Gender and Poverty in Malaysia: Towards Gender Sensitivity
in Lasallian Education
Cecilia Ng and Lucy Ratnam 1
Introduction
This paper seeks to understand the nature of gender and poverty in Malaysia,
highlight a critical issue affecting the safety of women and girls, and from there
discuss the role of Lasallian education in transforming its vision and mission towards
a holistic and gender sensitive education for boys and girls.
Poverty in Malaysia
Malaysia seems to have made impressive gains in fighting poverty as poverty rates
have declined dramatically since the 1970s. The incidence of poverty plunged from
52.4 percent in 1970 to 5.1 percent in 2002. The latest figures for 2009 disclose that
the incidence of poverty stands at 3.8 percent with the target of the Tenth Malaysia
Plan (2011-2015:396) to further reduce this figure to 2.8 percent. Hardcore poverty
also decreased from 1.2 percent in 2004 to 0.7 percent in 2009 with the Government
intending to eradicate hardcore poverty by 2010. However the poverty gap in the
rural areas is more than three times that in the urban areas (7.1 percent compared
to 2.0 percent in 2007), with higher incidences in the east coast states and East
Malaysia. Sabah, in particular, registered a poverty rate of 19.2 percent.
Poverty studies measure both absolute and relative poverty as high income
inequality has the potential to lead to social conflict in society. The Ninth Malaysia
Plan points out that income inequality actually increased during this period. The
share of the bottom 40 percent of the populace declined from 14.5 percent in 1990
to 13.5 percent in 2004, while the share of the top 20 percent increased from 50 to
51.2 percent. As such, the national Gini co-efficient worsened from 0.442 in 1990 to
0.462 in 2004 – one of the highest in the region. This was brought down to 0.441 in
2007. Much of the inequality is accounted for by the ‘intra’ or ‘within group’
component with a smaller proportion in the ‘inter’ or ‘between group’ portion.
While there is a breakdown of the poverty data by rural and urban location and by
ethnicity, there is no similar breakdown by gender, nor is there information on the
various categories of poor/vulnerable women. Yet, it is well-known that poverty has
a ‘female’ face and the feminisation of poverty has been a critical agenda in
development circles for the past several decades. In other words, where are the sites
of female poverty in both rural and urban areas, between states and within the rural
areas such as those in the plantation sector as well as among indigenous
communities? Data at the global level also reveal that many poor women are in
1
We would like to thank Bro. Anthony Rogers for his valuable contribution to this table conversation
and for his support to our participation in this symposium.
1
women-headed households, both in the urban and rural areas. In 2007, there were
267,700 women in the labour force who were widowed or divorced compared to
102,200 men. Fortunately, some figures, albeit limited and not updated, are
available as the recently unveiled National Policy on Women revealed that poverty
among women-headed households has decreased from 12.5 percent in 2002 to 11.5
percent in 2004.
Information is needed as to why and how many of these women fall within the
poverty line and how much access and control over economic resources they do or
do not have. For example, among rural communities, access to and control over land
resources is critical for survival. However, mainstream ideology that men are the
natural heads of households and that land titles are therefore their domain, suggests
that women have less access to such resources and ancillary services e.g. technology,
credit and extension services. However, macro-level information on rural women,
especially on poor rural women, is not available from the ministries dealing with the
rural/agriculture sector. The few localised studies focus on specific issues or on
specific groups of rural women. A study on indigenous women pointed out how the
impact of the state and market has changed gender roles and power relations in two
villages in Pulau Carey. It concluded that the shift from subsistence production to
palm oil monoculture has adversely affected the position of women. In 2004, a
survey of 11 oil palm plantations by the Consumers’ Association of Penang found
that women workers are paid between RM15 to RM18 per day, while herbicide
sprayers earn about RM350 – RM450 a month. Many of them suffered from ill health
as a result of the toxic nature of the chemicals used as well as the lack of protective
gear.
Recent commercialisation of land in rural and peripheral semi-urban areas for
various purposes such as the commoditisation of agriculture, housing, industrial and
dam development has left the poor in estates and indigenous communities in the
lurch, many times driving them from their place of origin to more urban centres. Not
having the necessary skills and education they fill the ranks of the urban poor.
Research needs to be done to identify these new poverty groups, and the extent to
which women are adversely affected. A study of dam projects and the resettlement
of indigenous groups within the affected area show how indigenous communities
not only lost access to natural resources, but were also resettled under alien
conditions, resulting in an inability to cope with their new surroundings. The study
concluded that the involuntary resettlement of these communities led to a greater
loss of access to land and rights for women as compared to men.
Interestingly, the Federal Territories Minister recently announced that the
Government has now decided to set RM3,000 a month as the poverty line for the
urban poor. He noted that “the number of urban poor and slum dwellers in the cities
is rising. There is no social safety net for such people, including single parents with
three to five children living in low-cost flats”.2 A recent study of low-income single
2
The poverty line income (PLI) for the urban area in Peninsular Malaysia is RM663 (Ninth Malaysia
Plan: 328). The Mid-Term Review of the Ninth Malaysia Plan has increased the PLI to RM720 (p.58)
which is actually rather low, considering today’s spiralling cost of living. This has apparently been
2
mothers (1,486 respondents) in the urban areas of 11 states found that 80 percent
of them earned less than RM500 a month. A similar investigation by SUHAKAM
(2008) in two public housing flats found that 47 percent of the 100 respondents
were single mothers. A similar percentage earned a monthly income below the
urban poverty line income of RM663. The SUHAKAM study revealed that the
respondents were dissatisfied with the facilities at the flats. In terms of well-being,
some claimed that they could not pay for healthcare services; others reported
discrimination due to poverty, while many could not afford to send their children to
school.
Safety Issues
Safety and security are also two important concerns faced by women and children,
especially those from vulnerable groups such as the poor, refugee and migrant
women. Of particular significance is gender-based violence. Violence against Women
(VAW) has been defined by the United Nations as any act of gender-based violence
that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or
suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation
of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.
Recognising that violence against women is a universal problem that stems from and
continues to be perpetrated due to unequal power relations between women and
men, women’s movements all over the world have been lobbying against VAW
violations which are against the human rights of women and are a strong
impediment to achieving gender equality. As a result of these struggles, the 1993
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women at the United Nations
General Assembly is the first international human rights instrument to explicitly
address the issue of violence against women. Women’s rights are now recognised as
human rights.
The Malaysian Government has responded by taking various actions to protect the
(usually women) ‘victims’ and survivors of violence. These include collection of
statistics, reform of the laws regarding rape (1989), establishment of a Domestic
Violence Act (1994) and launching a Code of Practice on the Elimination of Sexual
Harassment in the Workplace (1999). The Code was extended to the public sector in
2005. Despite these efforts, incidents of VAW in all forms continue (Table 1). These
are only cases reported to the police. It is well-known that only 10 percent of VAW
incidents are reported due to reasons such as shame, culture and inaccessibility of
reporting procedures (due to poverty). Table 2 shows the key safety issues in
Penang.
revised to RM800 per month. The announcement of RM3,000 as the poverty line for the urban poor is
rather startling. If this is indeed the case, the incidence of poverty will increase in a substantial
manner as at least 50 percent of the households in Malaysia earn less than RM3,000 a month. This
matter needs to be further investigated as with the rising cost of living today, it would be very difficult
for a household of 4.4 members to survive on the monthly PLI of RM800 calculated on the basis of
eight
components,
viz
food,
clothing,
rent/utilities,
furniture,
medical/health,
transport/communication, education and recreation.
3
Table 1: Violence against Women Cases in Malaysia (2000-2007)
YEAR
2000
1. Domestic 3,468
Violence
2. Rape
1,217
3. Incest
213
4. Sodomy
133
5. Outrage 1,234
of Modesty
Total
2001
3,107
2002
2,755
2003
2,555
2004
3,101
2005 2006
3,093 3,264
2007
3,756
25,099
1,386
246
141
1,393
1,431
306
135
1,522
1,479
254
154
1,399
1,760
335
177
1,661
1,931
295
202
1,746
3,098
360
231
2,243
14,733
2,341
1,353
13,170
2,431
352
180
1,972
Table 2: Key Safety Issues that Impact Women, Men, Girls and Boys in Penang
Women
Property
Crimes
Domestic
Violence
Rape
Outrage of
Modesty
Sexual
Harassment
Snatch Thefts
Road
Accidents
Malaysians
Men
Girls
Property
Rape
Crimes
Outrage of
Road
Modesty
Accidents
Sexual
Drug Abuse Harassment
Snatch Thefts
Road
Accidents
Bullying in
School
Child Abuse
Abduction
Boys
Drug Abuse
Mat
Rempitism
Child Abuse
Abduction
Bullying in
School
Foreign Residents
Women
Men
Rape
Abuse at Work
Outrage of
Human
Modesty
Trafficking
Sexual
Abuse by
Harassment
Authorities
Snatch Thefts
False
Human
Accusations
Trafficking
Abuse at the
Work
Abuse by
Authorities
Oftentimes, perpetrators of acts of violence against women continue to commit
these acts with impunity because of the ineffectiveness of measures to bring them
to account for their acts. If these acts are unpunished and continue to remain
unpunished, they become directly or indirectly acceptable. The State has an
affirmative obligation to prevent violence against women becoming acceptable by
defining violence against women and exercising due diligence to prevent such
violence.
In this rights-based approach, the Government is duty-bound to provide a safe
environment for women and girls and protect them as women and girls are more
vulnerable to violations against their person. In Malaysia, women’s groups have
been struggling since the 1980s to highlight the issues of rape, domestic violence and
sexual harassment.
4
Whilst formulating and implementing laws is important, it is crucial also to effect a
change in the social-cultural perception and the acceptance of violence against
women and girls through education and awareness-raising. A change in the mindset
(e.g. zero tolerance of violence against women) could ensure that they are able to
access legal processes as well as other services created by the State and civil
societies. Sexist and stereotyped attitudes that women confront in attempting to
utilise the institutions as well as women’s lack of financial independence, mobility
and exposure in dealing with public institutions are but some of the barriers that
require State intervention. Experiences at the women’s shelters, set up by women’s
NGOs (since the 1980s) for survivors/victims of domestic violence and sexual abuse
(including child sexual abuse), show that women who gathered enough courage to
arrest and address the violence perpetrated against them need assurance that they
and their children would not suffer immediate poverty and indignity in the process.
Domestic Violence and Rape
Domestic Violence is a form of power where one partner attempts to dominate the
other through violent acts such as physical battering, psychological or emotional
torture, and sexual abuse. As mentioned above, domestic violence cases have been
increasing through the years as shown in Table 3 where the breakdown by states is
provided.
Table 3: Domestic Violence Cases from 2000-2006
STATES
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
PERLIS
39
27
39
32
53
21
42
KEDAH
177
179
177
179
264
328
261
P/PINANG
399
431
269
231
255
272
307
PERAK
269
185
135
123
85
186
261
SELANGOR
877
855
942
805
932
845
795
K/LUMPUR
264
162
131
96
95
71
88
N/SEMBILAN
349
318
242
301
262
253
281
MELAKA
92
56
67
68
104
159
176
JOHOR
377
379
187
234
465
320
377
PAHANG
150
161
202
188
206
167
171
TERENGGANU
24
29
10
9
21
23
33
KELANTAN
33
36
47
19
27
80
88
SABAH
102
86
85
69
124
114
81
SARAWAK
316
203
222
201
208
254
303
2,755
2,555
3,101
3,093
3,264
TOTAL
3,468 3,107
Source: Royal Malaysian Police, 2007
Similarly, rape is another heinous crime against women where sexual assault is used
as a weapon, often to dominate and humiliate the survivor. Although women’s
5
groups have been conducting continuous awareness and education programmes
since the mid-1980s to de-escalate the incidences of rape in the country, reports of
rape continue to be on the increase.3 The number of rape cases has doubled in the
last four years, from 1,479 cases in 2003 to 3,098 in 2007 (The Star, 7 May 2009;
Table 4). Out of the 3,098 incidents of rape, 1,653 (53 percent) of the victims were
below 16 years of age – a grave cause for concern.
Table 4: Rape cases in Malaysia from 2000 - 2007
STATES
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
PERLIS
KEDAH
P/PINANG
PERAK
SELANGOR
K. LUMPUR
N. SEMBILAN
MELAKA
JOHOR
PAHANG
TERENGGANU
KELANTAN
SABAH
SARAWAK
TOTAL
12
110
61
91
216
67
59
43
194
74
48
52
109
81
1217
10
123
75
79
269
97
82
43
234
79
48
74
94
79
1386
13
132
73
100
253
120
62
57
235
79
45
70
115
77
1431
11
119
70
118
280
77
69
67
312
70
38
66
111
71
1479
21
127
89
121
289
116
89
100
323
102
58
82
149
94
1760
26
163
71
148
368
111
97
77
324
84
99
90
156
117
1931
28
221
115
183
421
142
103
125
343
143
127
152
199
129
2431
27
313
161
226
562
221
153
139
473
194
130
167
196
136
3098
A 2004 memorandum submitted by women’s groups (Anti-Rape Task Force) noted
these issues:
1. Only one in ten rape survivors reports rape;
2. 67 percent of the rapes occur in places that are supposedly ‘safe’ for women;
3. In 2001, there were 161 reported cases of child rape, out of which 83 percent of
the accused were known to the survivor; only about 10 percent of the rape cases
reported in the Federal Territory ended in conviction;
4. There are also some disturbing trends in reported cases:
a) More and more assailants are of younger ages;
b) Young girls are increasingly targeted for rape;
c) Increased number of reported cases of rape against children of tender age;
d) Rape of women in custody;
e) Rape of girls and women by people in positions of trust, e.g. by bomoh,
medical doctor, and religious teacher and;
3
There is a known discrepancy between the incidents of violence and reports of violence. Research
generally shows that only 1 in 10 cases are reported. Police statistics reveal that the number of
reported cases is increasing. Hence, research needs to be conducted to find out whether there is
indeed a rise in incidence of violence against women, or merely a rise in the rate of reporting.
6
f) Extreme violence being used in rape cases, with rapists sometimes resorting
to murder.
The above are two critical issues faced by women and girls in Malaysia. While many
recommendations have been made to overcome these issues, a major area is in the
area of education. The question for us in this Symposium is: what is the role of
Lasallian Education to promote gender sensitivity as part of transformative Lasallian
Education in Malaysia? The next section discusses some of the arenas of work
undertaken in Malaysia.
Background to Lasallian Education in Malaysia
The Malaysian Lasallian Education (MLEC) has over the past five years been engaged
in implementing our vision of “Being Lasallians in Malaysia” that was articulated at
the Malaysian Lasallian Education Assembly in October 2007. The six Regional
Lasallian Education Councils (Penang, Perak, Klang Valley, Negri-Melaka-Johor, Sabah
and Sarawak) have been exploring various ways of addressing the three Priority
Concerns, namely the Revitalisation of Existing Schools, setting up of New Lasallian
Educational Institutions and Programmes, and the Projects for the Educational
Service of the Poor. The three participants in Malaysia come from three out of six
Regions. We had also identified that our challenge to identify “radically new
strategies, relevant approaches and a participatory pedagogy” as our unique
Lasallian contribution to our young and our nations that calls for a process of placing
importance on Regionalisation. The situation of the Lasallian Schools and Mission
although sharing a common heritage will depend on the unique situation in each of
these Regions. The onus is on us to look into the future based on our current realities
and the challenges that we are facing today. Our responses to girls and women has
to be regional based but in the context of the overarching concerns of the Lasallian
Family in Malaysia.
While the majority of the Lasallian Family is dealing with boys, we have also a few
initial experiences with girls and young women in many of our La Salle Learning
Centres in a number of places. It is also interesting to note that we also have one coed primary school, La Salle Jinjang, Kuala Lumpur.
Reality of Lasallian Schools in Malaysia
All Lasallian schools in Malaysia are part of the national education system with
students coming from all socio-economic backgrounds, diverse ethnic and religious
backgrounds. Most of these schools are located in urban areas. Our Lasallian schools
enrol girls in Form Six (Pre-University) classes. Most students who take up Form 6
come from middle-class or lower income backgrounds. They may have done well in
their Form 5 examination (equivalent to ‘O’ Levels), but cannot afford to continue
their pre-university education at private institutions of higher learning. Pre-U courses
at public colleges and universities are reserved mainly for Bumiputras. As such,
poorer students from other ethnic groups (namely the Chinese and Indians and the
Orang Asal) have little alternative. Almost all Lasallian schools in Malaysia offer Form
7
6 classes, so we are in fact giving these students an opportunity to complete the
programme free-of-charge, as education is free in all government schools.
The percentage of girls who enrol in Form 6 classes may differ in different schools. In
SMK St Paul, Seremban for example, the majority of Form 6 students are girls, who
come from other government schools. Their tendency to be more diligent and
studious, in a way, challenges the boys do better academically. Furthermore, the
female approach in managing school activities and programmes gives room for
variety in an all-boys environment.
Reality of Education in Malaysia
The percentage of female students has exceeded that of male students in Malaysia.
In 2008, statistics showed that 65.9% of the total student population in secondary
schools were females compared to only 34.1% of males. This situation could be
demographic, but there is a trend for male students to drop out of school earlier,
both in rural and urban areas.
The education system in Malaysia tends to suit the female gender better as
emphasis is more on academic performance and diligent learning. Young boys who
would perform better through skill-based and experiential learning lag behind. Some
schools do offer vocational courses for both girls and boys, and those who are not
academically- inclined are channelled to these streams. Unfortunately, these courses
are only available to a selected few. Lasallian schools are not included in these
programmes as they are not fully aided by the government.
With this scenario in mind, there has been much debate on the effectiveness of the
Malaysian education system in producing a society that meets the needs of the
nation. We have created a generations of people who are “bookish” with minimal
innovative and problem-solving skills. We lack skilled and semi-skilled labour,
resulting in a high dependency on foreign work force. This is especially evident
among females, as vocational training and related job opportunities are more readily
available for males.
Incidentally, the student intake at public universities shows a trend more favourable
to females. Nevertheless, the vast number of girls who do not make it to tertiary
education make up a large part of labour force (mostly semi and unskilled jobs). The
question remains is whether our education system has prepared them well for the
labour market. Have we taught them the necessary skills to contribute effectively to
the economy and to society? Many of them lag behind in effective communication,
especially those come from vernacular schools (Chinese and Tamil). Their learning
environment (both in school and at home) does not encourage the practical usage of
the Malay and English Languages, which are essential for employment. Therefore
they are at a disadvantage in a job market which is becoming more global. If
remuneration is based on skills and output, then they will remain at the lower rungs
of the income scale.
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A major transformation process of our education system is in the pipeline, with
discussions and consultation being considered from all its stakeholders. Our Lasallian
schools and institutions of learning must also state their case in more concrete terms
so that we are relevant in today’s context. We have to reconsider the effectiveness
of our current role as formal educational institutions.
Our Vision of Lasallian Schools
Based on our experiences and in view of the priorities of the Lasallian Family in
Malaysia that have been identified for 2012 -2015 we see the need to bring
transformation to our schools as an integral part of the national education system.
The focus has to be promoting a holistic education that is both “free” (gratuitous)
and has quality (relevant). This is based on our understanding that Lasallian
education has to incorporate the three constitutive dimensions of interfaith, gender
sensitivity and respect for the integrity of creation. We at the same time envisage
the transformation of Lasallian Schools to be “Dual Tracked”: to give priority to
Academic Excellence” as well as to promote Vocational and Living Skills for
Employment. We also see the need to look into the area of Children with Learning
Difficulties and those on the margins including those among the indigenous
communities (Orang Asli and Orang Asal), children of migrants and refugees and
children from single parent families.
Besides our 44 formal educational institutions, our expressed priority has been for
the development of Projects for the Educational Service of the Poor including girls
and young women in our La Salle Learning Centres and School for Migrant Children
including girls. This outreach has already been identified as one of our Core
Priorities.
The Way Forward for Integrated Lasallian Education in Malaysia
Redefining the Core Principles of Lasallian Education in Malaysia
Lasallian Schools have always emphasised the need for Community Based Education
in Association: this is based on our understanding that the emerging network of
learning relationships among Brothers, Administrators, and Teachers, Parents and
Alumni and the larger Community. It is this community that gives a new priority to
the vital role of equal gender relations both at the inter-personal and institutional
level. It is this new ethos of a gender distinctive relational life that will give credibility
to Lasallian education, understood as the human and spiritual development of the
young, both boys and girls, in and through the school. This is possible when we:
1. Focus on the need for the transformation of individuals to allow them to link
knowledge that is acquired with the need for the development of
personhood and community.
2. Develop the capacity for problem-solving through cooperation, care, inquiry,
and dialogue.
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3. Allow the young to have the freedom to seek their own identity and
character as persons based on the notion of gender sensitivity/equality and
respect that is grounded in the deeper meanings of life purpose.
4. Align learning, assessment, and evaluation of acquisition of knowledge and
the development of personal, social and technological skills.
All these will be possible when education is seen as the journey of each learner
within a community to see to the co-constructing of the future well being of the
educational community to which the person belongs.
After 160 years of Lasallian education in Malaysia we hope to identify not only ways
to transform our education system and the lives of the young but also to offer them
hope to work together as empowered boys and girls, and young men and women to
build a better world for all.
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