Louis Pisha AP US History
Insurgency
A Cautious President
An Old-Guard Tariff
A Divided Party
The Election of 1910
A Divisive Foreign Policy
The Road to Revolt
The Bull Moose
Progressivism at Zenith
Woodrow Wilson
The Election of 1912
A Democratic Tariff
Banking Reform
The New Freedom and the Trusts
In Behalf of Progress
Wilson and Moral Diplomacy
The Force of Moral Principle
Confusion in Latin America
Intervention in Mexico
Problems of Neutrality
War in Europe
Neutral Rights
The Submarine Issue
Peace with Honor
Americanism and Preparedness
The Election of 1916
The Road to War
▪ Although Republicans won 4 successive elections, Old Guard, Midwestern townspeople, urban progressives and Western agrarians beginning to factionalize and Democrats gaining power
Insurgency
A Cautious President
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▪ Taft had excellent intentions and saw need for continuing Roosevelt program
▪ On the other hand, jolly fat man, had been a judge, strict interpretationist, so didn’t want to interfere with legislation
▪ Highest confidence in the bench and didn’t trust majority to make laws— accepted change but did not like to be rushed—yet progressives in a hurry
An Old-Guard Tariff
▪ Taft called special session of Congress to revise tariff—had suggested he preferred downward revision, and farmers convinced Dingley Duties way too high
▪ Taft appointed cabinet of conservatives, unwilling to restrict power of Speaker and made no gesture in favor of tariff revision
▪ House passed bill reducing some duties and graduated inheritance tax, but Senate cut inheritance tax, increased average tariff rates—Taft intervened and got 2% corporate income tax, but bill still benefitted biz (Payne-Aldrich
Act)—triumph for protectionists and Taft alienated Midwesterners
A Divided Party
▪ Taft proposed bill empowering ICC to fix railroad rates, but established Court of
Commerce with veto power, and permitted railroads to acquire competitors—Democrats amended it to eliminate this last provision, bring telephone and telegraph companies under jurisdiction and physical valuation of railroad property
▪ In Senate, Aldrich eliminated valuation and preserved Commerce Court by trade with Democrats for admissions of Arizona and New Mexico
▪ Taft denied insurgents patronage and started campaign to defeat them in 1910
▪ Ballinger opened to private sale millions of acres of public land and waterpower sites that Pinchot, Roosevelt’s friend, had closed—Ballinger had sold government coal fields in Alaska to Morgan—Pinchot took case to Taft, who ruled for Ballinger
▪ Pinchot got magazines to attack Ballinger, letter to Senate, Taft dismissed him—
Brandeis revealed Taft had tampered with evidence sent to Congress—
Pinchot and Roosevelt still buddies and Roosevelt sided with him
The Election of 1910
▪ When Roosevelt returned to NY, started speaking tour, which praised insurgents—Roosevelt announced New Nationalism: social welfare, federal regulation of biz, direct democracy
▪ Republican party lost in elections of 1910—Democrats identified selves with progressivism and Republicans with rising costs of living—returns suggested only insurgent could save Republicans in 1912
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▪ Taft, LaFollette and Roosevelt possible Republican candidates of 1912
A Divisive Foreign Policy
▪ January 1911 Taft submitted reciprocity agreement with Canada for agricultural products, raw materials, and some manufactured goods—Western progressives, fearing competition, and high tariff advocates, rejected it—
Taft called special session where Democrats put the measure through, but
Canadians repudiated it
▪ Democrats passed series of “popgun reduction tariffs” for president to veto and be embarrassed by
▪ Knox intended to use American economic power to promote influence (dollar diplomacy)—treaties with Latin America for assumption of their
European debt and appointment of Americans to direct their finances
▪ Senate rejected treaty but Knox had considerable success—also emphasized
China
▪ Roosevelt disapproved of dollar diplomacy, urged Taft to abandon competition with Japanese in China
▪ Roosevelt also opposed arbitration treaties with France and England—Taft convinced international problems solved by court of law but Roosevelt denounced arbitration of questions involving national honor
The Road to Revolt
▪ Supreme Court had pronounced “rule of reason” which held only unreasonable restraints of trade unlawful—necessary corollary but Taft allowed court to define reasonableness while Roosevelt believed administrative agency
▪ Taft chose to prosecute US Steel which resulted in acquittal and publicizing of
Roosevelt-Morgan negotiations
▪ Taft’s policies gave Roosevelt rationalization for declaring presidential candidate
▪ LaFollette’s supporters deserted him for Roosevelt and his New Nationalism
▪ Old Guard cared more about nominating Taft and defeating Roosevelt than winning the election
▪ Roosevelt got 278 candidates to Taft’s 48, but national committee allotted 235 contested seats to Taft and rigged convention renominated Taft on first ballot
The Bull Moose
▪ Roosevelt men bolted convention crying fraud and reorganized as Progressive party—included social workers, feminists, intellectuals, industrialists
▪ Progressive party inadequately organized and Roosevelt knew probably assuring election of a Democrat, but could not support Taft and status quo
▪ Some considered Taft safe and Roosevelt alarming
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▪ Bull Moose platform: presidential primaries, women’s suffrage, initiative and referendum, popular Senator election, conservation of natural and human resources, minimum wages for women, restriction of child labor, workmen’s compensation, social insurance, income tax, limitation of injunctions, federal commission to adjust tariff
Progressivism at Zenith
Woodrow Wilson
▪ Wilson was a professor, then president of Princeton, then Democratic governor of
NJ, and progressive, which put him in lead for Democratic nomination
▪ Wilson had offended conservative sponsors, also unpopular in South, East and farming West
▪ Bryan castigated anyone supported by Tammany (Clark) and deals eventually got
Wilson the nomination
The Election of 1912
▪ Contest between Democrats and Progressives—Democratic leadership took pains to preserved party unity but Wilson had to face Roosevelt
▪ Differences between Bull Moose and Democratic platforms: protective tariff/downward revision, powerful federal regulation/state’s rights, broad social welfare program/just limiting injunctions
▪ Roosevelt assumed economic consolidation was good, welcomed big business but big government supervise it, expressed in Croly’s book, which demanded comprehensive federal planning for national interest
▪ Wilson believed guilt in business, also personal guilt, so stern prophet rather than vigorous promoter, laissez-faire only work if state encourage competition, popular democracy, intellectual Brandeis argued great corporations had to be broken up, rules of competition be defined by law, credit for small and new businesses (New Freedom)
▪ Wilson said Roosevelt planned to partner government and trusts while his alternative free economy and free government—“regulated competition” instead of “regulated monopoly”—Roosevelt called it “rural Toryism”
▪ Wilson won by a lot and Democrats carried both houses—also Taft miserable showing and 1 million votes for socialism
▪ Low turnout of voters as compared to before
A Democratic Tariff
▪ Wilson willing to appeal over Congress’ head to electorate—however had neither temperament nor experience to get along with professional politicians, selected advisors: Bryan, Burleson, McAdoo, Tumulty, House
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▪ Called special session of Congress for tariff revision and appeared personally—a month later House reduced rates, added consumer goods to free list, eliminated protection of trusts, and graduated income tax
▪ Democrats only had 3 vote majority in Senate and Democratic senators from sugar and wool producing states reluctant to leave those products free— president called on public opinion to go against lobbyists and caused investigation of senators who would profit personally from protection of wool and sugar, so bill got passed (Underwood-Simmons Act)
Banking Reform
▪ Panic of 1907 showed inflexibility of currency and credit and showed financial power in hands of few Eastern private bankers which persuaded progressives “money trust”
▪ Bankers also in favor of reform but of own kind—wanted currency responsive to expansion and contraction of commercial paper
▪ Wanted central bank authorized by government but privately controlled, issue currency on own liability—Democrats replaced single central bank with regional banks supervised by federal board
▪ Fell short of program advanced by South—no interlocking directorates, public control of regional banks, reserve banks allowed to discount agricultural paper, preventing commercial paper as basis for currency—president conceded discounting of agricultural notes and later interlocking directorates
▪ Resistance from conservatives in Senate and Wilson overcame it by appeal for party responsibility and patronage—passed December 1913 (Federal
Reserve Act)
▪ Most important statute of Wilson’s administration—first efficient banking system since Jackson—greater degree of public control over banking than ever— helped us adjust to financial strains of WWI
The New Freedom and the Trusts
▪ Wilson asked for legislation to prohibit interrelated groups to control holding companies, commission to dissolve corporations in restraint of trade, define unfair business practices
▪ Didn’t satisfy conservatives, labor leaders, or Bull Moosers—Brandeis drafted
Federal Trade Commission bill and passed after Republicans added broad court review
▪ House passed Clayton bill—defined unfair practices and forbade interlocking directorates—Senate exempted instances that did not decrease competition and also clause added by House exempting labor unions from antitrust prosecutions but only if pursuing legitimate aims
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▪ These laws didn’t do enough but not immediately apparent and constituted another victory for administration
▪ Some Republican gains in 1914 and aided by collapse of Progressive party
In Behalf of Progress
▪ Wilson saw that interests of legitimate business did not conflict with social reform—also got passed Federal Farm Loan Act and Child Labor Act, legislation permitting export traders to combine to meet foreign competition, and created expert tariff commission
▪ Wilson ordered Congress to establish 8 hr day at 10 hr pay for railroad labor—
Adamson Act—to avoid strike which would have tied up war materials for Allies
▪ Brandeis first Jew to be appointed to Supreme Court
▪ President revealed faith in dynamic but humane capitalism and almost carried out platform of Progressive party
Wilson and Moral Diplomacy
The Force of Moral Principle
▪ Conditions of world affairs changed little between Roosevelt and Wilson—he felt had mission to teach semideveloped countries legal system of US and body of international law moral nations would obey—hope for peace in that law, not alliances or defensive military buildups
▪ Bryan negotiated treaties with Great Britain, France, Italy, others, provided for all disputes, submitted to permanent committees of investigation and one year “cooling off” period
▪ Wilson withdrew support from Taft’s Chinese railway consortium and recognized
Republic of China
▪ Wilson race prejudiced, didn’t dissuade California politicians from prohibiting
Japanese from owning land there—Japanese humiliated, complained to prez—Wilson was advised to move warships towards Japan but instead conciliatory diplomacy which resolved nothing
▪ Japan made 21 extraordinary demands of China that would have made it a political and economic dependency—Americans persuaded Japanese to moderate their terms—revealed tenuous balance of power in Asia and
Bryan’s commitment to conventional national policies
Confusion in Latin America
▪ Wilson intended to abandon dollar diplomacy, cultivate their friendship and more democratic government
▪ Negotiated treaty with Colombia for apology and indemnity for Panama
▪ Wilson relied on private bankers instead of US government to assume and service their debts—would not permit turmoil in the area to breed European
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intercessions, so turned to American troops to keep order in Latin
America and at times resisted reform
▪ Wilson never got how close he was to dollar diplomacy and how hated the US had become
▪ 1911 Mexican Revolution by middle class but 1913 Huerta restored reactionary regime and Constitutionalists continued to resist under Carranza
▪ Wilson refused to appoint ambassador to Mexico—“watchful waiting” until
Huerta declared self military dictator, then, US demanded Huerta retire and sought advancement of constitutional liberty
▪ Wilson promised to protect British property and gave Britain better Panama
Canal rights, so they withdrew their recognition of Huerta
▪ Wilson told Carranza US would help him—didn’t want interference but needed arms so president lifted embargo
Intervention in Mexico
▪ Huertista colonel arrested American sailors at Tampico, and although Mexico apologized did not salute American flag so US prepared to occupy Vera
Cruz—Wilson ordered navy to seize Vera Cruz and Americans and
Mexicans killed in skirmish
▪ Both countries accepted offer of mediation—meanwhile Huerta abdicated and
Carranza took Mexico City
▪ Revolution became high-pitched—many wanted Wilson to intervene, but he recognized Constitutionalists de facto
▪ Pancho Villa murdered a bunch of Americans and Wilson ordered expedition across border to punish him without disturbing Constitutionalists— aroused Mexican tempers and Carranza insisted Americans leave—
Wilson refused—Villa raided Texas—Wilson called up National Guard and plans for full-scale invasion—2 serious skirmishes
▪ Both men desired peace, appointed commission, Carranza rejected decision but war scare past and de jure recognition
▪ Wilson’s restraint outweighed moralism and offended those he wanted to help but withstood demands for war
Problems of Neutrality
War in Europe
▪ Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire vs. France, England, Russia & Italy
▪ Americans shocked by outbreak of war but wrongly relieved it was so far away— believed US should concentrate on further reform at home and set example of peace and democracy—few saw intensity of nationalistic emotions
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▪ Wilson said US should be impartial mediator but Americans of different ethnic groups supported different sides and many supported England
▪ Propaganda on both sides but could not erase the fact Germany had violated pledge to respect Belgian neutrality
Neutral Rights
▪ Existing rules of international law were uncertain, especially since submarine
▪ Britain tightly blockaded Germany, inspected American cargoes, fooled with the mail, and forbade subjects to do business with blacklisted American companies
▪ Wilson protested and British only cared enough to keep the US out of the Central
Powers
▪ Increasing goodwill Americans felt for England also owed to increased production for American economy
▪ By end of 1915 Americans giving Britain huge loans to finance Allied purchases of material
▪ Germans protested against American sales of war material to Allies since blockade against them, so sent out U-boats
The Submarine Issue
▪ Submarines could not operate according to traditional anti-commerce ship rules, yet Wilson insisted Germans observe the law
▪ Germany proclaimed war zone around British Isles, and danger of sinking neutral ships—Wilson said if any Americans killed, flagrant violation of neutral rights and gave Germany choice of abandoning plan or risking American antagonism
▪ Took risk—May 6, 1915, Lusitania sunk including 128 Americans—extremes of war or telling Americans not to travel
▪ Wilson demanded apology and reparations from Berlin and identified neural rights with sacred human rights
▪ Roosevelt called president yellow and Bryan thought he was too harsh—he got the boot and replaced with Lansing—meanwhile Germany apologized and indemnitized
Peace with Honor
▪ Wilson had sent House to Europe to investigate possibility of mediation but found Germans adamant—House later concocted plan, Wilson approved, that threatened American intervention on Allied side if Germany unwilling to negotiate
▪ Wilson and Lansing decided to ease issue of submarine by persuading Allies not to arm merchantmen so U-boats could warn before attacking—Germans
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liked idea because point to just destroy cargoes—British refused—
Germans declared unrestricted warfare against all armed ships
▪ Roosevelt Republicans prepared to make campaign issue of embarrassment president had caused Allies
▪ German submarine torpedoed unarmed French steamer carrying some
Americans—Wilson sent ultimatum of give up unrestricted submarine warfare or US sever diplomatic relations—Germany acceded under condition US make Britain obey international law (they felt they didn’t have enough subs to make the blockade effective anyway)
▪ Most Americans relieved but did not realize that ultimatum left American war decision up to Germany
Americanism and Preparedness
▪ Everyone called their selfish end Americanism, including anti-labor unions, racists, and sexists
▪ President resisted this spirit even as Roosevelt exalted it—yet used it to describe his foreign policy and called on everyone to dedicate selves to national honor
▪ His position accorded with most middle of the road Americans—arms and munitions unnecessary tools of evil men
▪ Small vocal faction began to preach preparedness under Roosevelt
▪ Wilson had to do something about it, so instructed armed forces to make plans for expansion, then proposed volunteer army of 400,000—to win support
Wilson went on a speaking tour across the country
▪ Still made concessions to opponents—first rejected war dept’s reserve force plan and appointed Baker to secretary of war
▪ Measure accelerating building of strong navy
▪ Agrarians’ success: increased surtaxes on personal income and inheritance
▪ Democrats had preparedness = progressive and party = national defense
The Election of 1916
▪ Old Guard would not nominate Roosevelt and he cared about defeating Wilson
▪ Republicans = Hughes
▪ Wilson’s slogan: “He kept us out of war.”—meanwhile Irish and German
Americans openly supported Hughes, which lost him votes
▪ Election hung on a few votes in California, alienated by Hughes and Wilson won
The Road to War
▪ Wilson said he would hold a peace conference and help the most reasonable side, meanwhile Germans announced offer to negotiate
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▪ Germans expecting impending victory, smashing France and England, would resume unrestricted submarine warfare, and terms of territory in Baltic,
Congo, Belgium, France and Luxembourg
▪ Allies rejected president’s peace proposal but said would negotiate if Germany reasonable
▪ Wilson defined terms of peace without victory including league of nations—
Germans revealed greedy armistice and announced unrestricted submarine warfare
▪ Wilson broke off relations with Germany—even Zimmerman telegram to Mexico inviting it to join Central Powers and promising it southwestern lands of
US didn’t get Wilson into war
▪ Asked Congress for authority to arm merchant vessels and otherwise protect
American ships at sea—anti-war progressives talked it to death
▪ President ordered merchantmen armed—U-boats sank 3 American ships—
Russian revolution established limited monarch and removed another problem with going to war
▪ Wilson, as other progressives, recognized need for war but had based faith on peaceful reasonable improvement of humanity—but Germany had violated moral principles
▪ April 1917 Congress voted for war
▪ Germany expected unrestricted submarine warfare would lead to American belligerency and Wilson had staked grandeur of nation on his policies
▪ American policy makers found no way to resolve German intentions short of war
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