Terrestrial Observers
T. Jerolaman – C. Sargent – P. West
Cycle B – Model Building
SCI 672 (Dr. J. O’Keefe)
Due Sunday October 17, 2010
Possible Development of aWetland Property in West Liberty, Kentucky.
Atmosphere
A>E Increased rainfall can
lead to more runoff. Higher
temperatures are more
severe in paved areas.
E>A Wetland destruction
will destroy natural habitat
and add CO2 to the air
while creating a heat island
and further warming of the
atmosphere.
H>E The soil underneath the
developed area may become
unstable due to its low elevation
and saturation..
Civic Development
Of a Wetland
E>L The removal of
vegetation in the wetland
will lead to increased
erosion rates and the mass
wasting of the lithosphere.
B>E Increased number of
people will lead to pollution
and the further contamination
of the remaining wetland.
L>E The underlying bedrock
will provide support for the
structure.
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
E>H The paving of large areas
of the wetland will increase
water flow over the ground and
prevent absorption, leading to a
depression of the water table
and increased erosion. Rivers
will peak higher and flooding
down stream could be more
frequent.
E>B The destruction of wetland
will kill many plant and animal
species and lead to further
deaths of outlying areas by
secondary causes.
Biosphere
Problem Statement
A major retailer is proposing the development of a building site in the community of
West Liberty, Kentucky. The preferred building location resides on a large wetland area
that is a source of commerce, food, and recreation for the community. Our team will
investigate and analyze the positive and negative effects of the proposed development
and the elimination of the natural wetland on the local environment.
1
Courtesy: http://www.uky.edu/KentuckyAtlas/21175.html
Opening Summary
The extreme value of wetlands is beginning to be recognized across the world. Not only
are wetlands a source of biodiversity by the many species of plants and animals that
thrive in these areas, but they are also an important source of water, food, and timber.
They play an important role in global climate control as well as local management of
floodwater and nutrients. They offer an attraction of beauty and are the center of many
recreational activities such as fishing, hunting, and nature-watching. The community of
West Liberty, KY has been presented with an opportunity to incorporate a major retailer
into their local area. The proposed building site, however, is located on the town’s natural
wetland. Many citizens are proponents of construction that will hopefully attract business
and enhance their local economy, but many citizens are extremely concerned with the
impact of destroying their wetland. Our team will investigate the possible impacts of both
wetland destruction and civic development and base our recommendation according to
our research.
Recommendation
After a careful review of the advantages and disadvantages of placing a large retail
development on a wetland area in West Liberty, Kentucky we have concluded the
disadvantages outweigh the advantages. The addition of a large retailer would enhance
the community with jobs and better shopping options, however, the desired location is
not a feasible option. The wetland provides a refuge for many species of flora and fauna,
while providing a natural filter for water before it enters the river. The potential for many
irreversible long-term effects such as flooding catastrophes, extinction of certain species,
and global warming were considered highly as we formed our decision. According to
Table 2, on page 8, over 80% of Kentucky’s wetlands have already been destroyed. Our
recommendation is to build on a site that is not as ecologically sensitive like a ridge-top
or terrace system that is not in the floodplain.
Green construction should be implemented at the development site through the
utilization of storm drainage basins, porous pavement, and a barrier between the parking
area and nearby rivers or streams. Additionally, our group would recommend the
implementation of a constructed wetlands at the proposed site. Such a feature would be
an asset to the river system affected by the new development. Research shows that
constructed wetlands associated with commercial developments are highly efficient at
reducing and removing suspended solids, metals, bacteria, and hydrocarbons that are
product of storm water runoff during high precipitation events. These wetlands act as
intermittent filters for such pollutants before they are discharged to the receiving bodies
2
of water including the river system that provides benefits to the community of West
Liberty, Kentucky and other surrounding communities.
ESS Analysis
Civic Development of Wetlands: Event > Sphere Interactions
E>A
The destruction of a wetland releases massive amounts of CO2, methane, and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere due to the decomposition of abundant plant
material as well as the decrease in CO2 conversion by removing the plants. Wetlands
sequester carbon from the atmosphere through the abundant plant life that live within it,
which convert carbon into biomass through photosynthesis, as well as filter and capture
carbon-rich sediment from the passing water. Saturated soils decrease the rate of
decomposition, therefore, storing carbon as biomass for long periods of time. Because of
the organic-rich soil, peat, and sediments in wetlands, carbon is easily reserved longterm. An estimate of 35% of the world’s surface carbon is reserved in wetlands.
(Kusler, 1999)
The destruction of vegetation and the subsequent replacement with pavement and
rooftops will create a heat island resulting from blackbody radiation. As the suns rays are
absorbed more by black objects such as asphalt and tar the heat is re-released into the
atmosphere slowly and therefore holds in heat longer than it normally would. This along
with increased runoff and the lack of groundwater recharge will heat up and dry the
atmosphere in and around the developed area.
E>L
The development of wetlands leads to increased erosion rates and the washing away of
soil nutrients. This is due to the increased flow rate of water over the paved area picking
up soil and fragments and adding them to streams and rivers. Over time this leads to
channel erosion and poor river quality. Erosion is very dependent on flow. Doubling of
the flow may cause the channel erosion to increase by a factor of 4 or more.
(Frankenberger, J., 1996)
E>B
Many plant and animal species could become extinct without the wetlands they depend
on. Wetlands are home to more than one-third of federally listed threatened and
endangered species. In addition, wetlands are used at some point by almost half of all
threatened of endangered species and are essential to the survival of many other living
organisms. According to Kathryn Flynn (1996), close to 150 species of birds and at least
200 species of fish have been estimated to be dependent on wetlands in the US. Some
plants and animals, such as wood ducks, muskrat, cattails, and swamp rose, can only live
in inland wetlands. Many migratory birds depend on wetlands and are at risk for
extinction should wetlands no longer be available for them to rest, feed, breed, or nest at
(US EPA, 2009). In 1982, over 400 species of protected migratory birds were reliant on
3
wetlands (Flynn, 1996). The Redhead duck, for example, migrates through eastern KY on
its path from MN to FL (Kentucky Afield, 2002).
Out of the 595 plant and animal threatened or endangered species listed by the US Fish
and Wildlife Service in 1991, 43 percent (256) are dependent on wetlands (Flynn, 1996).
Specifically, endangered species that rely on KY wetlands include the greater
bladderwort, brown bog sedge, red turtlehead, Hall’s bulrush, swamp candles, alligator
gar, swamp darter, Kirtland’s snake, copperbelly water snake, blue-winged teal, little blue
heron, masked shrew, and pied-billed grebe (Kentucky Afield, 2002).
E>H
Even though the volume of water remains the same under different land use scenarios,
the amount of time, intensity, and distribution of water flow does not remain the same.
The addition of impervious surfaces will increase the frequency of floods from increased
runoff rates. More of the rainfall will be washing off with less soaking into the ground.
The will also be a decrease in groundwater recharge. Very little of the water that hits
rooftops and pavement soaks back into the ground, but rather runs off quickly causing
flooding and increases erosion. Less groundwater recharge could cause a cone of
depression in the water table around the area drying wells up. Notice Table 1, which
shows the runoff from various surfaces. In a developed environment with rooftops and
pavement, only 0.1 inches of water is absorbed into the ground for every 4 inches rained.
(Frankenberger, J., 1996)
Table 1. Runoff Expected from Four Types of Land Use
Land uses
Forest
Runoff from a 4-inch Runoff volume from
rainfall (inches)
4-inch rainfall on 1
acre (gallons)
Average yearly
runoff* from this
land use in central
Indiana
0.5 inch
13,600
0.3 inches
Grass (meadow,
lawns, parks )
0.8 inches
21,700
0.4 inches
Corn/soybeans
2.0 inches
54,300
1.1 inch
Roofs/pavement
3.9 inches
105,900
19 inches
Note: NRCS "Curve Number" method of estimation; Hydrologic soil group B; Corn/soybeans have 30%
residue coverage; Curve numbers are 55 (forest), 61 (grass), 75 (corn/soybeans), and 98 (roofs/pavement).
Soil moisture before storm is average.
4
Figure 1. Shows the increase in peak water runoff before and after development. The
increase is significant and proves that flooding will be increased in frequency after the
development, how much will depend on the area that is paved. (Frankenberger, J., 1996)
Figure 1. Effect of development and construction of stormwater basins on storm runoff.
(Frankenberger, J., 1996)
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (April 2005), the
US Army Corps of Engineers (COE) identifies discharges, including engineered fill,
which require permits under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act to include the
following:

Placement of fill necessary for the construction of any structure or
infrastructure in a water of the United States;

Building of any structure, infrastructure, or impoundment in waters of
the United States requiring rock, sand, dirt, or other material for its
construction;

Site Development in waters of the United States for recreational,
industrial, commercial, residential or any other uses.
5
Photo 1 – Construction equipment placing engineered fill.
E>L
The placement of engineered fill material can result in varying degrees of change in the
complex physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the wetland substrate.
(USEPA, 1980)
E>H
Engineered fill placement which alters substrate elevation or contours can result in
changes in water circulation, depth, current pattern, water fluctuation and water
temperature in the wetland area. (USEPA, 1980)
E>B
The placement of engineered fill may adversely affect bottom-dwelling organisms by
killing organisms and causing others to migrate. Any benthic organisms present prior to
fill placement are unlikely to re-colonize on the newly placed fill material. (USEPA,
1980)
E>A
During the placement of engineering fill, a large fleet of heavy machinery is used to
accomplish grade lines and elevations. This machinery expends fuel that creates exhaust.
This exhaust is emitted into the atmosphere where it increases greenhouse gases. The
increase in greenhouse gases can raise temperatures both locally and globally.
Civic Development of a wetland: Sphere Interactions > Event
L>E
The underlying rock will determine to a large extent how much excavation and refill
needs to be done. The more saturated the soil the more fill and reinforcement it will need
before building.
6
H>E
Rainfall can slow the building process, especially where it is in a topographic low area.
Rainfall during the construction can cause serious erosion of bare topsoil and this will fill
the local streams and rivers with sediment.
A>E
Temperatures can affect the rates that the development is built. Higher temperatures will
dry the soil out and allow for faster construction. Once construction is complete
temperature of the developed area will increase making heat waves more severe in the
paved areas and the microclimates around it.
B>E
The number of people in the area will increase significantly and this will lead to more
pollution reaching the river. People will control the quality of the environment once the
wetland is removed and the structures are built.
Civic Development of a wetland: Event <> Sphere Analysis
E>H>B
Wetlands help reduce sediments in river water by trapping much of the sediment before it
continues down river. Sediment gets caught in plant roots, and larger particles settle to
the bottom of the wetland. If unfiltered, excessive sediment in the water can negatively
affect the development of fish and amphibian eggs. (US EPA, 2009)
E>B>A>L
The destruction of a wetland releases massive amounts of CO2, methane, and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere due to the decomposition of abundant plant
material as well as the decrease in CO2 conversion by removing the plants. Wetlands
sequester carbon from the atmosphere through the abundant plant life that live within it,
which convert carbon into biomass through photosynthesis, as well as filter and capture
carbon-rich sediment from the passing water. Saturated soils decrease the rate of
decomposition, therefore, storing carbon as biomass for long periods of time. Because of
the organic-rich soil, peat, and sediments in wetlands, carbon is easily reserved longterm. An estimate of 35% of the world’s surface carbon is reserved in wetlands. Once the
sedimentation is ceased then the lithosphere will stop building in that area. (Kusler,
1999)
E>B>H>A>B
In agricultural areas, phosphorus and nitrogen is abundant in farm run-off waters.
Research has shown that organisms such as bacteria can breakdown these nutrients and
filter up to 92 per cent of phosphorus and 95 per cent of nitrogen from the water. (DUC,
n.d.)
7
Saturated soil provides a favorable anaerobic environment in which denitrifying bacteria
can thrive and convert nitrogen into atmospheric form. The removal of wetlands, and this
essential filtering process, would leave river water unfit for human use, as well as
decrease the contribution of nitrogen into the atmosphere.
E>B
Many people will be forced to travel in order to enjoy outdoor recreational activities if
this local wetland is destroyed. According to the US EPA, approximately 98 million
adults in the US either hunt, fish, birdwatch, or photograph wildlife. The closest
recreational parks that would suit these adults are at least 15 miles away from West
Liberty, KY- 15 miles to Paintsville Lake and 20 miles to Cave Run Lake and the Daniel
Boone National Forest.
E>B>A
Increased transportation to alternative recreational areas will increase CO2 in the
atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels needed to run automobiles. (Titus, J. G. &
Barth, M.C., 1984.)
E>H>B
The replacement of wetland with impervious surfaces like asphalt will cause more water
to run off and less water to be absorbed into the soil. This will cause the water table to go
down and in turn change the microclimates near the development by depriving them of
water and adding heat from blackbody radiation, which will further dry the area out. This
may prevent the growth of native species over a larger than anticipated area.
(Perlman, 2010)
E>H>B
Once the development is built the buildup of contaminants like oils, fuels, and metals will
begin from the continued use by the large volume of people and machines. The
contaminants will be washed away by storm water into running water with some
contaminated water ending up back into the water table. The contaminated water will
hinder the growth of organisms trying to live in the environment. With development
comes more intensive land use and a related increase in the generation of pollutants.
Increased runoff serves to transport these pollutants directly into waterways, creating
nonpoint source pollution, or polluted runoff. Studies by (Scheuler, 1998) suggest that
aquatic biological systems begin to degrade at impervious levels of 10%, or at even lower
levels for particularly sensitive streams. As the percentage of imperviousness climbs
above these levels, degradation tends to increase accordingly. Notice how the water
quality degrades significantly above 25% impervious surfaces.
8
Civic Development of a wetland- Sphere <> Sphere Interactions
B>L
Table 2: Estimated Loss of KY Wetlands from 1780s to 1980s
Estimated Wetland Estimated Wetland Destroyed Wetland
Acreage (1780s)
Acreage (1980s)
Acreage
1,566,000
300,000
1,266,000
Destroyed
Wetlands %
81
As Table 2 shows, there was a tremendous loss of natural wetlands in KY between the
1780s and 1980s due to agriculture conversion (Dahl, 1990). The destruction of this
wetland would continue this trend of altering KY land.
B>E>H>B
Strategies can be implemented to reduce the effects of the event on the environment. One
strategy is to slow the storm-water, minimize impervious surfaces, and to protect critical
buffer areas around streams. By building the development with the environmental aspects
in mind, runoff can be reduced and pollution into the water table can also be reduced.
This shows that people can build, but when building responsibly they can limit the impact
on the other organisms in the environment. Storm-water basins are one way that runoff
can be reduced and another option is the use of permeable pavement, which allows
rainwater to soak into the ground.
(Frankenberger, 1996)
E>L>H>B
The placement of engineered fill can result in greatly elevated levels of suspended
particulates in the water column for varying lengths of time. These new levels may
reduce light penetration and lower the rate of photosynthesis and the primary productivity
of an aquatic area if they last long enough. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H>B
The biological and the chemical content of the suspended material may react with the
dissolved oxygen in the water, which can result in oxygen depletion. (USEPA, 1980)
9
E>L>H>B
Toxic metals and organics, pathogens, and viruses absorbed or adsorbed to fine-grained
particulates in the material may become biologically available to organisms either in the
water column or on the substrate. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H
The placement of engineered fill can change the chemistry and the physical
characteristics of the receiving water at a disposal site through the introduction of
chemical constituents in suspended or dissolved form. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H>B
Changes in the clarity, color, odor, and taste of water and the addition of contaminants
can reduce or eliminate the suitability of water bodies for populations of aquatic
organisms, and for human consumption, recreation, and aesthetics. (USEPA, 1980).
E>L>H>B
The introduction of nutrients or organic material to the water column as a result of the
discharge can lead to a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which in turn can lead
to reduced dissolved oxygen, thereby potentially affecting the survival of many aquatic
organisms. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H
The discharge of dredged or fill material can alter the normal water-level fluctuation
pattern of an area, resulting in prolonged periods of inundation, exaggerated extremes of
high and low water, or a static, non-fluctuating water level. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>B
The addition of engineered fill can alter or destroy communities and populations of
aquatic animals and vegetation, induce populations of nuisance organisms, modify
habitat, reduce food supplies, restrict movement of aquatic fauna, destroy spawning
areas, and change adjacent, upstream, and downstream areas. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>B>H
The discharge of dredged or fill material in wetlands is likely to damage or destroy
habitat and adversely affect the biological productivity of wetlands ecosystems by
smothering, by dewatering, by permanently flooding, or by altering substrate elevation or
periodicity of water movement. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>B
The addition of dredged or fill material may destroy wetland vegetation or result in
advancement of succession to dry land species. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H
Disruption or elimination of the wetland system can degrade water quality by obstructing
circulation patterns that flush large expanses of wetland systems, by interfering with the
10
filtration function of wetlands, or by changing the aquifer recharge capability of a
wetland. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H
When disruptions in flow and circulation patterns occur, apparently minor loss of wetland
acreage may result in major losses through secondary impacts. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H
Discharging fill material in wetlands as part of municipal, industrial or recreational
development may modify the capacity of wetlands to retain and store floodwaters and
erosion. (USEPA, 1980)
Photo 2 – Licking River, Morgan County, Kentucky
E>B>L
Vegetated wetlands along the edges of streams help control erosion caused by stream
currents and flooding. Since, vegetation is an excellent bank stabilizer, by keeping the
existing trees, shrubs, flowers, and grasses intact the risk of erosion will be reduced.
(Adkins, n.d)
E>B>L>B
The best bank stabilizing plants are woody species such as tree and shrubs. These species
hold the soil in place with their root structures. When the deep, binding roots of shrubs
and trees are absent, shallow-rooted grasses cannot withstand substantial erosion forces.
E>B>L>H>B
In the event that woody species are removed from the riverbanks the erosion that occurs
can elevate levels of suspended particulates in the water column for varying lengths of
time. These new levels may reduce light penetration and lower the rate of photosynthesis
and the primary productivity of an aquatic area if they last long enough. (USEPA, 1980)
E>L>H>B
The biological and the chemical content of the suspended material may react with the
dissolved oxygen in the water, which can result in oxygen depletion. (USEPA, 1980)
11
E>B
Additionally, if woody species are removed from the river banks the many branches and
extensive root systems of woody species are will not be effective providing cover and
shade for fish and other aquatic organisms.
Figure 3 – Well Vegetated Stream vs. Removed Vegetated Streambank
Source: Taken from Comfort, T. (March 2005) – Courtesy of Adams, B. and Fitch, L.
(August 1995) Caring for the Green Zone, Riparian Areas and Grazing Management Pub. No. I-581 ISBN: 0-7732-1435-6, page 13.
12
The Floodplain Management Section of the Kentucky Division of Water has the primary
responsibility for the approval or denial of proposed construction and other activities in
the 100-year floodplain of all streams in the Commonwealth. Typical activities permitted
are dams, bridges, culverts, residential and commercial buildings, placement of fill,
stream alterations or relocations, small impoundments and water and wastewater
treatment plants (Kentucky Division of Water, n.d).
E>L>H
If a portion of the wetlands is filled or destroyed completely; flooding is likely to occur
since wetlands function as natural sponges that trap and slowly release surface water,
rain, snowmelt, groundwater and flood waters. (USEPA, 1995)
E>L>B>H
Since trees, root mats, and other wetland vegetation also slow the speed of flood waters
and distribute them more slowly over the floodplain any removal of this vegetation will
also increase the potential for flooding. (USEPA, 1995)
E>L>B>H>L
According to (USEPA, 1995), after engineered fill is placed on the wetland; the wetlands
will lose its ability to act as a natural sponge and a flow retarder; the loss of this
combined water storage and water velocity reducing action will dramatically increase
downstream flood heights and erosion.
Stormwater wetlands are constructed wetland systems designed to incorporate the natural
functions of wetlands to aid in pollutant removal from stormwater. Constructed wetlands
can also provide for quantity control of stormwater by providing a significant volume of
temporary water storage during times of heavy precipitation and surface runoff. As
stormwater runoff flows through the wetland, pollutant removal is achieved by settling
and biological uptake from organisms in the system. (Iowa State University, 2008).
13
Photo 3 – Constructed Stormwater Wetlands
E>B>A>H>L
The release of sequestered carbon and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere from the
destruction of wetlands and the inhabiting plant life increases global warming and affects
the Earth’s surface area across the globe. According to Titus and Barth (n.d), the sea level
would rise over 200 ft if all the glaciers in Antarctica and Greenland were to melt because
of global warming. Global warming would also affect the sea directly by increasing water
temperature, which would cause an increase in its volume. According to Titus and Barth
(n.d.), if only the upper level of sea water were warmed, by 2100, the sea level could rise
by at least one meter. The encroaching waters onto the shorelines cause erosion and
decreases landmass.
Mitigation Techniques: Event <> Sphere Analysis
E>H>L>H
The pond/wetland system type of a constructed wetlands has two separate cells: a wet
pond and a shallow marsh. The wet pond traps sediments and reduces runoff velocities
prior to entry into the wetland, where stormwater flows receive additional treatment.
(Iowa State University, 2008)
E>L
Less land is required for a pond/wetland system than other forms of constructed wetland
systems. (Iowa State University, 2008) (See Figure 2).
14
Figure 4 – Pond/wetland System Schematic
Source: Iowa State University (2008).
E>L>H
The constructed wetlands system can remove suspended solids and other pollutants prior
to being discharged into the remaining wetlands and river system.
E>B
The constructed wetlands system can increase the biological uptake of nutrients by plants
that grow in the constructed environment, thus replacing some of the loss of biological
uptake from the destroyed wetlands. (Iowa State University, 2008)
15
E>H>L>B
The constructed wetlands system can reduce the flow of stormwater runoff leaving the
development and entering the river system. This reduction of flow will aid in mitigating
the effect downstream flooding, thus reducing erosion, loss of habitat, and possible life.
E>B>A
The constructed wetlands will enhance the vegetation diversity and build new wildlife
habitat in the developed area near the mall. The enhanced vegetation will also introduce
oxygen back to the atmosphere and reduce the carbon dioxide or the local area.
E>B>L>H
A vegetative buffer (green spaces) can be applied around the development in strategic
locations to prevent soil erosion. These green spaces can be placed between the
development and remaining natural wetlands and the river. (USEPA 2010)
E>B>A>B
A vegetative buffer will also improve air and water quality, enhance fish and wildlife
habitat, produce economic products, provide recreation opportunities, or beautify the
landscape. (USEPA 2010)
E>H>B>L>A
Site-specific practices, such as green roofs, downspout disconnections, rain
harvesting/gardens, planter boxes, and permeable pavement are designed to mimic
natural hydrologic functions and decrease the amount of impervious area and stormwater
runoff from developed sites. (USEPA 2010)
E>H>B>A
By utilizing a constructed stormwater wetlands; the effects of runoff containing layers of
oil-and-grease-laden sediments won’t be able to accumulate in the remaining wetlands
and river system. This will insure the various life stages of certain plant and animal
organisms.
E>H>B
Pollutants in the aquatic environment that will disrupt the food chain will be removed or
reduced by the constructed wetlands. The effects of bioaccumulation, won’t be felt
further up the food chain with the concentrations of the pollutants being lower in the
tissues of all organisms in the wetlands and river system.
E>H
Parking lots can be more environmentally compatible without being smaller. One of the
easiest ways to reduce pavement area is to use one-way access lanes and angled spaces.
This allows the access lanes to be reduced from twenty-four feet to eighteen feet or less
and reduces the impervious cover of the entire lot by five to ten percent. By reducing the
pavement area the total amount of surface area is reduced thus, reducing the runoff
potential to the remaining environment. (KY Transportation Cabinet, n.d.)
16
References cited:
Adkins, G. and Henken, K. (n.d) University of Kentucky, College of Agriculture,
Wetlands. ENRI-133. Retrieved October 15, 2010
http://www.ca.uky.edu/enri/pubs/enri133.pdf
Comfort, T. (March 2005) Maintaining a Healthy Riparian Buffer Along Streams and
Rivers, Protecting Land, Water, Fish & Wildlife with Streamside Vegetation. Retrieved
October 15, 2010 http://www. missoulacd.org/docs/Stream%20Vegetation.doc
Dahl, T. E. 1990. Wetlands: Losses in the United States 1780's to 1980's. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,
D.C. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online (Version
16JUL97) Retrieved October 13, 2010 from
(http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/wetlands/wetloss/index.htm)
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(https://engineering.purdue.edu/SafeWater/watershed/landuse.html#rainfall
Iowa State University, (December 2008), Iowa Storm Water Management Manual, 2H-1
General Information for Stormwater Wetlands. Retrieved October 15, 2010
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/pubs/stormwater/documents/2H-1GeneralInformationfor
StormwaterWetland.pdfKentucky Afield for teachers: program 3 (2002) Wetlands and Waterfowl. Retrieved
from KY Department of Fish and Wildlife web page October 13, 2010, from
(http://fw.ky.gov/pdf/wetlands.pdf)
Kentucky Division of Water (n.d.) Floodplain Construction, Surface Water Permits
Branch, Floodplain Management Section. Retrieved October 15, 2010
http://water.ky.gov/floodplain/Pages/FloodplainConstruction.aspx
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (n.d.) Kentucky Stormwater Resources for Builders and
Developers. Retrieved October 15, 2010
http://www.transportation.ky.gov/ms4/MCM1/mcm1_targetaudiences_builders_kyresour
ces.html
17
Kusler, J. (1999) Climate change in wetland areas part II: Carbon cycle Implications.
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15, 2010, from URL: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/urbaneffects.html
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Publication #92701 of the Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments. P. Kimble
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http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/constructmyer/
myerguide.pdf
Titus, J. G. & Barth, M. C. (1984) An overview of the causes and effects of sea level rise.
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