Discussion
Numerous analyses of qualitative data begin with the classification of key topics
and patterns. This often depends on method of coding data. The segmenting and coding
of data are frequently taken-for-granted parts of the qualitative research process. All
investigators need to be able to categorize, manage, and retrieve the most meaningful bits
of data. The typical way of going about this is by delegating tags or labels to the data,
based on concepts. Essentially, what is being done in these occurrences is condensing the
majority of data sets into analyzable components by generating categories with and from
the data.
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Coding should not be seen as a substitute for analysis. Rather, the term coding
encompasses a variety of approaches to classifying qualitative data. As parts of an
analytical process, however, attaching codes to data and generating concepts have
important functions in enabling researchers to rigorously review what the data is saying
(Coffey & Atkinson, 1996).
The analytic methods that support coding procedures determine links of various
sorts. First, coding link distinct segments or occurrences in the data; those fragments of
data are brought collectively to create categories of data that have some common
property or component. They are recognized as relating to some specific topic or theme.
The coding thus links all those data fragments to a particular idea, concept, or research
question asked. Codes, data categories, and concepts are therefore related closely to one
another. The important analytic work lies in establishing and considering such linkages,
not in the tedious processes of coding (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996).
Important analytic work also lies in the recognition of pertinent concepts.
Researchers use the data to think with, in order to generate theories that are fully and
accurately related to the data. Coding can be thought about as a way of connecting the
data to ideas. Because codes are consequently links between locations in the data and
sets of concepts or ideas, they are exploratory devices. Subsequently, in practice, coding
can be thought of as a range of approaches that aid the organization, retrieval, and
interpretation of data. Coding is a process that enables the researcher to identify
meaningful data and set the stage for interpreting and drawing conclusions (Miles &
Huberman, 1994).
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Coding and retrieving is the procedure most often connected with coding as an
analytic approach. The function of coding in such a conceptualization is to underpin
three kinds of operations, according to Seidel and Kelle (1995): (a) noticing appropriate
phenomena, (b) gathering examples of those phenomena, and (c) investigating those
phenomena in order to find similarities, differences, patterns, and structures. Seidel and
Kelle (1995) were certain that even when coding is used to condense data, codes are
heuristic devices. In this sense, coding qualitative data differs from quantitative analysis,
for researchers were not merely calculating. Rather, they were attaching codes as a way
of classifying and rearranging data, allowing the data to be thought about in fresh and
distinctive ways. As well as data generalization and reduction, coding can be thought of
as data complication. Coding need not be viewed simply as reducing data to some
widespread, commonplace denominators. Rather, it can be used to enlarge, alter, and reconceptualize data, opening up more varied analytical probabilities.
The general analytic approach here is not to simplify the data but to open them up
in order to interrogate them further, to try to recognize and hypothesize about further
features. Such data complication is not used to recover and to combine instances to a
restricted number of classifications; rather, it is meant to expand the conceptual
frameworks and scope for analysis. Coding is actually about going beyond the data,
contemplating creatively with the data, examining the data questions, and generating
theories and frameworks.
In practice, coding usually is a concoction of data reduction and data
complication. Coding generally is used to break up and section the data into simpler,
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general groups and is used to expand and tease out the data, in order to create new
questions and levels of understanding. It is especially important to avoid the use of
coding merely to apply uncomplicated and deterministic labels to the data.
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Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS & FINDINGS
The study utilized descriptive research with a brief survey. Interviews were also
used as instruments to measure the hypothesis of this study. The secondary sources of
data came from published articles from student employment journals, theses, and related
studies on Student Employment.
On the basis of the data gathered in relation to the statement of the problem, the
following are the significant findings based on the responses of those Federal WorkStudy students who have been employed at WJUSD ASES Program for two plus years.
There were a total of 89 work-study students who met these criteria for employment.
With certain limitations based on the length of service of the students in the study
compared to all FWS students, the researcher posits that the results are nonetheless
generalizable to the larger pool of FWS students employed at the school district as they
continue their involvement with the community through the FWS program. The survey
was administered via E-mail to 89 Federal Work-Study students who met the requirement
of being employed at WJUSD ASES Program for two plus years. Twenty-three are
sophomores, 49 are juniors, and 17 are seniors, all from various areas of study (UC
Divine Student Employment Center). Further, a face-to-face interview was conducted
with ten randomly selected, from the 89 who met the criteria, work-study students. All of
the students in the sample returned the survey questionnaire. Of the 89 who completed
the E-mail survey/questionnaire, 24 were White, 41 were Hispanic, two were African
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American, and 22 were Chinese American. Seventeen were sophomores, 49 were
juniors, and 23 were seniors. There were a total of 62 females and 27 males. The female
tutors consisted of eight White, 35 Hispanic, two African American, and 17 Chinese
American. The male tutors had nine White, 16 Hispanic, and two Chinese American
students. There were 25 students who have been employed for two years, 29 who have
been employed three years, 22 for four years, 11 for five years, and two for six years (UC
Divine Student Employment Center, 2011).
The method that was employed with this study was to start with the research
questions that inspired the research project. The data provided by the research subjects
was the resource from which answers to the research questions could be discerned and
coding was the procedure though which that resource was put into a form which could
support analysis. It is worth stressing here that codes are organizing principles that are
not set in stone. They are the researcher’s own creations, in that the researcher identified
and selected them. They are tools to think with. They can be expanded, altered, or be
deleted altogether as concepts develop through frequent interactions with the data.
Starting to create categories is a way of beginning to read and think about the data in a
systematic and ordered way. In coding, years employed at WJUSD, gender, class
standing, and ethnicity were also categorized and noted for each respondent. Once
categories were determined, it was also noted, by use of hash tags, how many tutors
shared similar sentiments to the same questions.
The researcher approached coding by defining the coding categories below.
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Table 3
Coding Categories
CATEGORY
Years employed
Gender
Class Standing
Extracurricular Activities
Ethnicity
Strategies, best practice or tactics
Role models
Relationship building
Benefits of the FWS program
Interactions with families
Efficacy
Empathy and Compassion
Cultural Learning
Individuality and Commonality
Crossing Boundaries
Common Ground
EXAMPLES
2-3 years. 3-4 years. 4-5 years. 6+
years.
Male/Female
Sophomore/Junior/Senior
Drama club. Journalism club.
Cooking club
White/Hispanic/African
American/Chinese American
Listen to the children.
Proliferating positivity. Provide
encouragement
Leaders. Mentors. Friends.
Confidants.
Good/bad/indifferent. UCD seen
as the unattainable ivory tower.
Closing the gap of the urban
divide.
Improving reading levels.
Revitalizing low-income
community.
Being “adopted” into a family
Growing commitment
Sense of care and love for their
job
Break through perceptions of
privilege college student.
Learning of culture while
involved in the community.
Correlates to academic learning.
Unique individuals and not
members of a particular group.
Changed perception of the people
in the community.
Help break down boundaries and
barriers.
All worked together for a
common purpose.
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Data Analysis
In this chapter the results of the data analysis are presented. The data were
collected and then processed in response to the questions posed in Chapter 1 of this
thesis. Three fundamental questions drove the collection of the data and the subsequent
data analysis. The goal was to understand the motivation behind why federal work-study
tutors continued to return to their tutoring positions at various elementary schools in
Wilson. This objective was accomplished. The findings presented in this chapter
demonstrate as much. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with ten randomly
selected FWS students, from the 89 who met the two-plus work history criteria, workstudy students. There were four Hispanic females, one White female, one African
American female, one Chinese American female, and three Hispanic males.
It should be noted that the draw for the FWS students to work at the elementary
schools in WJUSD is the $13/hour pay rate as compared to the $8/hour pay rate working
on-campus. All ten face-to-face interviewees stated that was the initial reason they chose
the tutoring position in WJUSD. It was also noticed by the researcher that the FWS
students were being asked to pay for their own background checks (a requirement of the
district in order to work with children) and the gas needed to commute to WJUSD. With
rising gas prices in the last three years, it was noted that that was not a deterrent for the
FWS students who have become invested in the lives of the students they tutor. The data
collected by the Student Employment Center confirmed this; there was not a reduction in
the work force at WJUSD. Over the past six years, on average, there have been 95 FWS
students who have been employed at the district for two-plus years.
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Significantly, it was found that those who responded via the questionnaire survey
and those who were interviewed in person all outlined multiple ways in which they have
positively contributed to their school of employment as well as brought in new creative
ideas. The uniform theme amongst these responses consisted of the freedom afforded the
tutors by their direct supervisors to introduce a program or concept and implement it from
beginning to end. The tutors were encouraged to be creative and to work cooperatively
with members of the community (teachers and site coordinators) toward new solutions.
Secondly, these tutors found their job to be gratifying because they see that they
are making a positive impact on the lives of the children they come in contact with. It is
noteworthy to add that the researcher received much more elaborate response from the
female respondents than the male respondents in regards to Question 2. Of the ten who
were interviewed, all six females gave many examples of how they have impacted the
lives of the children. Conversely, only one male, a Hispanic college senior could name
one example of how he positively impacted the life of one child.
Thirdly, a surprising response revealed that no one could name what experiences
they have had at work that can be deemed the least enjoyable. All were able to pinpoint
at least one enjoyable experience. However, one Hispanic second year female tutor did
express concern for the students she tutors stating, “It is very sad to see that many
students lack the motivation or encouragement needed to succeed in high school because
of their background and low self-esteem.”
When asked, “What has happened during your time at the school you’re
employed at that you did not expect?” A Chinese American, second year male tutor
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expressed his love for his job and exclaimed, “It has exceeded my expectations in every
way possible!” Further, a very dedicated Hispanic, junior female tutor, who changed her
major from engineering to education states,
I applied and took this tutoring position as a way to earn some extra cash since it
was a high paying job but tutoring my own class, receiving ideas/lessons from my
own kids, learning new things about each student every day, and absorbing so
much energy from the kids has exceeded my expectations of this job.
Figure 13
Unforeseen Expectations
Found "family"
and built lasting
relationships (9
stds)
10%
Unforseen Expectations
Job is
Rewarding (10
stds)
11%
Dedicated to
Student Success
(12 stds)
14%
Learning from the
Children (14 stds)
16%
Taken
Seriously (24
stds)
27%
Career
Aspriations
Changed (20
stds)
22%
Overwhelmingly, all those who responded via the survey and all those
interviewed in person strongly agreed that they are engaged in meaningful work and
proud to work for the Wilson Joint Unified School District (WJUSD). The respondents
also perceive that what they do is important.
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Because of their work experience, all students responded that they will continue
to contribute to the community in the future; specifically, as volunteers at the local
school, start their own after school program, attend fundraisers for after school programs,
or volunteer at youth clubs or programs. It should be noted that all 89 respondents
offered up one of the above four options, the options were not given as part of the
questionnaire. It should further be noted that it was only Hispanics who indicated that
he/she would volunteer at a local school in the future. During a face-to-face interview, it
was asked why this is, a Hispanic senior male student stated, “I hope to keep encouraging
Hispanics to pursue higher education because we lag behind every other population group
in attaining college degrees, especially bachelor’s degrees.”
Figure 14
Future Contributions to the Local Community
Future Contributions to the Local
Community
Volunteer at
youth clubs or
programs (25)
28%
Volunteer in
Local School
(30)
34%
Attend
fundraisers
for schools
(21)
23%
Start own after
school program
(13)
15%
It should be further mentioned that eight of the ten tutors who were interviewed
face to face, stated that their career aspirations have changed since being employed in the
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tutoring position; all eight changed their major to education and want to pursue their
credential. One Hispanic, junior female tutor notes that she has learned to be role model
and leader for the children. She now seeks to be involved in leadership positions in
education. And with this job, she has gained confidence in taking on such leadership
roles. The other two interviewees (both white senior females), whose future career
aspirations did not change after being employed in a tutoring position, stated that they
still want to pursue veterinary school but will attend future fundraisers for the after school
programs and shared that by working in the community, it has given them a great
appreciation for this kind of work and has enabled them to see the need for more role
models in the community.
All tutors, who responded via the survey and face to face interview, further
pronounce that the skills they have developed in these positions have further their
personal growth. Twenty-seven students stated that their communication (verbal and
nonverbal) skills improved, 21 bettered their teaching techniques, 11 learned to be more
patient, 22 gained more self-confidence, and 8 claimed that their public speaking skills
have improved.
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Figure 15
Further Development of Skills
Enhanced Public
Speaking (8 stds.)
9%
Further Development of Skills
Gained SelfConfidence (22
stds.)
25%
More Patient (11
stds.)
12%
Improved Comm.
Skills (27 stds.)
30%
Improved
Teaching
Tech.(21 stds.)
24%
It is also worthy to note that all responses from the tutors either strongly agreed
(73) or agreed (16) that as a result of their community service involvement, the direction
if their lives has dramatically changed.
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Figure 16
Direction of Life has Changed since Tutoring Job
Direction of Life has Changed Since Tutoring
Job
Strongly Agreed (73)
Agree (16)
18%
82%
There were some recommendations as to how the Federal Work-Study program
could be better. Out of the 89 survey responses, 70 respondents stated that more training
was needed to better prepare the tutors for the job; perhaps have the tutor watch an
experienced teacher or tutor before having them give it a go themselves. Others
expressed that time cards and payroll had them confused (8) while others (11) showed
frustrations with the limit of work-study dollars that they were allocated. Overall, all 89
respondents were either strongly satisfied or satisfied with the Federal Work Study
program as administered by the Student Employment Center at UC Divine.
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Figure 17
Satisfaction with the FWS Program
Satisfaction with the FWS Program
90
80
70
60
50
Satisfaction with the FWS
Program
40
30
20
10
0
Highly Satisfied
Satisfied
As a recognized leader in education, UC Divine encourages students to apply
leadership and career skills to real-life community settings. Last year, the UC Divine
work-study students performed more than 171,000 hours of service. An important part of
this is to teach and motivate work-study tutors to understand their role as citizens through
the work of community building and problem solving. Ideally, Community ServiceLearning should integrate community service and academics. The service that the workstudy tutors perform is tied to a particular course or internship, which furthers learning by
applying skills in the real world and helps WJUSD by providing targeted assistance. By
integrating theoretical and academic foundations with hands-on exposure and real-life
experiences, the work-study tutors will learn concrete skills for their chosen profession.
However, because UC Divine does not offer classes tied directly to the Community
Service-Learning positions at WJUSD, it is difficult to determine if the work-study
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students are correlating real life situations with various theories they are learning in the
classroom. Furthermore, by relating academic activities to real-life experiences,
Community Service-Learning improves workplace skills and enhances personal
development, which also cannot be determined in this federal work-study program.
Findings
The primary goals of this study was to measure the impact that the Federal WorkStudy tutors have on Wilson Joint Unified School District (WJUSD) and its members in
the community, to describe a process of relationship building anchored in face to face
contact with individuals different from oneself, and to determine if the FWS position
contributes positively to real life situations. Relationships were developed initially
through finding common ground and then strengthened as efficacy was enhanced and
empathy and compassion were nurtured. The three key categories-cultural learning,
negotiating individuality and commonality, and crossing boundaries anchored and
interacted with the primary goal of the study. The key and core categories are described
with illustrative quotations from students and community members.
Research Question 1
The success of the FWS program is determined by the relationship that has been
fostered over the years between UC Divine staff members as well as by community
members. Having an established relationship and open, regular communication with the
institution helps nonprofits gain clarity about the expectations for the Community
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Service-Learning placement and keeps the process running smoothly. Trust in the
relationship is important for success, and can make a big impression. This relationship
and the FWS program are especially important in a rural farming community such as
Wilson, with its limited resources. Some benefits of the FWS program include,
strengthening educational achievement, improving test scores at the K through 6 levels
and reducing economic disparities (Tannenbaum, 2007).
Community Service-Learning programs in rural settings can encounter significant
barriers and challenges. For example, rural communities may have limited access to
telecommunications, including the internet, which is the case for many Hispanic families
in Wilson. Americans in rural areas lag far behind those in urban areas in access to
advanced telecommunications services. Community Service-Learning programs can
address this urban-rural divide in a number of ways, including engaging students in fields
such as computer science education, and engineering. Furthermore, the use of computers
and the internet has opened an opportune door for the FWS tutors to connect with the
children and to become mentors. There is so much that students can do with the internet.
Not only can they communicate with international students, they can gain from others'
knowledge and experiences, participate in chat rooms, share ideas and solutions, and
learn about the many diverse cultures out there.
While the internet does a lot for students, there are also benefits for parents and
teachers. The interactive learning that the internet provides can help students and parents
with little or no English skills to learn English. Parents can become more involved in
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their children's education by connecting the school with homes, libraries or other access
ports.
Consequently, the community partners welcomed the chance to work more
closely with the university. They expressed the most satisfaction when the needs of all
partners and FWS students were met, including receiving information about how best to
accommodate a FWS student’s needs. Advance planning and clarity about purpose and
roles were also important. Responses from several community members gave examples
of how the Community Service-Learners assisted their programs. They recounted how
the FWS students had helped the children with below average test scores to develop new
daily study skills, created project based learning programs to teach students how to work
collaboratively together, and how to use acronyms and other mnemonic devices to
remember and recall information. The site coordinators also illustrate the children’s
enthusiasm upon seeing their tutor; they also observed improved attendance and
preparedness from the children.
The public school system is woefully lacking in teaching advanced learning and
brainstorming methods. It is not that the methods cannot be taught; they just are not. To
learn more, it is necessary to pay a premium in additional time and effort, and sometimes
money for commercially available learning tools. There is nothing wrong with that in
itself, but what is taught in schools needs to be expanded. It has proven that a nine-year
old can learn (some) university level math, if the learning is approached correctly
(Lembke, 2005). If a student was having trouble in math, say with fractions, an example
of applied learning might be photography, lenses, f-stops, etc. Another example is
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cooking and measurement of ingredients. Because of the liberties they’ve been entrusted
with, the FWS students have learned how tailor the applied learning to the interest of the
student. Such liberties include being given responsibility for an entire classroom to
teach, freedom to express concerns or to share “what works” with the child’s teacher, and
the knowledge to know that they can freely speak without fear of repercussions, such as
losing their job.
Further, through cooperative collaboration with stakeholders in the community,
the FWS program has enabled UC Divine FWS students to assist in improving reading
levels, revitalizing the low-income community, and empowering low-income families to
engage in their children’s educational attainment. The FWS students moved beyond the
tutoring component to being mentors, leaders, role models, friend, and trusted confidant.
They have been able to provide encouragement and have proliferated positivity among
the elementary age children. This was observed by the researcher as she has worked with
the FWS tutors over the past five years and has seen how the tutor has moved through the
many roles as well as seen firsthand how the children has interacted with the same tutor
over the years. It had become obvious that once the tutor was regarded and respected as
“teacher” is now considered a friend because of the ease of the communication and
interactions between tutor and child. Due to the trusted relationship that the FWS
students have developed with school site coordinators, many have been given the
opportunity to develop their own programs for the children; such programs include the
Journalism Club, Cooking Club, Drama Club, and Garden Club. Furthermore, this
relationship moves beyond the walls of the school to the homes of the families that the
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FWS students tutor. For example, a Hispanic, junior male tutor described how he’s been
“adopted” by the family of one particular child,
They took me in when they found out I didn’t have family here. They’ve invited
me to their house for dinner…for a bbq…for a birthday party…they think of me
as their son, the one who was able to make it to college and succeed. They are
very proud of my achievements and continue to encourage me. Because of them,
I want to try harder and graduate so they can be proud of me and I also want to set
an example for my younger “siblings.”
Efficacy
As work was accomplished, relationships developed and students reported a
growing commitment to the organizations with which they are affiliated, the people
whom they were serving, and understanding the social issues involved. One community
member referred to this as, “getting bit” whereby, students seek greater involvement and
understanding of their role in improving social problems. FWS students related a
growing understanding of their own abilities to make a difference through involvement in
Community Service-Learning whereas community members exhibited a commitment to a
particular community issue and concern. FWS students’ awareness of underlying issues
developed, although how well they actually understood these issues was less clear.
During face-to-face interviews, it became evident to the researcher that the Hispanic
students are more aware of the social issues and challenges than their non-Hispanic
counterparts. The Hispanic tutors were able to give concrete examples of why a
particular student was struggling because he/she was intimately aware of the family
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struggles whereas the their non-Hispanic counterparts could state that the child was
struggling but could not tell the researcher why he/she think the child is struggling. It
should be noted that the tutors’ commitment to developing knowledge and understanding
grew as a result of their interactions at the work site.
Empathy and Compassion
It was observed by the researcher that through their involvement at the school
sites, the FWS students developed empathy and compassion toward people with whom
they previously had limited contact. As FWS students became increasingly comfortable
in their new surroundings they articulated a newfound sense of care and compassion.
While the researcher was at the school site to conduct interviews with FWS tutors, a
conversation was struck up between the researcher and a Hispanic, female third grade
teacher at a dual immersion school, she commented that she had observed many students
“develop this incredible passion for what they are doing…[They] have found their place.
They realize that they can make a difference in other peoples’ lives.”
The experience of seeing firsthand “what it’s like” to struggle with learning
increased compassion as well. What had been remote knowledge became real to
students, which encouraged them to link empathy with action, as abstract issues became
personal to them. One Chinese American female FWS student recalled this still vivid
memory of a Spanish speaking only student struggling in first grade:
She is very open about her struggles and within a couple of weeks, I just felt an
overwhelming…compassion for her…Sometimes she looks great and sometimes
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she is completely demoralized. It just makes me want to reach out even more and
educate people…I think I will always have a special place in my heart for her.
Research Question 2
Cultural Learning
The distinctive element of Community Service-Learning is that it enhances the
community through the service provided, but it also has powerful learning consequences
for the students or others participating in providing a service. Community ServiceLearning is growing so rapidly because it has a powerful impact on young people and
their development. It is a dynamic process, through which students' personal and social
growth is tightly interwoven into their academic and cognitive development. According
to scholars Eyler and Giles (1999), with the Community Service-Learning model
“experience enhances understanding; understanding leads to more effective action” (p.
29).
Not only did students spoke of the steps they’ve taken to break through the
perceptions of a privileged college student from UC Divine, they also emphatically spoke
about the learning that occurred through their involvement in Community ServiceLearning. For the ten face-to-face interviewees, the nature of their learning was
markedly different from each other, although all indicated that they learned from
interacting with individuals with whom they would not ordinarily come into contact. For
instance, four Hispanic female interviewees shared similar sentiments when they
communicated that their Community Service-Learning participation has enhanced their
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leadership and networking skills through activities such as organizing and leading events
and projects, public speaking, and collaborating with community members. In addition
to gaining new skills, two Hispanic male tutors were also introduced to many educational
opportunities that they might not have been exposed to otherwise. For college students
who are less familiar with university resources, these connections could prove valuable to
their personal development as well as future career pursuits. For example, one white
sophomore talked about how he was “introduced to a different world that really allowed
me to tap in [to a different part of myself].” The other two Hispanic male (both juniors)
FWS students learned about study abroad programs and undergraduate research
opportunities as a result of their interactions with other tutors at their job. One White
female tutor developed coping skills on the job. With respect to coping strategies, she
explained how going to her job site served as a “de-stressor” by allowing her to step back
from the immediate issues she faced at school. The African American female tutor grew
through exploration. She described how her position helped her to learn about herself
and served as a turning point in her education; she was one student who switched her
major to education. The Chinese American female tutor developed a sense of
commitment and felt responsible for the children who she tutored and cared about. These
tutors often felt a sense of connection to the population with whom they were working,
and felt passionately about their involvement. Ultimately, the ten interviewees were
inspired in their search for personal meaning as well as their examination of how their
educational pursuits fit into their larger purpose in life.
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One the other hand, there were FWS tutors who came from the same background
as the children they were tutoring, low-income Spanish speaking only family struggling
to provide for their family but want the best for the child. These FWS students
understood firsthand what it meant to struggle academically, socially, and emotionally
because they had “been there.” In these instances it was observed by the site coordinator
and later recounted to the researcher that the tutors were able to connect with the child
and the parents at a much deeper level that transcends the norm. It was found that the
Hispanic tutors (female and male interviewees) were motivated to give back to those who
came from similar background as themselves. Due to this connection to the child and to
the family, the tutors were able to encourage, affirm, and be completely devoted to the
academic and social success of the child. One Hispanic, junior male tutor stated,
I want to give back to my community; doing something for the
community you live in and returning the favor to those who have helped
you. Everyone, rich or poor, takes from society, and this is one way to
show a sense of appreciation.
Initially, student learning was other directed with a focus on those with whom the
Federal Work-Study (FWS) students came into contact. After time and continued
dialogue, those FWS students, who were interviewed, recount that they began to make a
connection between understanding others, understanding oneself, and were able to relate
this life experience to various lessons learned in the classroom. This process involved an
awareness of their advantages and privileges. A white female tutor talked about this
process:
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So it really made me do a check of reality in thinking, get over yourself. You are
no better than anyone else in this place right now. You’ve just been lucky.
You’ve had advantages that they didn’t have. They didn’t start off with those
advantages. I did. I could end up there.
As this learning developed, the world became smaller for the students and their
connections with those with whom they interacted became clearer. A Hispanic female
tutor commented that although she lived only two blocks from the school,
It didn’t really hit me that this was my neighborhood, too…Because you don’t
really see an intermingling of those that live in this area with the student
population…It is kind of like two different worlds, even though they are so
physically close to each other.
An African American female, who has worked for four years at WJUSD as a tutor
reflected,
My involvement at WJUSD has had many positive effects on my grades, attitudes
towards school and education, and civic education. My overall GPA improved
from about a B to an A-, my political knowledge increased due to experiencing
many rounds of budget cuts at the district, my attendance improved, and I
developed more confidence in public speaking.
It should also be noted that more than two thirds of the female respondents (as
opposed to 9 males) reported that their participation in the FWS program, as a tutor, has
helped them understand what they were learning in school and improved their academic
achievement. Upon observation by the researcher at the various school sites it was found
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that the FWS program, because of its utilization in WJUSD, did indeed enhance
academic outcomes in such content areas as reading, writing, and mathematics. It was
also reported by the FWS students that they had improved attendance, higher grade point
averages, enhanced preparation for the workforce, enhanced awareness and
understanding of social issues, greater motivation for learning, and heightened
engagement in social behaviors. Grade point average and attendance were verified by the
researcher via the BANNER student data base at UC Divine. Students who participated
in Community Service-Learning were found to be more cognitively engaged and more
motivated to learn. Community Service-Learning, then, does appear to have a positive
impact on students by helping them to engage cognitively in the classroom.
As a result of their experiences at the elementary schools, the FWS students
learned to pay attention, to notice different things around them, and to appreciate diverse
life circumstances and perspectives. One white male tutor commented, “Now I know
what it is like…I view everything differently.”
Negotiating Individuality and Commonality
Throughout the interviews the rhetoric of diversity was more apparent in the
lexicon of students. However, lying beneath the vocabulary of diversity was a tension
surrounding individuality and commonality expressed by both students and community
participants. Through their work at the sites, students began to view the community
members and the children whom they served as unique individuals, rather than categories
of difference or only as members of particular groups. FWS students began to appreciate
that all people of a certain race or social class status should not be categorized, but
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instead, should be understood through their unique characteristics, experiences, and
backgrounds. For example, a white male student explained:
I’m not going to learn about people who don’t have enough because those who
doesn’t have enough today may not have enough tomorrow. And that’s the
biggest thing, just learning that everybody has more in common than they
think…and more in common than they have different…I think you can’t
generalize.
In coming to these realizations, students were brought face to face with the
stereotypes and assumptions they brought to their Community Service-Learning
experiences. One Chinese American male student recalled thinking that all the people to
whom he would be tutoring through his work will be poor and living in “bad” sections of
the neighborhood. Instead, he encountered a wide range of people including one
particular child who deeply touched his heart and moved him to continue in the field of
education; starting fall 2012, he has been accepted to UC Divine’s Education
Department, working on his credential. Based on his experience, he explained, “I just
know that I am making more of an effort not to stereotype…and I certainly try not to
judge anyone on anything but their own person, who they are.”
Although FWS students began their position expecting to find individuals very
different from themselves, their experiences taught them more about life circumstances,
which some individuals shared, as well as the individuality of those with whom they
came into contact. This understanding caused them to think about what they had in
common with those whom they met. In particular, students expressed that despite
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apparent differences between themselves and those with whom they interacted on-site,
the students were not all that dissimilar from them. This perception was found to be true
in nine of the 24 white tutors and seven of the 22 Chinese American tutors. Both African
American females believed that the children they tutored were very different from them.
However, this was true for 37 of the 41 Hispanic tutors. The Hispanic tutors, both males
and females, shared that they could relate to the children they tutor because they are
practicing what they have been taught, culturally-responsive teaching. Culturallyresponsive teaching emphasizes the everyday concerns of students, such as important
family and community issues, and works to incorporate these concerns into the
curriculum. Culturally-responsive instruction helps students prepare themselves for
meaningful social roles in their community and the larger society by emphasizing both
social and academic responsibility. It addresses the promotion of racial, ethnic, and
linguistic equality as well as an appreciation of diversity (Boyer, 1993). Culturallyresponsive instruction does the following:

improves the acquisition and retention of new knowledge by working from
students’ existing knowledge base;

improves self-confidence and self-esteem by emphasizing existing
knowledge;

increases the transfer of school-taught knowledge to real-life situations and;

exposes students to knowledge about other individuals or cultural groups.
(Rivera & Zehler, 1991)
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When tutors develop learning activities based on familiar concepts, they facilitate
literacy and content learning and help Hispanic students feel more comfortable and
confident with their work (Peregoy & Boyle, 2000).
Another method that the tutors were taught and that the Hispanic tutors found to
be the most beneficial in their relationship with the children was instructional
conversations in Spanish. Instructional conversations provide students with opportunities
for extended dialogue in areas that have educational value as well as relevance for them
(August & Hakuta, 1998). The instructional conversation is an extended discourse
between the tutor and students. It is initiated by students to develop their language and
complex thinking skills, and to guide them in their learning processes (Tharp, 1995).
Effective tutors of Hispanic students provide their students with opportunities for
extended dialogue (August & Hakuta, 1998) rather than limiting expectations for
Hispanic students by avoiding discussion during instruction. Instructional conversations
emphasize dialogue with tutors and classmates (Durán, Dugan & Weffer, 1997). Often,
Hispanic students do not have control of the English language, which may prevent them
from participating in classroom discussions. Thus, one of the major benefits of using
instructional conversations with Hispanic students is that they are designed to provide
students with the opportunity for extended discourse (Christian, 1995). The FWS students
came to understand the importance of both individuality and commonality in part because
they heard how community members defined and described themselves. For example,
one white female student explained:
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Sometimes I would start to feel bad for them and then I realize that they weren’t
feeling bad for themselves…It was just that we classify them as poor,
impoverished, but they are not classifying themselves that way…they’re staying,
“I’m living my life.” And they might say, “Well, I don’t have enough money to
pay this bill,” but they are not saying, “Wow, I’m poor and disadvantage here.
This negotiation of individuality and commonality was also apparent when
students thought about how they would want to be treated if in a similar situation. One
Chinese American male student related, “When I talk with someone that’s different from
me, first thing I have to realize is that I must treat them with the same respect that I would
want to be treated if I were on the other end.” This ability to begin to place themselves in
the shoes of those receiving services focused the FWS students on both what they had in
common with these individuals as well as what was unique and distinctive. It also caused
them to think about how people who were poor were treated by many in society as a
result of being view only from this singular perspective.
Research Question 3
Community participants, particularly the site coordinators who work daily with
the FWS tutors and the children in the after school programs, also spoke about the
learning that was taking place at the school sites, but more often they identified student
learning outcomes rather than their own learning. One community member, ASES
Program Coordinator, summarized the benefits to students: “It opens their eyes…the
more they become involved, they learn to know other’s perspectives. And I think it is
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good for them, I really do. They learn how the other half lives.” Another community
member, specifically a male site coordinator, observed:
Another lesson learned is: What does it mean to respect somebody who is
different from you? Do you step back a minute [and think]. Maybe I do not have
all the answers? I think students have the opportunity to do that every time they
are here.
Several community members, two female principals from two different
elementary schools, connected student learning with the preparation of future leaders and
the need for these students to understand certain aspects of the life experiences of all
citizens. In this regard, many of the community members presumed future leadership
belonged to the student, but they felt pride in the role they could play in educating the
students about their community. Community members, namely four site coordinators at
four different schools, were pleasantly surprised and more optimistic as a result of their
interactions with students at their sites. For instance, a community member, a female site
coordinator, commented: “I look at the kids and it gives me hope for the future. There’s
still good people out there…It’s kind of changed my perspective towards them.” The
negotiation of individuality and commonality theme played out somewhat differently for
community participants. Certain community members, one male principal and two
teachers, expressed understanding that it is important to accept people’s differences,
many of which are complex and have developed because of different life circumstances,
backgrounds, and opportunities. A respect for all individuals seemed to anchor this belief
in appreciating individual differences and uniqueness. For community members, this
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belief translated into the importance of treating all people in the same manner, and with
respect, including students, other volunteers, and staff. Part of this attitude seemed to
come from many community members empathizing with the experiences of those whom
they serve, both as previous recipients of services or in imagining the possibility of
needing services someday.
Crossing Boundaries
Community Service-Learning significantly helped to break down boundaries but
did it eliminate it? Community members in particular were aware that observing the
realities of their lives was part of an educational experience for the students. Community
members frequently used the language of life “on the other side” to describe the
university and community. These attitudes influenced the expectations held by a
community member, ASES Program Coordinator, who stated, “Community people
understand that this isn’t going to be a lifelong relationship…when you go home, and if
there is no relationship after that, then you really are still living in two different worlds.”
Although community members and students spoke emphatically about the benefits of
breaking down barriers and expanding boundaries, the boundary appeared much more
penetrable for students than community members. Community members agreed that
students needed to understand “life on the other side,” and students began to understand
the boundaries existed and why. Community members, particularly the parents of the
elementary age children who willingly volunteered their opinions when the researcher
explained what was being studied, saw the campus area as unwelcoming and isolated
from the community in which it resides. However, most of the community participants
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commented on the benefits of student involvement in the community, both for the FWS
students as well as for the elementary students. They were pleased to contribute to what
they perceived to be an important part of a student’s education.
Relationship Building
At the core of developing understanding of diversity in the context of Community
Service-Learning there was a process of relationship building. Relationships were
developed through the creating of common ground for work, a growing sense of efficacy,
and the presence of empathy and compassion. Direct contact and interaction between
FWS students and school site members led to observation and dialogue about the nature
of the work being done and the importance of the work. FWS students came to know
those with whom they interacted, something about their life circumstances, and
developed an evolving understanding of the larger social issues encountered at the school
site. One community member, a female site coordinator, claimed:
I see a lot of friendships develop. That is one of the biggest things I see here with
all of the students. I see friendships that develop through social class, through
race, and through economics. I have seen friendships blossom that would never
otherwise be developed.
It should be further mentioned that community members feel that working sideby-side with others at the school site put a human face on complex social issues and
enabled the FWS students to think through the stereotypes and assumptions they brought
with them to the service site. Nearly all of the 89 FWS students indicated that their
experiences through their service sites were completely new and eye-opening. One
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student, Chinese American female, noted that working at the school “really opened my
eyes to how bad the stereotype can be and how it’s really important not to have them.” It
was also observed that the FWS students learned from exposure, contact, and interaction
about themselves, the life circumstances of those different from themselves, and social
issues such as poverty and hunger.
Common Ground
Relationships developed and understanding of diversity grew because students
and community members worked together toward a common purpose (tutoring the
academically challenged children as well as tutoring children who are English learners).
The task at hand was so compelling that individual differences fell away. As one
Hispanic female FWS student commented: “Work together, that’s the bottom line. We’re
in this together. It starts right here.” Another student, a white female, said, “We don’t
talk about why we are here…we just do it.” Many of the FWS students commented on
the welcoming environment they experienced at the sties, the sense of respect and trust
they witnessed, and the commitment to the work to be done on the part of the community
members. Intimidated and fearful at first, FWS students became members of the family
and were taken under the wings of the community and the parents of the children being
tutored. Community Service-Learning provided a common ground and as such, an
opportunity for dialogue and interaction not readily available to either students or
community members in other settings. This common ground also provided the basis for
reciprocal learning to occur as FWS students functioned as teachers and role models,
bringing their expertise of a particular subject matter to their interactions with elementary
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students as well as an ability to help students feel comfortable in their learning.
Community members’, specifically the site coordinators, sense of efficacy emerged from
their feeling of contributing to tutors’ experiences and their learning. In large measure,
through their work at the school sites, students started to learn what community members
already knew. In their interactions with students, community members frequently
functioned as teachers and instructors in topics ranging from working with children to the
meaning of life.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This study examined the impact of the Federal Work-Study program as
administered by UC Divine at Wilson Joint Unified School District. The summary of the
results are divided into sections addressing the three research questions set forth in
Chapter 1.
1. Has the Community Service position at WJUSD encouraged creativity
through working cooperatively with members of the community toward new
solutions? What are the areas of success?
Students who participated in Community Service-Learning had many
opportunities to interact with people different in age, social class, and race from those
they see every day, providing opportunities for development of social and problemsolving skills, including communication, role-taking, and conflict resolution. The service
experience required students to show initiative, creativity, and flexibility in dealing with
new or unexpected situations, gave them responsibility for determining the most effective
way to accomplish their services goals, and thus, helped them develop their leadership
skills. Increase in a social justice perspective indicates increased awareness of social
institutions, customs, and power distributions that contribute to poverty and inequities in
society. The Community Service-Learners in this study worked in educational settings,
in a community with a public educational system that consistently ranks low in academic
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achievement. Community Service-Learning gave these FWS students many
opportunities to see how communities are affected by the quality of major institutions
such as the public educational system, thus increasing their awareness of social justice
issues.
These tutors found their job to be gratifying because they see that they are making
a positive impact on the lives of the children they come in contact with. A white female
third year tutor gushed that,
Working with the kids, it is a great joy to realize how important you become to
these kids. They look up to you and will listen to what you have to say. I am sure
that many of these kids will take what they learn from me and use it in their lives.
A Chinese American fourth year male tutor reiterates the point when he said,
I feel like I am making a difference in the children’s lives by taking the time to
listen, learn, and teach. Not only are we there to support them with completing
their homework but to teach them how to build strong friendships, encourage
them to do their best, and consider higher education by being mentors and role
models.
2. Has the Community Service-Learning position at WJUSD contributed to
intellectual understanding of how course work is connected to real life
situations? What are the social/emotional outcomes?
From the standpoint of the FWS students, Community Service-Learning will be
valued primarily to the degree that it can be demonstrated to be of direct academic
benefits to them. It was found that the academic payoffs of having students engage in
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Community Service-Learning are substantial when the service activity is integrated with
traditional classroom instruction (Barber & Battistoni, 1993). The key word here is
integrated. The kinds of service activities in which students participate should be
selected so that they will illustrate, affirm, extend, and challenge material presented in
readings and lectures. Their education would not have been nearly as helpful without onthe-job experience to supplement it. It is extremely valuable to be taught by coworkers
along with learning in a classroom. Professors can teach the general skills that every
student should know: how to write persuasively, establish goals, effective communication
skills, etc. However, a practitioner can only learn the intricacies of their field from
colleagues.
However, the work-study tutor positions at WJUSD are not related to any
particular class, nor are the tutors asked to reflect on their work-study positions; it was
difficult to quantify if their course work is related to their employment within the school
district. Though, it should be noted that Community Service-Learning has many
creditable purposes and outcomes; fulfilling civic responsibilities to one’s community,
helping persons in need, gaining insight into one’s values and prejudices, developing
career interest and job skills, all of which are important.
All tutors, who responded via the survey and face to face interview, further
pronounce that the skills they have developed in these positions have further their
personal growth. One Hispanic third year male tutor disclosed, “I plan to make a career
of working with children. I plan to become a teacher and working as a tutor has enabled
me to learn how to talk and teach the kids and relate to them in ways that they can
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understand.” Another Chinese American third year male tutor agreed, “My patience,
communication skills, and teaching skills have increased. When working with the
younger kids I can explain how to work a problem and take that into my personal
academics and patience as a person.”
A Chinese American fourth year female tutor expresses similar sentiments when
she stated,
I really think I have learned so much from the program, its participants, and
coordinators. The children have taught me patience. They have also taught me to
think outside the box when trying to appeal to their interest in respect to learning
and tutoring has definitely made me think of how school affects the adolescents of
today. I have learned much about the behavior of adolescents and why they do
the things they do. It has given me the ability to be more patient and
understanding of students.
Overall, all respondents were either strongly satisfied or satisfied with the Federal
Work Study program as administered by the Student Employment Center at UC Divine.
There was one recommendation that should be noted,
Have more programs targeted to students inside the classroom during school
hours. This year I worked for the after school program and it was a great
experience. However, supplying students with more help inside the classroom is
beneficial as they are more willing to learning during school hours than say after
school. I was able to do some of this type of work at Divine Joint Unified School
District (DJUSD) and WJUSD last year.
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3. Has positive relationships been developed with members of WJUSD
community (parents, teachers, principals, school board members, etc.)? What
is the significance of these relationships?
This study demonstrates that tutoring as a Community Service-Learning activity
by college students can have significant positive effects on the community. It confirmed
findings that service is valued by those receiving it (Gray et al., 2000) and found that the
service provided by college students resulted in real positive academic change in the
children.
Certainly students come to a more complex understanding of the environment of
Wilson elementary schools through their Community Service-Learning experiences. The
process of developing an understanding of included awareness of stereotypes and
assumptions, understanding of life situations with which they are previously unfamiliar,
and new knowledge of the social issues around which their Community Service-Learning
were organized. This process was facilitated by immersion in a new environment and
from direct contact with people different from themselves. Increased contact, in the
context of Community Service-Learning, appeared to decrease stereotyping and promote
greater understanding and appreciation of diversity and multiple perspectives. This is
consistent with the work examining campus climates for racial and ethnic diversity
(Hurtado, Milem, Clayton-Pederson & Allen, 1999) and outcomes associated with
Community Service-Learning (Eyler & Giles, 1999). These results emphasize the
importance of designing Community Service-Learning activities in which such
opportunities for direct contact and dialogue are possible. In their study, Daloz, Keen,
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Keen and Parks (1996) found that the single most important pattern in those leading lives
of commitment to the common good was what they called “a constructive, enlarging
engagement with the other” (p. 63). Community Service-Learning, if designed to provide
for this direct contact “with the other,” provides opportunities for this kind of engagement
to occur. However, as Daloz et al., (1996) emphasized:
Superficial encounters with those who are different can often lead to stereotyping
and fortressing, but encounters which evoke empathic recognition of a shared
humanity and will to life foster a generous commitment, not simply to me and
mine but to the common good upon which we all depend. (p. 215)
Similarity, in his research with college students engaged in a variety of
community service projects, Rhoads (1997) discovered how infrequently students had
encountered people significantly different from themselves prior to their community
service work. As a result, they brought to their experiences a lack of understanding about
the social issues they were seeing firsthand and preconceived notions about the lives of
the individuals with whom they were coming into contact. Again, the results of this
study suggest that through proper design, Community Service-Learning enables such
understanding to grow. The question of what community participants come to
understand about diversity in the context of Community Service-Learning is more
complex and the answer less clear and emphatic. For many of these participants, what
was clear was the benefit to students in seeing life “on the other side” and their role in
helping students understand how poverty affects one’s life circumstances and choices. In
addition, students were undoubtedly “the other” to many in the community so that gave
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the opportunity participants with new and more positive impressions of college students.
These too are encounters that community participants most likely would not have had if
not the context of Community Service-Learning.
Reciprocity
The concept of reciprocity is omnipresent in the literature (Jacoby, 1996; Kendall,
1990; Radest, 1993; Rhoads, 1997) as essential to the design and implementation of
Community Service-Learning activities. Reciprocal relationships are defined as those in
which all partners are involved in the design of the activity, all learn from the
relationship, all benefit as a result. Though community members felt that the FWS
students are making a difference in the Wilson community, the results of this study raise
questions about whether or not this reciprocal relationship is truly possible, especially in
the context of an academic calendar that depends upon short-term learning opportunities
rather than the time required for the substantial boundaries that must be crossed for true
reciprocity to occur. If the appreciation of diverse perspectives in an intended outcome
of Community Service-Learning, then the learning and relationship building that begins
in the context of Community Service-Learning courses needs to be sustained. Although
boundaries are tentatively crossed and eyes opened, understanding of diversity and
relationship building will remain tenuous at best without purposeful interventions from
staff, student affairs educators, and students themselves for such learning to continue.
Such interventions might include course clustering or living-learning programs that work
with the same Community Service-Learning partner over a sustained period of time.
Student affairs programs could be developed in response to community defined interests
137
and requests rather than putting community service organizations in the position of fitting
into predetermined programming, such as the case of the Federal Work-Study program.
Because the school sites are forced to conform to the Federal Work-Study regulations, it
limits what each site can do with their tutors. In many cases, the tutors are used to their
capacity. The importance of “community voice” is frequently mentioned in the literature
on Community Service-Learning and refers to performing service that is defined by the
community and focusing on needs identified by the community (Eyler & Giles, 1999).
The results of this study suggest that this concept, commonly presented as monolithic, is
problematic as diverse voices constitute community interests and needs. “Community
voice,” in this study, represented staff, volunteers, and elementary students-all of whom
had different perspectives, life experiences, and needs. In addition, the perception in the
community is that Community Service-Learning is essentially about university interests
and that FWS students will always gain more from their experiences than community
members. This places a significant and essential obligation on those who use Community
Service-Learning to design opportunities with community organizations and interests
clearly in mind to maximize the potential for reciprocity. Moreover, the results also
emphasize the importance of integrating and preserving community voices. It was
evident that the community participants, more than anyone else, truly knew what their
communities needed, whether that was how to best meet the needs of people or how to
treat others with respect and dignity. Listening to community members (i.e.,
administrators, teachers, and site coordinators), discuss these needs and share their
knowledge, provided the FWS students with some of their most important lessons.
138
Universities, espousing the importance of university-community partnerships, might also
learn the value of listening to diverse community voices.
Reciprocity in the context of diversity, or bridging boundaries between diverse
communities, requires mutual understanding and appreciation of differences. Without the
presence of these essential qualities, reciprocity will be shallow, stereotypes reinforced,
and power dynamics between the community and university clearly tilted in the direction
of the university. For reciprocity to fully exist, universities must rethink their role in the
community and the meaning of university-community partnerships. Without such a
commitment and understanding on the part of the universities,
The best of Community Service-Learning will not be about community, the
service provided will be directed toward the students, and the learning fostered
will ultimately tend to perpetuate the social system that produce the inequality,
impoverishment, and injustice the students witness. (Saltmarsh, 1998, p. 22)
Sustaining Relationships
The possibility of truly realizing the principle of reciprocity and appreciation of
diversity depends upon the ability to sustain relationships and develop ongoing
partnerships between the university and community organizations. Although community
participants articulated that the relationships they had with FWS students were enjoyable
and productive, they were also realistic in their assessment of these relationships as short
term. Longer term involvement by both FWS students and community members will not
only produce continued student learning and growth, particularly in the area of
appreciating diversity and understanding social issues, but may also close the gap
139
between differing cultural worlds and increase the likelihood of learning and greater
benefit to community participants. For students, the temptation to return to the
comfortable and familiar world of the campus is not only possible, but likely.
Community members do not always enjoy the privilege of such a choice. By bringing
such diverse worlds closer together, the potential for increased understanding and cultural
learning is greater for students and community members alike. Community ServiceLearning, properly and responsibility designed, provides students with rich opportunities
for learning about diversity through hands-on experiences and immersion in a community
different from their own. However, the results of this study, by including community
members involved with students in the context of Community Service-Learning, must
then pay more attention to the design of such activities, to promote these outcomes for
community participants, and to assure sustainability. Community members function as
significant teachers in these learning ventures and ought to be recognized for the roles
they play.
This study suggests the need for further research on the complex dynamics that
emerge in the context of Community Service-Learning. This study was limited by a
small number of participants who were interviewed over a relatively brief period. Further
research is needed to understand the longer term effects of Community Service-Learning
as a context for understanding diversity among student and community participants. In
addition, the development of intercultural understanding is a longer process than this
study captured. Follow up with these participants would add greater insight to the nature
of the process. The results of this study provide compelling evidence that diversity is best
140
understood when relationships between students, student affairs staff, and community
members are developed and sustained. The context of Community Service-Learning
provides opportunities for such relationship building across differences to occur. These
relationships initially develop through work on common tasks then are sustained as a
growing sense of efficacy and empathy are experienced by student and community
participants alike. When such reciprocal learning and understanding of diversity evolves,
then crossing cultures will become a two-way, frequently traveled trip.
As a recognized leader in education, UC Divine encourages students to apply
leadership and career skills to real-life community settings. Last year, the UC Divine
work-study students performed more than 171,000 hours of service (UC Divine Student
Employment Center, 2011). An important part of this is to teach and motivate workstudy tutors to understand their role as citizens through the work of community building
and problem solving. Ideally, Community Service-Learning should integrate community
service and academics. The service that the work-study tutors perform is not tied to a
particular course or internship, which would further learning by applying skills in the real
world and help WJUSD by providing targeted assistance. By integrating theoretical and
academic foundations with hands-on exposure and real-life experiences, the work-study
tutors will learn concrete skills for their chosen profession.
Because UC Divine does not offer classes tied directly to the Community ServiceLearning positions at WJUSD, it is difficult to quantifiably determine if the work-study
students are correlating real life situations with various theories they are learning in the
classroom. As one White fourth year female student noted, “It would be nice to be able
141
to share with my professors and classmates, in a class setting that would allow for
reflection, how my work-study tutor position has helped me and prepared me for the real
world of work.” Another Hispanic fourth year male student articulated,
By teaching us about the role we can play in the community, Community ServiceLearning also encourages community lifelong civic participation. Furthermore,
by relating academic activities to real-life experiences, Community ServiceLearning improves workplace skills and enhances personal development. Finally,
Community Service-Learning gives us a sense of competency; we see ourselves
as active contributors to the community and learning experiences rather than
passive recipients of adult decisions.
When asked, “Have you developed a positive relationship with members of
WJUSD community (parents, teachers, principals, school board members, etc.)?” A
Hispanic female student, who has been employed at WJUSD since she was a freshman
(now a graduating senior), responded:
Tutors come in all shapes and sizes. They are found in the mahogany
covered walls of academia and on our urban streets, where liquor stores sit
perpendicular to churches. From struggling children learning a second language,
to children who have more than enough, to parents who do not understand their
children’s homework. Many connections are waiting to be made by me. I exist to
initiate the link. I have a natural curiosity about people. Questions are asked and
a conversation spontaneously takes off. Knowledge is shared and a new friend is
142
made. Sometimes bridge building is needed and I am the contractor initiating its
construction, relationship by relationship.
I value relationship above and beyond what a relationship can produce.
Social and financial outcomes are beneficial, but my love of reading shared with
children who are frequently low achievers can’t be tangibly measured. Though it
can be shown that these interactions are investments of time and self that result in
hard benefits seen in communities and productive and caring school
environments.
I understand results, but am not results driven. The challenges in
communities are complex, but are overcome by getting down to grassroots levels
where human interaction takes place and all systems emerge. I rely on students,
teachers, and parents for information and learn how to cooperatively work with
them to achieve one goal; the success of the child. Though relationship shifts in
perception occur and the once half empty glass is now half full or running over,
depending on my ability to be inclusion minded. I am never satisfied with
traditional employment. I want to be the one influencing others to become more
interdependent and sharing helpful information. Despite the many variations of
connecting with members of the community, I understand that academic life
suffers when we are not in relation.
The children are the foundation of our civic, social, and economic future.
Community is also the source of creative change and innovation. As
globalization and digital technology spreads information far and wide, tutors must
143
help their students reflect on their role in the community and the larger world. In
this reflection students are empowered, community is strengthened, and change
ensues powered by our relationships to one another.
Conclusions
Although Community Service-Learning opportunities are often offered as part of
an academic course experience (Butcher & Hall, 1998; Kretchmar, 2001), Community
Service-Learning does not have to be linked to a specific course. Institutions also may
introduce Community Service-Learning to a campus community through extracurricular
opportunities (Gray et al., 2000). Gray (2000) suggested that the development of
institutional service activities provides quality educational experiences for students while
simultaneously offering benefits to the college. For instance, Community ServiceLearning offered through extracurricular activities can minimize the effort required by
faculty and staff to engage students in these experiences and increase campus awareness
of student involvement in service projects as long as extracurricular Community ServiceLearning experiences remain mutually beneficial for students and the community.
Regardless of whether Community Service-Learning is introduced as a course
requirement or as an extracurricular experience, it has the potential to produce a host of
benefits. These benefits extend the individual student as well as to the academic
institution. Community Service-Learning experiences allow student to help their
community while simultaneously gaining an understanding of why the services are
important (Allen, 2003), applying knowledge learned in the classroom to real situations
144
(Munter, 2002), and strengthening the student’s experience in career-related activities
(Gray et al., 2000).
Beyond successfully engaging students, participation in Community ServiceLearning also can improve students’ perceptions of their institution. It has been found
that students involved in service activities outside of the classroom viewed the goals and
values of their institution more favorably (Lodge, 2000). Promoting student engagement
through Community Service-Learning experiences, therefore, has the potential to both
increase the presence of engagement and strengthen the reputation of the institution
among students.
In addition to providing beneficial results for the overall campus environment,
Community Service-Learning also produces noteworthy outcomes for students. When
the literature review was conducted, it was found that one of the benefits of Community
Service-Learning to students demonstrated that involvement in these experiences can
have a positive impact on the college students’ lives (Vinulan, 2005). It was also found
that in addition to students gaining and understanding of others and increasing their sense
of civic responsibility, they also reported a greater understanding of themselves.
Furthermore, it was also discovered that Community Service-Learning influenced
students’ positive sense of efficacy. Community Service-Learning does strengthen a
student’s sense of social self-efficacy and provides a concrete means by which
institutions of higher education can educate students to become more concerned and
involved citizens (Thomas, 2005).
145
Further support of Community Service-Learning is offered by other studies which
found student reported outcomes of Community Service -Learning to include a greater
sense of civic responsibility (Astin & Sax, 1998), increased personal growth, a deeper
understanding of others and a better understanding of pressing social issues, such as
poverty or illiteracy (Primavera, 1999). Considering that the overall purpose of
Community Service-Learning is to enhance classroom knowledge through active
participation, the outcomes reported in these studies seem to parallel this goal. Increased
civic responsibility, personal growth, a greater understanding of social problems, as
examples, all represent the possible benefits of involving students in education that goes
beyond the classroom walls and having a positive impact in the local community.
Recommendations
Due to the expertise of this researcher in the area of FWS and the partnership that
has been established over the years, it was observed that community-university
partnerships require maintenance to keep them working well. As demonstrated
throughout the discussion so far, good communication is essential to a healthy
partnership as is ongoing assessment and recognition of the outcomes of the
collaboration.
It should come as no surprise that communication is a key component to
maintaining a healthy community partnership. Good communication helps to build trust
as well as to address small concerns before they become insurmountable problems.
Often, partners opt for informal modes of communication (telephone, E-mail) to keep
146
each other updated once the service experience is underway. More formal types of
communication (e.g., written letters and work-study contracts), however, can be useful in
facilitating the all-important start of the quarter Community Service-Learning student
recruitment process. There is one approach that has worked well for the FWS
Community Service-Learning experience; that is to provide community partners with a
brief document reminding them of the Community Service-Learning goals and
objectives. Once this is done, verbally clarifying what has been agreed upon one more
time before the FWS students start the work experience may avert any potential
misunderstandings. Despite one’s best efforts, miscommunication can still happen. If
this occurs, it is important to work together collaboratively to find solutions to the current
problem and to prevent the same concern from reoccurring in the future.
Assessment
Ongoing assessment is also vital to maintaining a viable Community ServiceLearning collaboration. Assessment allows all involved parties to see the outcomes of
the partnership. Typically, assessment has focused on the challenges of measuring the
impact of Community Service-Learning on students (Driscoll, Holland, Gelmon &
Kerrigan, 1996; Gelmon, Holland, Driscoll, Spring & Kerrigan, 2001). For example,
while traditional evaluation modes such as tests are designed to measure factual
knowledge, they are often inadequate for the purpose of getting at Community ServiceLearning benefits such as interpersonal development, civic engagement, and enhanced
critical thinking (Eyler & Giles, 1999). Alternative evaluative approaches are needed and
might include supervisor or peer evaluation; development of a portfolio or presentation
147
(Zlotkowski, 1998); pre and post Community Service-Learning assessments of student
perceptions; written evaluations by students (e.g., of what they believe they learned from
their service experience and/or if they plan to participate in community based service
again); and data on if, and for how long, students continue in their current service
placement (Karasik, 2005). Assessing the perceptions and satisfaction of the community
partner is no less important (Karasik, 2005). Partner satisfaction can be measured both
through formal means (e.g., interviews, surveys, and focus groups) as well through more
informal methods (e.g., attention to praise, frustration, and other partner interactions)
(Gelmon et al., 2001). In one current example, Community Service-Learning community
supervisors were asked to complete open-ended written feedback forms regarding their
satisfaction with both student performance and the overall relevance of the service
assignments to the community setting. Subsequent follow-up is essential to ensure that
the concerns of all parties are not only heard but acted upon as appropriate.
Finally, one of the most challenging areas to assess is the impact Community
Service-Learning has on the overall community. The ease with which one can measure
such an impact depends upon how clearly the goals of Community Service-Learning have
been defined and agreed upon. Some indicators (e.g., types of services provided, number
of clients served, number of students involved, and the variety of activities offered) lend
themselves fairly easily to measurement. Other factors (e.g., the impact students have on
a particular community concern) are harder to quantify.
148
Recognition
In addition to measuring the outcomes of Community Service-Learning, it is also
essential to celebrate successes both large and small. Recognition, however, is an often
overlooked component of Community Service-Learning. Community Service-Learning
partnerships require a great deal of preparation, energy, and follow-through to be
successful. Much of this effort is likely to come on top of partners’ already overloaded
schedules. While the benefits of Community Service-Learning certainly provide
rewarding outcomes to participants, recognition activities help to acknowledge the work
required to obtain those benefits. Public recognition efforts can also help to solidify
university-community relationships. It does this by institutionalizing less formal
partnerships and providing evidence of work performed by the partners beyond their
typical duties. Students, in particular, appear to be positively affected by recognition of
their work. As one recent student participant noted, “I never really thought what I did
would be very important to anyone.” Recognition may take many forms including thank
you letters, participation certificates, photo collages, Web Site photos documenting the
experience, special outings or activities, or celebratory banquets. Community ServiceLearning is changing the way many institutions teach students about civic responsibility
and the way many community agencies fulfill their needs. Successful relationships are
mutually beneficial to FWS students, staff, service providers, elementary age children,
and communities at large. The current discussion offers strategies for developing and
maintaining healthy community-university collaborations. Good communication,
collaboration, careful planning, close monitoring, and careful assessment were identified
149
as essential ingredients. Although there is much literature supporting the benefits of
Community Service-Learning, there is a need for continued development of assessment
tools and methods to effectively measure Community Service-Learning outcomes for all
constituents. Through examining the outcomes of Community Service-Learning projects,
partners can focus on the best ways to collaborate and sustain the partnerships. While the
importance of each of these elements is not surprising, the potential for failure when they
are lacking is substantial. Under such circumstances, relationships may become strained
or forced to dissolve. Future relationships may also be jeopardized. Community ServiceLearning partnerships, thus, should be formed with careful consideration of the potential
outcomes and sustained with a strong, ongoing commitment from all its constituents.
WJUSD ASES Program
A fair amount of research on after-school programs is available and much of the
data is relatively current. Finding agreement in the studies’ results and conclusions is the
challenge. Kane (2004) stated that the problem with most after-school program studies is
in research design, citing research that seeks to find too great of an impact in too little
time. Qualitative information that was gathered to be used as data in this study suggested
that Community Service-Learning, at least in the form of college students tutoring
elementary children, changes lives and that changes them in significant ways. However,
after-school program research is so wrought with flaws in methodology that the findings
reveal little about the impact of the programs on elementary students’ achievement. One
should consider the findings of this study in light of these concerns.
150
Much of the current research on after-school programs addresses the impact on
participants other than improved academic achievement. Self-esteem, self-help skills,
social skills, and independence are a few of the skills reportedly improved through
program participation. No such data has been collected for WJUSD; the program was
funded solely to improve student achievement, and the program director implemented
programs of academic instruction.
Though there are possible barriers to student success in the WJUSD ASES
Program, there are also specific areas program leaders might address. Lockwood (2003)
found that after-school program directors must look closely at barriers and remove them
before it is possible to find improvements in student achievement directly resulting from
after-school programs. Idol (1998) found that professional learning for after-school
instructors was a key piece missing from many programs. She suggested that
professional learning could help the instructors bridge the gaps between school day
instruction and after-school support. Aronson, Zimmerman and Carlos (1999) suggested
that tutors could benefit from professional development that focuses specifically on time
management. Metzker (2003) cautioned that in a school where time is not already well
used, adding more time is unlikely to lead to improved academic achievement. Program
directors should provide professional development for instruction and time management
for all tutors in the program and conduct follow up visits to ensure the strategies are being
implemented and all instructional time is used wisely.
The Massachusetts 2020 study, Time for a Change found that strong leadership
and positive school culture are essential to the success of after-school programs (Farbman
151
& Kaplan, 2005). Successful principals and leaders, according to this report, are creative,
supportive, and convey a compelling vision. They create safe environments that focus on
education at every level of the institution. After-school program leaders should be
carefully selected based on personal and professional qualities shown to inspire high
performance among tutors and students. Tutor selection for the programs should also
receive careful consideration and be based, in large part, on data indicating the abilities
that are required to positively impact students’ achievement.
As previously stated, research indicates a need for clear data and data-driven
decisions in the after-school programs. Farbman and Kaplan (2005) listed examples of
several programs for which data was the constant driving force. One school, Community
Day Charter School, hired a full time data analyst to keep tutors abreast of how each
student did in the previous year. While that type of exuberance is not common, data
driven instruction is a common thread in many of the successful programs. Metzker
(2003) said tutors must make sure instruction is a “good fit” with the student’s ability and
readiness to learn. Data should be used to craft individual learning goals in the afterschool program.
The after-school program tutor group in this study was considerably smaller than
the size necessary to draw sweeping conclusions about their impact at the school district
as well as students’ achievement. Continued research in their involvement at WJUSD
ASES Program is necessary before a conclusive determination can be made concerning
the impact that the UC Divine work-study tutors have on the district as well as on
individual students’ achievement. A more comprehensive understanding of the impact
152
from the work-study tutors to the after-school program would be gleaned from a longer
study, assessing the improved achievement from several years of consistent program
participation.
Another recommendation would use more community-centered partnerships to
more readily pull in multicultural perspectives. When the partnership is the center, it is
easier to make sense of the necessity to understand students’ needs, which must address
socioeconomic and cultural differences. The study also established that the opening of
communication lines among the teachers and UC Divine tutors has significantly impacted
the motivation level of the tutors. Thus, the study suggests that a way to boost and
maintain morale is to facilitate dialog between teachers and student employees.
Lastly, it would be beneficial to employ a longitudinal study to track the impact of
the college student employee has on the child they are tutoring. It would also be wise to
follow a child all through elementary, middle, high school, and college to determine long
term impact, if any, of the work-study tutors. This would allow the learners in the similar
discipline to gauge the effectiveness of the Federal Work-Study program.
Much work remains in the area of improving tutor involvement and student
achievement. After-school programming is one attempt by many schools and districts to
meet the expectations set forth in the No Child Left Behind Act. Rigorous standards have
been established, and standardized tests have been created to measure student progress on
the standards. The current goal of many after-school programs is to do that which is
necessary to move struggling learners to areas of proficiency on those tests. That being
the goal, this study and other research reported herein seems to indicate that a longer and
153
broader study is necessary to determine the impact of the work-study tutors at WJUSD.
Further research to help determine what the tutors can do to be effective in after-school
programs will prove valuable to program directors and participants. While much has
been learned, there remain, unfortunately, far more questions than the research has yet
answered.
154
Appendix A
Survey
Federal Work-Study Program (FWSP) and the Community Service (CS) workstudy student
Gender:
school:
Age:
Student ID:
week:
Major:
Ethnicity:
Year in
Hours worked per
Name of School:
1. How long have you participated in the Federal Work-Study Program (FWSP) at the
school?
2. How have you contributed to your school of employment? Brought in new ideas?
3. What aspects of your experience has been the most enjoyable?
4. What aspects of your experience has been the least enjoyable?
5. What has happened during your time at the school you’re employed at that you did
not expect?
6. I’m engaged in meaningful work.
o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Strongly disagree
7.
I am proud to work for the Wilson Joint Unified School District (WJUSD).
o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Strongly disagree
155
8.
Will you continue to contribute to the community in the future? If yes, how?
9.
Has your career aspirations changed after working in the community? If yes,
how?
10.
Has the Community Service position at WJUSD encouraged creativity through
working cooperatively with members of the community toward new solutions?
What are the areas of success?
11.
Has the Community Service position at WJUSD contributed to intellectual
understanding of how course work is connected to real life situations? What are
the social/emotional outcomes?12. Have you developed a positive relationship
with members of WJUSD community (parents, teachers, principals, school board
members, etc.) What is the significance of these relationships?
12.
How can the work-study program be improved? (please be specific)
13.
Have the skills that you’ve developed contributed to your growth? If so, how?
14.
As a result of my community service involvement, the direction if my life has
dramatically changed.
o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Strongly disagree
15.
How satisfied are you with the FWSP?
o
o
o
o
o
16.
Highly Satisfied
Satisfied
Neutral
Dissatisfied
Highly dissatisfied
Please state any recommendations you may have for the FWSP.
156
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