NOTICE: this is the author’s version of a work that was accepted for publication in Law
Enforcement Bulletin. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review,
editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechani sms may not be
reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted
for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in FBI Law Enforcement
Bulletin, 2009 78(5), 26-32
Brain Functioning as the
Ground for Spiritual Experiences and Ethical Behavior
Fred Travis, PhD
Director, Center for Brain, Consciousness and Cognition
Maharishi University of Management
Fairfield, IA 52557
Abstract
The brain is the interface between us and our world. Brain functioning changes sensations
into perceptions and thoughts into actions. Reverberations in brain circuits lead to conscious
experience; these reverberations also structurally change the brain. Stressful experiences change
brain regions involved in memory and emotions--memory is impaired, and anxiety and aggression
are increased. Spiritual experiences change frontal executive regions. Frontal brain areas become
more coherent leading to more effective thinking and planning. Higher frontal coherence is
correlated with higher moral reasoning, greater emotional stability, and decreased anxiety and toplevel athletes and managers have higher levels of frontal coherence. Spiritual experiences enliven
executive brain circuits to buffer the impact of noxious experiences and so could contribute to
higher well-being.
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It is uncommon to have “brain” and “spiritual experiences” in the same sentence. It is even
more uncommon to have “spirituality” and law enforcement together. This paper argues that brain
functioning is fundamental to both spiritual experiences and the complex decisions that law
enforcement officials must make every day. In addition, this paper explores how spiritual
experiences can reverse the negative impact of noxious experiences on brain functioning and
enhance individual well-being.
The brain transforms sensations of outer objects into perceptions, and inner intentions into
actions. You cannot see the mind think, but you can see the brain fire. Thus, brain patterns can
serve as proxy variables for conscious functioning. Brain patterns can provide objective measures
of growing subjectivity—even of spiritual experiences and ethical behavior.
Different tasks activate specific brain regions. If you imagine a semi-truck in your mind’s
eye, and then a postage stamp, you would see activation in the calcarine fissure—a deep fold in the
visual system at the back of the brain. Larger items produce activation deeper in the fissure; small
items produce activation closer to the surface (Korogi et al., 1997). Other brain areas are activated
during esthetic judgments. When individuals look at sculptures, they usually pick the sculpture that
corresponds to the Golden Mean as being more pleasing. Associated with that judgment is greater
activation in the left back (parietal) brain area (Di Dio et al., 2007). Now, you are asked to make an
ethical judgment: Is it right to steal a loaf of bread to feed someone who is starving? As you are
thinking through this problem, areas in the front of the brain become active (Pujol et al., 2008).
The frontal area is the boss of the brain; the CEO of the brain. Information from all brain areas
converges on the front of the brain—emotions, memories, unconscious processes, concrete
perceptual experiences, intentions and plans come together in frontal areas. Frontal areas then put
ongoing experience into the larger context of past and future; right and wrong.
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Frontal executive areas are responsible for planning, decision-making and judgment.
Connections of other parts of the brain with frontal areas begin to gain a fatty layer of myelin
around age 12. The process of myelination continues through age 25. When output fibers are
myelinated, information travels along those fibers 20 times faster (Toga et al., 2006). Imagine the
world of a teenager. The brain areas for seeing the world (back sensory areas) and responding to the
world (motor areas) are fully myelinated. Connections with the frontal brain areas are not yet
developed. Consequently, the output of sensory and motor processing is done first and the teenager
acts before the input from the frontal areas can be added to their decision. Thus, the teenager’s
world remains rooted in concrete experiences, and is not placed in relation to consequences (past
and future), or overall plans and values. Teenagers are like cars with their accelerator intact, but the
brakes are not yet installed.
Effects of Ongoing Experiences on Brain Connections: Experience changes the brain
The natural maturation of frontal areas is constantly tuned by experience. Experience
flowing through the brain leaves its trace in the structure and function of the brain—when two cells
fire together, they are wired together (Garagnani et al., 2008). For instance, violin players have
larger cortical representations in the primary somatosensory cortex corresponding to the fingers of
their left hand, the hand that forms the chords, than their right hand, which holds the bow (Elbert et
al., 1995). London taxi cab drivers with more years of navigation experience have higher
hippocampal gray matter volume, an area associated with spatial memory, than do novice taxi cab
drivers (Maguire et al., 2006). The “phantom limb” experience in amputees results from cortical
reorganization following the loss of the limb (Flor et al., 1995).
Implications for Law Enforcement Officers. You have decided to join the police force to
protect your community. You meet similar farsighted individuals, functioning at high levels of
thinking, and displaying high levels of moral reasoning. Now you have weathered five or ten years
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of service. What might have happened? Lieutenant Tejada, University of California Police
Department, Berkeley, California comments:
Police officers are exposed to the worst that life has to offer. They see the denizens of society
at their very worst—when they have just been victimized or when they have just victimized
someone else. Police officers see the perpetrators of evil and the results of their evil deeds.
The constant contact with evil is corrosive, and those effects are cumulative. ((Feemster,
2007), pg, 22)
Experiences change the brain. This is inevitable. The violence law enforcement officers see
becomes part of the functioning of their brain and body. Neural imaging assessed activation of the
areas of the brain that stop wrong behavior, called orbitofrontal cortex, after individuals watched
violent movies. Activation in the orbitofrontal cortex decreased as participates watched more and
more violent movies (Patrick, 2008). Bandura’s social learning research found that children who
play violent video games act more violently in play and allow more aggressive behavior towards
friends.
Stress affects brain connections. Under stress, the brain downshifts to a more primitive
response style. It is called “fight-or-flight.” Frontal executive brain areas are off line. Under stress
one sees the world and responds to the world. Chronic stress—a small elevation of stress over the
long term— and acute stressors such as the death of a spouse, produces lasting change on brain
functioning. High stress causes brain regions involved in memory and emotions, such as
hippocampus (Sapolsky, 1996), amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, to undergo structural remodeling-memory is impaired and anxiety (Bremner, 2006) and aggression are increased (McEwen, 1998;
McEwen, 2006). This can lead to officers becoming distant from spouses, kids, family, and friends
because they are too drained to give to anyone else (Hawkins, 2001; McCarty et al., 2007). Neural
imaging of individuals who have been under extensive stress, and/or abused alcohol and drugs
reveals “functional lesions” in their frontal executive areas (Amen, 1998). The brain matter is
intact. However, it is not involved in planning and decision-making.
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Need for a Fundamentally Different Experience
Stressful experiences reduce connections with frontal executive areas and amplify
stimulus-response circuits. An experience of wholeness is needed to balance the experience of
negative, stressful experiences.
Spiritual experiences are defined in this paper as the experience of wholeness. They
are experiences of our universal nature, that part of us that is not tied to time, space, our
individual body or personality. Spiritual experiences, as discussed in this paper, are not
confined to religious practices. To understand this concept, we will model the mind as an
ocean with constantly changing waves at the surface and silence at the depth. Thoughts and
feelings are picked up at the surface of the mind. They are analogous to the changing waves
of the ocean. This is the level of ordinary experiences. Intuition, vague feelings are picked up
at more vague or subtle levels of the mind. They are analogous to the middle levels of the
ocean. Spiritual experiences occur at the silent depths of the mind. This is analogous to the
depths of the ocean. This silent depth of the mind has been called “pure consciousness”
(Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1969; Travis and Pearson, 2000). The adjective “pure” emphasizes
that it is purely an experience of wakefulness, self-awareness, or consciousness. Selfawareness continues, even though bodily sensations, sensory perceptions, thoughts, and
feelings are absent.
Spiritual experiences activate widespread brain areas, as reflected in higher brainwave
coherence (Travis et al., 2002). Coherence is a mathematical calculation of the degree of
similarity of electrical activity between two areas on the scalp. If patterns of electrical activity
are similar, then brain areas are considered to be structurally or functioning related (Thatcher
et al., 1986).
Peak experiences investigated by Maslow fit into this category of spiritual
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experiences. Peak experiences occur spontaneous in many individuals. Peak experiences
transform a person’s worldview. One becomes more self-reliant, self-sufficient, independent,
and takes responsibility for one’s life and performance, rather than relying on others (Maslow,
1968).
Spontaneous spiritual experiences, such as peak experiences occur across cultures.
However, since they occur spontaneously, it is difficult to measure the associated brain and
bodily functioning of these experiences. Our lab has measured spiritual experiences during
Transcendental Meditation (TM) practice. In terms of the analogy of the mind as an ocean,
TM practice takes attention from the active surface thinking level of the mind to the silent
depths of the mind--pure consciousness devoid of mental content (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi,
1969) A content analysis of pure consciousness experiences revealed three themes that
characterized that state: the absence of time, space and body sense with an expanded sense of
self-awareness (Travis and Pearson, 2000). This state is an intrinsic state that emerges in
awareness when thought activity settles down. Brain patterns during pure consciousness
experiences could suggest how spiritual experiences may change brain patterns and in turn
help to reverse the toxic effects of stress and negativity.
Brain patterns during pure consciousness experiences. Pure consciousness
experiences, during TM practice, are characterized by higher alpha and beta1 coherence
between left and right frontal cortices and front and back cortical areas (Travis et al., in press).
Simultaneous recording of EEG and MEG during TM practice reported that higher frontal and
central alpha EEG coherence is associated with MEG source location in medial frontal and
anterior cingulate cortices—the executive centers of the brain (Yamamoto et al., 2006).
Higher frontal coherence support direct modes of experience in which knower and known
merge, and the personal self-sense is transcended.
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TM experiences are also reported to change brain patterns during challenging cognitive
tasks after the meditation session. EEG was recorded during simple and choice reaction time tasks
in non-TM, short-term (7.1 yrs TM) and long-term TM participants (24.2 yrs TM). Three brain
distinguished these three group: 1) higher broad-band frontal coherence (alpha: 8-12Hz, beta: 12.520Hz, and gamma: 20.5-50Hz), 2) higher alpha/beta power ratios, and 3) better match between task
demands and brain preparatory response (Travis et al., 2000; Travis et al., 2002). These
empirically identified measures were converted to z-scores and combined to form a scale. This
scale was called a “Brain Integration Scale” (Travis et al., 2002). Brain Integration Scale scores in
these participants positively correlated with emotional stability, moral reasoning, and inner
directedness, and negatively correlated with anxiety (Travis et al., 2004).
Construct Validation of the Brain Integration Scale.
Brain Integration Scale (BIS) scores were higher in individuals with more years meditation
practices. Two questions naturally arise from this finding. First, do spiritual experiences during
TM practice increase BIS scores, or are people with higher BIS scores more likely to learn and
continue TM practice? A second question is: Is the Brain Integration Scale just a “meditation”
measure or are BIS scores related with outer success? Two studies suggest that TM practice does
increase BIS scores. Also, two studies report that top level athletes and managers have higher BIS
scores. These studies will first be presented and then the relation of BIS scores with law
enforcement will be discussed.
Longitudinal increases in frontal coherence (within groups). Fourteen students were
assessed four times over their first year of TM practice—baseline, and after 2 months, 6 months and
12 months TM practice (Travis and Arenander, 2006). EEG was measured during TM practice,
and during reaction-time tasks. Frontal broadband coherence significantly increased after twomonths TM practice to very highly levels. Coherence values reached these same high levels during
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the six- and twelve-month recordings. In contrast, during the reaction-time tasks, frontal coherence
continued to increase at each posttest recording. These findings suggest 1) the state gained during
TM practice can be achieved successfully after only a few months practice, and 2) meditation
practice has practical benefits for daily life. These data emphasize the point that spiritual
experiences have real, practical effects on the functioning of one’s mind and body.
Longitudinal increases in BIS scores (random assignment study). This randomized
controlled trial investigated effects of TM practice on BIS scores, electrodermal habituation to 85dB tones, and sleepiness in 38 college students. After pretest, students were randomly assigned to
learn TM immediately or learn after the posttest. At posttest, the TM group had significantly higher
BIS scores, less incidence of sleepiness during the day, and faster habituation rates—they were less
jumpy and reactive (Travis et al., 2007). Lower sleepiness and faster habituation rates were
correlated with higher scores on the Brain Integration Scale.
College is a time of great challenge. The academic, financial, and social demands of the
college experience can be highly stressful (Arnedt et al., 2005; Zeigler et al., 2005). TM practice
buffered effects of high stress—BIS scores increased; sleepiness decreased, and sympathetic
reactivity was lower. These data suggest that spiritual experiences, such as those resulting from TM
practice, may help an individual deal with the stress of life.
Higher BIS scores in world-class athletes. This and the next study report BIS scores in
world-class subjects, who did not practice a meditation technique. These two studies address the
question: Are BIS scores related to outer success?
The first study was done in collaboration with the National Olympic Training Center
(Olympiatoppen) in Norway and the Norwegian University for Sports Sciences (Norges
Idrettshøgskole). Thirty-three professional athletes were selected who met three criteria: 1) placing
among the 10 best performers in major competitions (Olympic Games, World Championships,
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World Cup, or similar) for at least three seasons; 2) being active on the top level within the last five
years, and 3) being at least 25 years of age. Thirty-three control athletes were selected, who had
been active in training and competition at the senior level for at least three seasons, but did not
consistently place amongst the top 50 % in the Norwegian Championships. These subjects were
matched on age, gender, and type of sport.
The two groups of athletes, who differed significantly in level of competitive performance,
also differed in physiological and psychological measures. The World-class performers had higher
BIS scores; faster habituation rates to a loud tone; and higher scores on measures on selfdevelopment and moral reasoning (Travis et al., 2007). A similar finding is reported with top-level
managers as reported by the next study.
Higher BIS scores in top-level managers. Twenty top-level Norwegian managers were
selected from the private and public sectors. The criteria used were 1) demonstrated excellence in
management performance as evidenced by expanding their business many times or turning around
failing businesses, and 2) reputation for being socially responsible, having sound ethics, and
displaying a more human orientation in business. The comparison group consisted of twenty
persons employed at lower and middle levels in organizations. The comparison individuals were
matched for gender and type of organization (competitive/non-competitive).
Top level managers were characterized by: higher BIS scores and higher moral reasoning.
Both top-performing managers and world-class athletes exhibited high BIS scores and higher levels
of moral reasoning. BIS scores include high frontal EEG coherence – more integrated functioning
of the brain’s frontal executive centers, the “CEO of the brain” (Travis et al., in press). Frontal
integration provides a coherent framework to unite localized processes into a larger picture. It
allows the individual to rise above the demands of the moment and include more expanded
9
concepts in making decisions—for instance the impact of actions on society rather than only on
one’s individual needs.
Discussion
Spiritual experiences could provide the inner armour to protect law enforcement officers
from the noxious effects of negative experiences and stress. The data presented here indicate that
spiritual experiences, during TM practice, led to increased frontal brain integration, faster
habituation to stressful stimuli, and higher moral reasoning. Spiritual experiences enliven frontal
coherence, which builds global circuits to place individual experiences in a larger framework. This
appears to neutralize the effects of noxious experiences. This is more than just coping with the
pain. Spiritual experiences add a new dimension to meaning-making to redefine the experience
into a more positive light. Spiritual experiences should be seriously considered and included in the
protective gear for every law enforcement officer. It will enable them to do their job and continue
to thrive as human beings.
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