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MAJOR RIVER BASIN OF INDIA – AN OVERVIEW
PART I
General
LAND AND THE PEOPLE
India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical are of about 329
M. ha is criss crossed by a large number of small and big rivers, some of them
figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world. The rivers and mountains have
greater significance in the history of Indian cultural development, religious and
spiritual life. It may not be an exaggeration to say that the rivers are the heart and
soul of Indian life.
India is a union of States with a federal set up. Politically, the country is divided
into 25 States and 7 Union Territories. A major part of India’s population of 658
millions (1981 census) is rural and agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers are
the source of their prosperity. India is a land of many religions, diversity of
cultures, and languages. The different regions of the country have different
cultural, linguistic and other ethnic groups. The land and people present a vast
panorama of diversity in unity.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Physiographically, India may be divided into seven well defined regions. These
are:
i)
The Northern Mountains, comprising the mighty Himalayan ranges,
ii)
The Great Plains, traversed by the Indus and Ganga – Brahmaputra
river systems. As much as one third of this lies in the arid zone of
western Rajasthan. The remaining area is mostly fertile plains,
iii)
The Central Highlands, consisting of a wide belt of hills running eastwest starting from Aravalli ranges in the west and terminating in a
steep escarpment in the east. The area lies between the Great Plains
and the Deccan Plateau,
iv)
The Peninsular Plateaus comprising the Western Ghats, Eastern
Ghats, North Deccan Plateau, South Deccan Plateau and Eastern
Plateau,
v)
The East Coast, a belt of land of about 100-130 km wide, bordering the
Bay of Bengal and lying to the east of the Eastern Ghats,
vi)
The West Coast, a narrow belt of land of about 10-25 km wide,
bordering the Arabian Sea and lying to the west of the Western Ghats,
and
vii)
The Islands comprising the coral islands of Lakshadeep in Arabian Sea
and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of the Bay of Bengal
CLIMATE
The presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs
on the North and of the ocean on the South are the two major influences
operating on the climate of India. The first poses an impenetrable barrier to the
influence of cold winds from Central Asia, and gives the sub-continent the
elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool
moisture-laden winds reaching India, gives it the elements of the oceanic type of
climate.
India has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety
of weather conditions. The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from
extremes of heat to extremes of cold, fro extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to
excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It is, therefore, necessary to avoid any
generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of climate, not only over
the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition
influences to a great extent the water resources utilization of the country.
Rainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the South-West and NorthEast monsoons, on shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on
violent local storms which form in regions where cool humid winds fro the sea
meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach cyclonic dimension.
Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of South-West
monsoon between June to September except in Tamil Nadu where it is under the
influence of North-East monsoon during October and November. The rainfall in
India show great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more unequal
geographical distribution and the frequent departures from the normal. It
generally exceeds 1000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78 0 E. It extends to
2500 mm along almost the entire West Coast and Western Ghats and over most
of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. O the West of the line joining
Porbandar to Delhi and thence to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from
500 mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The Peninsular has large
areas of rainfall less than 600 mm with pockets of even 500 mm. The estimate of
areal average rainfall is subjective depending on the method adopted. Therefore,
estimates of local rainfall over the country obtained by employing other
techniques may differ, especially in a vast country like India. A map showing the
normal annual isohyets of the country is given in Figure-1.
The variation in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent.
During the winter season from November to February, due to the effect of
continental winds over most of the country, the temperature decreases from
South to North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest months of
December and January varies from 290 C in some part of the Peninsula to above
180C in the North whereas the mean minimum varies from about 240c in the
extreme South to below 50C in the North. From March to May is usually a period
of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature occurs in
North India, particularly in the desert regions of North-West where the maximum
may exceed 480 c. With the advent of South West Monsoon in June, there is a
rapid fall in the maximum temperature in the central portions of the country. The
temperature is almost uniform over the area covering two thirds of the country
which gets good rain. In August, there is a marked fall in temperature when the
monsoons retreat from North India in September. In North-West India, in the
month of November, the mean maximum temperature is below 380c and the
mean minimum below 10c. In the extreme North, temperature drops below
freezing point.
Evaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, the reach their peak
in the summer months of April and May and the central areas of the country
display the highest evaporation rates during this period. With the onset of
monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation.. The annual potential
evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country.
Monthly potential evaporation over the Peninsula increase from 15 cm in
December to 40 cm in May. In the North-East, it varies from 6 cm in December
to 20 cm in May. It rises 40 cm in June in West Rajasthan. After the onset of
monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all over the country. A map
showing the pan evaporation rate over the country is given in Figure-2.
AGROCLIMATIC ZONES
The Planning Commission after examining the earlier studies at the
regionalization of the agricultural economy has recommended that agricultural
planning be done on the basis of agro-climatic regions. For resources
development, the country has been broadly divided into fifteen agricultural
regions based on agro-climatic features, particularly soil type. , climate including
temperature and rainfall and its variation and water resources availability as
under:
I
Ii
Iii
Iv
V
Vi
Vii
Viii
ix
x
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
xv
Western Himalayan division
Eastern Himalayan division
Middle Gangetic plain region
Middle Gangetic plain region
Upper Gangetic plain region
Trans- Gangetic plain region
Eastern plateau and hill regions
Central plateau and hill regions
Western plateau and hill regions
Southern plateau and hill regions
East cost plain and hill regions
West cost plain and hill regions
Gujarat plain and hill region
Western dry region
Island region
PART II
Major River Basins
CLASSIFICATION OF RIVER BASINS
The river systems of India can be classified into four groups, viz. (i) Himalayan
rivers, (ii) Deccan rivers, (iii) Coastal rivers, and (iv) Rivers of the inland drainage
basin. The Himalayan rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and
therefore, have the continuous flow through the year. During the monsoon
months, Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and rivers swell, causing frequent
floods. The Deccan rivers on the other hand are rainfed and therefore, fluctuate
in volume. Many of these are non-perennial. The coastal streams, especially on
the west coast, are short in lengthy and have limited catchment areas. Most of
them are non-perennial. The streams of inland drainage basin of Western
Rajasthan are few and far between. Most of them are of ephemeral character.
The main Himalayan River Systems are those of the Indus and the GangaBrahmaputra-Meghna system. The Indus, which is one of the great rivers of the
world, rises near Mansarovar in Tibet and flows through India and thereafter
through Pakistan and finally falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi. Its important
tributaries following in Indian territory are the Sutlej (Originating in Tibet), the
Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna
is another important system of which the principal sub-basins are those of the
Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak. The Ganga has two main head waters
in Garhwal Himalayas, the Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which joint at Dev
prayag to form the Ganga. It traverses through Utter Pradesh, Bihar and West
Bengal States. Below Rajamahal hill the Bhagirathi which used to be main
course in the past takes off while the Padma continues eastward and enters
Bangladesh. The Yamuna, The Ramganga, the Ghagra, the Gandak, the Kosi,
the Mahanada and the Sone are the important tributaries to the Ganga. Rivers
Chambai and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries which join Yamuna before
it meets Ganga. The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet where it is known as Tsangpo
and runs a long distance till it crosses over into India in Arunachal Pradesh under
the name of Siang or Dihang. Near Passighat at the Dibang and Lohit join and
the river Brahmaputra runs all along the Assam in a narrow valley. It crosses into
Bangladesh downstream of Dhubri.
The principal tributaries in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri,
Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. The Brahmaputra in Bangladesh received
the flows of the Tista etc. and finally falls into the Ganga. The Barak river, the
head stream of Meghna, rises in the hills in Manipur at an elevation about
2900m. The important tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang, Tuivai, Jiri,
Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Langachini, Madhuva and Jatinga. Barak
continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga-Brahmaputra join it new
Bhairab Bazar.
The important river systems in Deccan are the Narmada and the Tapi which flow
westwards into Arabian Sean and the ear flowing rivers, the Brahmani, the
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Pennar and the Cauvery which fall into
Ban of Bengal.
There are numerous coastal rivers which are comparatively small. While only
handful of such rivers drain into the sear near the deltas of east coast, there are
as many as 600 such rivers on the west coast. The west coast rivers are of great
importance as they contain as much as 14% of the country’s water resources
while draining only 3% of the land.
A FEW RIVERS IN Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt
lakes or get lost in sands with no outlet to sea.
The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basis in the largest in India receiving waters
from an area which comprises about one third of the total are of the country. The
second largest basin is that of Godavari which covers about 10% of the total are
of India.
On the basis of catchments, the river basins of India could be divided into the
following three groups.
i)
Major River Basins :
ii)
Medium River Basis :
iii)
Minor River Basins :
River basins with catchment area of 20,000
sq.km and above.
River basins with catchment area between
20,000 sq.km and 2000 sq. km.
River basins with catchment area
below 2000 sq.km.
Besides these, there are the desert rivers which flow for some distance and are
lost in the desert.
According the above classification, the number of major and medium river basins
are 12 and 46 respectively and these contribute over 90% of the total run-off.
The rivers are well spread over the entire country excepting Thar desert in
Rajasthan. Minor river account for about 8% of the total run-off.
INDUS BASIN
Physiography
The Indus basin extends over an area of 11,65,500 sq. km and lies in Tibet
(China), India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The drainage area lying in India is
321289 sq. km. which is nearly 9.8% of the total geographical area of the
country. It is bounded on the north by the Karakoram and Haramosh ranges, on
the east by the Himalayas, on the west by the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges and
on the south by the Arabian sea. The basin lies in the States of Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and the Union Territory
of Chandigarh. The State-wise distribution of the drainage area is given below:
State
Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Punjab
Rajasthan
Haryana
Chandigarh
Drainage area (sq. km)
193,762
51,356
50,304
15,814
9,939
114
------------Total
321,289
------------The upper part of the basin lying in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh
is mostly mountain ranges and narrow valleys. In Punjab, Haryana and
Rajasthan the basin consists of vast plains which are the fertile granary of the
country. The principal soil types found in the basin are submontane, brown hill
and alluvial soils. The culturable area of the basin is about 9.6 M. ha which is
4.9% of the total culturable area of the country.
River System
Indus river rises from Mansarovar in Tibet at an elevation of about 5182 m and
flows for about 2880 km upto its outfall into the Arabian sea. The length of the
river in India is 1114 km. Its principal tributaries are the Sutlej, the Beas, the
Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum. A map of the basin showing the river system
and other features is at Figure5.
Status of Surface Water Development
The water resources of the basin is well developed. During the pre-plan period
many diversion works such as Upper Bari Doab canal, Sirhind canal, Ranbir
canal, Eastern canals and Gang canal existed in the basin.
Important projects taken up and completed in the plan period include BhakraNangal, Beas project, and Harike barrage. Rajasthan canal, Thein dam, SutlejYamuna link canal and Ravi-Tawi lift irrigation are some of the important projects
under construction in the basin.
The present surface water utilization in the basin has been assessed at an
average of 40-42 cubic km. which is 87% of the utilizable surface water potential.
Nearly 71% of the utilizable ground water in the basin has also been exploited so
far.
The water resource development in the Indus basin is governed by various
provision of the Indus Water Treaty, 196. According to this Treaty, the water of
the Eastern Rivers, namely, the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej, shall be available
for the unrestricted sue by India. India has also been permitted to make from the
Western River, domestic non-consumptive uses, uses for run-of-the river
hydroelectric plants and specified agricultural use and construction of storage
works.
Hydropower Potential
The hydropower potential of the basin has been assessed as 19988 MW at 60%
load factor. Out of 190 schemes identified in the basin, 18 schemes with a total
installed capacity of 3517 MW are in operation and 14 schemes with a total
installed capacity of 5626 MW are in various stages of construction. These 32
schemes together account for nearly 28% of the assessed potential of the basin.
A major part of the potential, therefore, remains to be developed.
Urban Centres and Industries
The important urban centres in the basin are Ludhiana (6.06 lakhs). Amritsar
(5.89 lakhs), Chandigarh (4.21 lakhs), Jammu and Srinagar (populations as per
1981 census). Other towns in the basin are Bikaner, Patiala, Ambala and
Bathinda. Most of the industries in the basin are based on agriculture and
agricultural produce such as textile, woolen, sugar, oil, paper and agricultural
equipments. Other industries are cement, automobiles, machine and machine
parts.
Hyderologic Network
There are 13 gauge-discharge sites in the basin maintained by the Central Water
Commission. The State Governments also carry out gauge-discharge
observations at various points in the river basin.
Existing Organisation
The Indus Commission has been set up in the Ministry of Water Resources,
Govt. of India under the Indus Water Treaty to look into the aspects of
implementation of the Treaty obligations. The Bhakra-Beas Management Board
was constituted for the administration and management of the inter-state BhakraBeas projects. It regulates the supply of water and power to the basin States of
Punjab Haryana and Rajasthan.
GANAG–BRAHMAPUTAR–MEGHNA BASIN
The composite Ganga – Brahmaputra –Meghna basin covers nearly one-third of
the land area of Indian Union. This basin is composed of the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra and the Barak sub-basins. The Ganga joins the Brahmaputra in
Bangladesh and continues its run under the name Padma or Ganga. It finally
joins the Meghna river which outfalls into the Bay of Bengal. The basin extends
to areas outside India. The three sub-basins viz., the Ganga, the Brahmaputra
and the Barak are separately described below.
A. GANGA SUB-BASIN
The Ganga sub-basin extends over an area of 1086000 sq. km and lies in India,
Tibet (China), Nepal and Bangladesh. The drainage area lying in India is 861404
sq. km which is nearly 26.2% of the total geographical area of the country. The
sub-basin is bounded on the north by the Himalayas, on the west by the Aravalis
and the ridge separating it from Indus basin, on the south by the Vindhas and
Chhotanagpur plateaus and on the east by the Brahmaputra ridge. The subbasin lies in the States of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan,
West Bengal, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and the Union Territory of Delhi. The
State-wise distribution of the drainage area is given below:
State
Uttar Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Bihar
Rajasthan
West Bengal
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
U.T. of Delhi
Total
Drainage area (sq. km.)
294364
198962
143961
112490
71485
34341
4317
1484
----------861404
-----------
The main physical sub-divisions are the Northern Mountains, the Genetic Plains
and the Central Highlands. Northern Mountains comprises the Himalayan ranges
including their foot hills. The Genetic plains, situated between the Himalayas and
the Deccan plateau, constitute the most of the sub-basin ideally suited for
intensive cultivation. The Central highlands lying to the south of the Great
plains consists of mountains, hills and plateaus intersected by valleys ad river
plains. They are largely covered by forests. Aravali uplands, Bundelkhand
upland, Malwa plateau, Vindhyan ranges and Narmada valley lies in this region.
Predominant soil types found in the sub-basin are sandy, loamy, clay and their
combinations such as sandy loam, salty clay loam and loamy sand soils. The
culturable area of Ganga sub-basin is about 57.96 M. has which is 29.5% of the
total culturable area of the country.
River System
The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glaciers in the Himalayas
at an elevation of about 7010m in Uttarkashi district of Uttar Pradesh and flows
for a total length of about 2525 km up to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal through
the former main course of Bhagirathi-Hooghly. The principal tributaries joining the
river are the Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the
Mahananda and the Sone. Chambal and Betwa are the two important subtributaries. A map of the sub-basin showing the river system and other features is
at Figure6.
Status of Surface Water Development
The Ganga and Yamuna canal systems irrigate vast areas utilizing the perennial
flow of the river. Important storages constructed in the basin include Matatial,
Sarda Sagar, Ramganga, Mayurakshi and DVC reservoirs.
Some important projects under construction are Rajghat on Betwa, Bansagar on
Sone and Tehri on Bhagirathi. Kshau, Gandak (Ph.II), Auranga, Punasi and
Upper Kangsabati are some of the new projects of VIIth Plan. Salient features of
water resources development of the sub-basin are in Table 5.
Various interstate agreements exist between the basin States on sharing the
water resources of the various sub-basins of Ganga basin. Many interstate
projects such as Rajghat and Bansagar have been conceived with the cooperation and understanding between the co-basin States.
Hydropower Development
As per the latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is
10715 MW at 60% load factor. Out of 142 schemes identified in the basin, 22
schemes with a total installed capacity of 2437 MW are in operation and 12
schemes with a total installed capacity of about 2716 MW are in various stages
of construction. These schemes together account for only 26.5% of the assessed
potential of the basin. Therefore, a large part of the hydropower potential remains
to be exploited.
Urban Centres and Industries
As many as 64 urban centres with population more than one lakh (as per 1981
census) are situated in this sub-basin. There are 5 cities with population
exceeding 10 lakhs which include the metropolitan cities of Calcutta (91.66 lakhs)
and Delhi (57.14 lakhs). The other cities are Kanpur (16.88 lakhs), Jaipur (10.04
lakhs) and Lucknow (10.07 lakhs). Other important urban centres are Patna (9.16
lakhs), Indore (8.27 lakhs), Varanasi (7.93 lakhs), Agra (7.7 lakhs), Dhanbad
(6.77 lakhs), Allahabad (6.42 lakhs), Gwalior (5.6 lakhs) and Meerut (5.38 lakhs).
There are number of industrial centres located in the sub-basin such as
Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Dhanbad, Durgapur etc., in addition to the
metros of Delhi and Calcutta. Radio and Electronics, machine and machine tools,
textiles, paper, jute, cement, fertilizers, iron and steel, coal mining are some of
the important industries. Steel plant at Durgapur, fertilizer factory at Sindri,
cement factory at Dalmianagar, coalmines of Dhanbad, BHEL at Haridwar, HMT
at Kanpur, textile mills in Delhi, Kanpur, Allahabad, Kota and Bhilwara are some
specific industries worth mentioning. In addition, a number of other agro-based
industries are also located in the sub-basin.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observation in the sub-basin are carried out by the Central and
State Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 214 gaugedischarge sites in the sub-basin. Sediment observations are taken at 87 of the
above sites and water quality is monitored at 120 of the above sites. The Central
Water Commission operates 77 flood forecasting stations in the sub-basin.
Existing Organisations
Ganga basin, being a major interstate sub –basin, various Central and interstate
bodies are involved in its planning, development and management. The
Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), established in 1948, for the promotion and
operation of schemes in the Damodar Valley for its alround development, is the
earliest such organization. The participating States are Bihar and West Bengal
and the Central Water Commission is assisting in the reservoir regulation of the
DVC system.
The Ganga Flood Control Commission (GFCC) was set up in 1972 by the
Ministry of Water Resources, Govt. of India, for preparing a comprehensive plan
of flood control for the sub-basin, monitoring important flood control projects in
the sub-basin and providing technical guidance to the sub-basin States.
The Betwa Board was set up in 1973 for the execution of the interstate Rajghat
dam on Betwa in accordance with the interstate agreement between UP and MP.
Similarly the Bansagar Control Board was constituted in 1976 for the early
execution of Bansagar dam on Sone which is an interstate project of UP, MP and
Bihar.
The Sone River Commission was set up in 1980 and operated upto August,
1988, as a sub-ordinate office of the Ministry of Water Resources of Sone river
sub-basin.
With a view to study the deteriorating water quality in Ganga below Rishikesh
and suggest remedial measures, the Govt. of India has set up the Central
Ganga Authority in the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Issues
The water related issues of the sub-basin are both due to high and low flows.
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal are the States affected by floods. Many of
the flood problems are caused by the northern tributaries of Ganga such Kosi
and Mahananda though there are flood problems caused by Southern tributaries
also. GFCC was set up, specifically to look into this problem.
The flow during non-monsoon season is insufficient to meet the various
requirements particularly drinking water supply, agriculture and industrial uses
and other past committed uses. Simultaneously, there has been an increasing
affluent discharge from industries and urban centres. This has caused water
quality problems in many reaches of Ganga and Yamuna upstream of Allahabad.
Central Ganga Authority under the Ministry of Environment and Forests is looking
into the problem of pollution of Ganga.
The Himalayas are comparatively young mountain ranges and are subject to
many land slides. Also heavy soil erosion occurs due to various reason.
The navigability of Hooghly river and the functioning of Calcutta port depends on
adequate discharge of Ganga through the Bhagirathi. Maintaining sufficient
discharge through this channel is a crucial problem.
B. BRAHMAPUTRA SUB – BASIN
Physiography
Brahmaputra sub-basin extends over an area of 580,000 sq. km lying in Tibet
(China), Bhutan, India and Bangladesh. The drainage area lying in India is
194413 sq. km which is nearly 5.9% of the total geographical area of the country.
It is bounded on the north by the Himalays, on the east by the Patkari range of
hills running along the Assam-Burma border, on the south by the Assam range of
hills and on the west by the Himalayas and the ridge separating it from Ganga
sub-basin. The Sub-basin lies in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Nagaland, Meghalaya, West Bengal and Sikkim. The State-wise distribution of
drainage area is given below :
State
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
West Bengal
Drainage area (sq. km)
81,424
70,634
12,585
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Sikkim
11,667
10,803
7,300
-----------Total
194,413
------------The upper portion of the sub-basin lying in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland is
mostly mountain ranges and narrow valleys. Most portion of the sub-basin lying
in Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal consists of hills, forests and tea gardens.
The Cooch Bihar and West Dinajpur districts of West Bengal has fertile plains.
The most predominant soil type found in the sub-basin is the red loamy soil and
alluvial soil. Other important soil types are sandy, loamy, clayey soils, their
combinations and laterite soils. The culturable area of the sub-basin is about
12.15 M. ha which is 6.2% of the culturable are of the country.
River System
Brahmaputa river originates from Kailash ranges of Himalayas at an elevation of
about 5150 m and flows for abut 2900 km through Tibet (China), India and
Bangladesh and joins the Ganga. The principal tributaries of the river in India are
the Dibang, the Luhit, the Subansiri, the Manas, the Tista, the Dhansiri and the
Champamati. A map of the sub-basin showing the river system.
Status of Surface Water Development
Prior to independence, little thought was given towards water resources
development in Brahmaputra valley. For the low density of population in the subbasin, the abundant rainfall and fertile soil could produce sufficient food grains to
meet the requirements by traditional methods.
Most of the projects taken up and completed in the plan periods were medium
and minor schemes. Dhansiri, Champamati and Teesta barrage are three major
projects in the sub-basins. The salient features of water resources development
in the sub-basins are given in Table 6.
Hydropower Potential
The Brahmaputra sub-basin has abundant hydropower potential. As per the
latest assessment the hydropower potential of the sub-basin is 31012 MW at
60% load factor. This is almost 37% of the country’s total installed capacity of
196 MW are in operation and another 7 schemes with a total installed capacity of
1043 MW are under construction. These 14 schemes together amount for only
2.2% of the assessed potential. Therefore, a large chunk of the hydropower
potential of the sub-basin remains to be tapped.
Urban Centres and Industries.
Guwahati, Shillong and Siliguri are the important urban centres. The sub-basin is
rich in petroleum and coal. Digboi in Assam was the only source of petroleum in
India until about 1953-54. Petroleum products, jute, drugs and pharmaceuticals
are other industries in the sub-basin.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observations in the sub-basin are carried out by the Cenral and
State Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 15 gaugedischarges sites in the sub-basin. In addition, gauge data at 80 sites, gaugedischarge data at 15 sites and gauge, discharge and sediment data at 25 sites,
maintained by the State Governments and the Brahmaputra Board, are also
available. The Central Water Commission operates 24 flood forecasting stations
in the sub-basin.
Existing Organisation
Brahmaputra Board was established by the Govt. of India in 1980 with the object
of preparing a master plan for controlling the flood and bank erosion and
improving the drainage of the Brahmaputra valley, simultaneously tapping the
immense water potential for hydropower generation and possible irrigation. The
Board has jurisdiction over the adjacent Barak valley also.
Issues
Floods, erosion and drainage congestion are the main problems of the valley. As
mentioned above, the Brahmaputra Board has been set up to look into these
problems.
C. BARAK SUB – BASIN
Physiography
The Barak sub-basin drains areas in India, Bangladesh and Burma. The drainage
area of the sub-basin lying in India is 41723 sq. km. which is nearly 1.38% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the Barail
range separating it from the Brahmaputra sub-basin, on the east by the Naga
and Lushai hills and on the south and west by Bangladesh. The sub-basin lies in
the States of Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizpra, Assam, Tripura and Nagaland. The
State-wise distribution of drainage area is give below:
State
Meghalaya
Manipur
Drainage area (sq. km)
10650
9567
Mizoram
Assam
Tripura
Nagaland
Total
8866
7224
4688
728
-----------41723
------------
There are two major physiographic regions in the sub-basin, namely, the hilly
region and the plains. The plains are thickly populated and extensively cultivated.
The predominant oil types found in the sub-basin are laterite and red and yellow
soils. The culturable area in the sub-basin 0.893 M. has which is only about 0.5%
of the culturable area of the country.
River System
Barak raises in the Manipur hills and enters the plains near Lakhipur. The river
enters Bangladesh as Surma and Kushiyara. Later, the river is called the
Meghna and receives the combined flow of the Ganga and Brahmaputra. The
principal tributaries of Barak are the Jiri, the Dhaleswari, the Singla, the Longai,
the Sonai and the Katakhal. A map of the sub-basin showing the river system
and other features is at Figure 7.
Status of Surface Water Development
The water resources development of this sub-basin, so far, has not been
satisfactory. There are only a few minor and lift irrigation schemes existing in the
sub-basin. Tipaimukh dam and Dhaleswari project are the most important
projects under consideration in the sub-basin. Salient features of water resources
development in the sub-basin is given in Table 7.
Hydropower Development
The sub-basin has good hydropower potential. As per the latest assessment, the
hydropower potential of the basin is 2042 MW at 60% load factor. Out of 32
schemes identified in the sub-basin, one scheme with an installed capacity of 15
MW is in operation which accounts for only 0.5% of the assessed potential. Bulk
of the potential remains to be exploited. The master plan of Barak sub-basin,
being finalized by the Brahmaputra Board, is giving adequate attention to this
aspect.
Urgan Centres and Industries
Imphal and Agartala are the two important urban centres in the sub-basin. As pr
1981 census, the population of these towns are 1.55 lakhs and 1.32 lakhs
respectively. Silchar and Aizawal are other important towns. There are no
industries worth mentioning in this sub-basin.
Hydrologic Network
The Central Water Commission maintains 23 gauge-discharge sites in the subbasin. The State Governments also maintains a few gauge discharge sites. The
Central Water Commission also operates 2 flood forecasting stations in the subbasin.
Issues
Floods, drainage congestion and bank erosion are problems of the sub-basin.
Floods are caused by spilling over banks due to inadequate carrying capacity of
the channels resulting from aggravation of the river beds and also backing up
effect of the main river on its tributaries. Due to poor drainage, many depressions
in the sub-basin remain waterlogged long after monsoon. A major problem in the
hill areas used to be the practice of shifting cultivation locally known as jhuming,
but this has been progressively brought under control. The Brahmaputra Board
which has jurisdiction over this sub-basin also, is in the process of finalization of
a master plan for the sub-basin which primarily focuses on the problems
discussed above.
GODAVARI BASIN
Physiography
Godavari basin extends over an area of 312812 sq. km which is nearly 9.5% of
the total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the
Satmala Hills, the Ajanta Range and the Mahadeo Hills, on the east and south by
the Eastern Ghats and on the west by the Western Ghats. The basin lies in the
States of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and
Karnataka. The State-wise distribution of the drainage area is given below:
State
Maharashtra
Andhra Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh
Orissa
Karnataka
Total
Drainage area (sq. km)
152199
73201
65255
17752
4405
312812
Except the hills along the boundary of the basin including the Sahyadri range of
the Western Ghats, the entire drainage are comprises rolling and undulating
country,. Consists of large undulating plains divided by low flat-topped hill
ranges. A wide belt of river borne alluvium form the delta of the basin. The
important soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils, laterites and
lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soils and saline and alkaline soils. The culturable
area in the basin is about 18.93 M ha which is 9.7% of the total culturable area of
the country.
River System
Godavari river rises near Nasik in Maharashtra at an elevation of about 1067 m
and flows for a length of about 1465 km before outfalling in to the Bay of Bengal.
The principal tributaries of the river are the Pravara, the Purna, the Manjra, the
Penganga, the Wardha, the Wainganga, the Indravati and the Kolab. A map of
the basin showing the river system and other features is at Figure 8.
Status of Surface Water Development
During the pre-plan period, many storage and diversion projects were taken up in
this basin. Important among these are the Godavari delta system, Polavaram
irrigation system, Nizm Sagar reservoir, Kadwa dam and Pravara dam.
Important projects completed duing the plan period are Kaddam, Purna, Pus,
Bagh, Mula and Itiagodh. Among the on-going projects, the prominent ones are
Srirama Sagar, Godavari barrage, Upper Penganga, Upper Godavari, Jaikwadi,
Upper Wainganga, Upper indravati and Ghasi Khurd. At the end of VIth plan
period there were 12 completed and 34 on-going major projects in the basin.
Salient features of Water resources development in the basin is given in Table 8.
Against the utilizable surface water potential of 76.3 cubic km the present
utilization has been assessed as 38 cubic km. The projected utilization by 2000
AD will be about 51 cubic km. The ground water utilization is about 13% of the
utilizable potential.
A number of inter-state agreements exist between the basin states regarding
sharing of water of this basin. The Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal has not
allocated the flows among the basin States, but observed that the existing
agreements between the basin States so far as they relate to the projects on the
Godavari river and in the Godavari river basin, be carried out.
Hydropower Development
As per latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 5091
MW at 60% load factor. Out of a total of 543 schemes identified, 9 schemes with
a total installed capacity of 1320 MW are in operation. Another 8 schemes with a
total installed capacity of 1292 MW are in various stages of construction. These
17 schemes together will account for about 34% of the assessed potential of the
basin. Thus a large part of the potential remains to be developed.
Urban Centres and Industries
Nagpur with a population of 12.98 lakhs (1981 census) is the most important
urban centre in the basin. Other important towns in the basin are Nasik (4.28
lakhs) Amravati (2.61 lakhs), Aurangabad (3.16 lakhs), Warangal (3.36 lakhs),
Rajamundry (2.68 lakhs), Amravati (2.61 lakhs) and Ahmednagar (1.81 lakhs).
Industries in the basin are mostly based on agricultural produce such as rice
milling, cotton spinning and weaving, sugar and oil extraction. Cement and some
small engineering industries also exist in the basin.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observations in the basin are carried out by the Central as well as
State Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 48 gaugedischarge sites in the basin. At 19 of these sites, sediment observations are also
made. In addition, gauge and discharge data are available at 76 sites established
by the State Governments concerned. The Central Water Commission maintains
14 flood forecasting stations in the basin.
Issues
Godavari basin faces flooding problem in its lower reaches. The coastal areas
are cyclone-prone. The delta areas face drainage congestion due to flat
topography.
KRISHNA BASIN
Physiography
Krishna basin extends over an area of 258,948 sq. km. which is nearly 8% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the range
separating it from the Godavari basin, on the south and east by the Eastern
Ghats and on the west by the Western Ghats. The basin lies in the States of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The State-wise distribution of
drainage area is given below:
State
Drainage area (sq. km.)
Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra
Total
113271
76252
69425
258948
Most part of this basin comprises rolling and undulating country except the
western border which is formed by an unbroken line of ranges of the Western
Ghats. The important soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils,
laterite and lateritic soils, alluvium, mixed soil, red and black soil and saline and
alkaline soils. The culturable area in the basin is about 20.3 M. ha which is 10.4%
of the total culturable are of the country.
River System
Krishna river rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about 1337 m. just
north of Mahabaleswar, about 64 km from the Arabian Sea and flows for about
1400 km and outfalls into the Bay of Bengal. The principal tributaries joining
Krishna are the
Ghataprabha, the Malaprabha, the Bhima, the Tungabhadra and the Musi. A
map of the basin showing the river system and other features is at Figure 9.
Status of Surface Water Development
The pre-plan water resources development in the basin was mostly through a
few diversion works such as Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal in Andhra Pradesh and
Neera canal in Maharashtra. During the plan period many storage and diversion
projects were taken up and completed. Important among them are Tungabhadra,
Ghataprabha, Nagarijunasagar, Malaprabha, Bhima and Bhadra. As at the end of
VIth plan, there were 15completed and 24 on-going major projects in the basin.
Salient features of water resources development in the basin are given in Table
9.
Against the utilizable surface water potential of 58 cubic km, the present
utilisation has been estimated to be about 47 CUBIC KM. The projected
utilisation by 2000 AD is expected to be about 57 cubic km. The ground water
utilisation is about 20% of the utilizable potential.
The Lrosjma Water Dispute Tribunal has allocated the 75% dependable flow of
58.3 cubic km of Krishna Water among the basin States as under:
Andhra Pradesh
Maharashtra
Karnataka
Total
22.6 cubic km
15.9 “
19.8 “
--------------58.3
“
---------------
By separate agreements each State has agreed to spare 0.14 cubic km of each
of their share in Krishna waters to Tamil Nadu towards the drinking water supply
of Madras city.
Hydropower Development
As per latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 2997
MW at 60% load factor. Out of a total of 49 potential schemes with an installed
capacity of 1947 MW are in operation. Another 11 schemes with an installed
capacity of 703 MW are in various stages of construction. These together will
account for 59% of the assessed potential. Thus, a considerable potential is
awaiting development in this basin.
Urban Centres and Industries
Hyderabad with a population of 25.3 lakhs and Pune with a population of 16.85
lakhs (as per 1981 census) are the two most important urban centres in the
basin. Other important towns in the basin are Vijayawada (5.45 lakhs), HubliDharwar (5.26 lakhs), Solapur (5.14 lakhs), Guntur (3.67 lakhs), Kolhapur 3.51
lakhs), Belgaum 3.0 lakhs), Kurnool (2.07 lakhs) and Masulipatnam (1.38 lakhs)
The basin has rich mineral deposits and there is good potential for industrial
development. Iron and steel, cement, vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are
important industrial activities at present in the basin. Recently oil has been struck
in this basin which is bound to have an effect on the future industrial scenario of
this basin.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observation in the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 52 gauge-discharge
sites in the basin. At 21 of these sites, sediment observations are also made and
at 24 of the sites water quality is monitored. In addition, gauge-discharge data
are available at 80 sites established by the State Governments concerned. The
Central Water Commission maintains 6 flood forecasting stations in the basin.
Existing Organisation
Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States project in the basin. In order to operate the
project and to regulate the flows among the beneficiary States of Karnataka and
Andhara Pradesh, Tungabhadra Board has been set up under the Chairmanship
of Chief Engineer, CWC with representative members from the States
concerned.
Issues
Some parts of the basin, especially the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga, Belgaum and Bijapur districts of
Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur, Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of
Maharashtra are drought-prone. The delta area of the basin is subject to flooding.
It has been observed that the rive bed in deltaic area is continuously raised due
to silt deposition resulting in reduction in carrying capacity of the channel. The
coastal cyclonic rainfall of high intensity and short duration makes the flood
problem worse.
Cauvery basin
Physiography
Cauvery basin extends over an area of 87900 sq. km. which is nearly 2.7% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the west by the Western
Ghats, on the east and south by the eastern Ghats and on the north by the ridges
separating it from the Tungabhadra and Pennar basins. The basin lies in the
States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The State-wise distribution of
drainage area is given below
State
Tamil Nadu
Karnataka
Kerala
Drainage area (sq. km.)
48730
36240
2930
------------Total
87900
------------Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts – the Westen Ghats,
the Plateau of Mysore and the Delta. The delta area is the most fertile tract in the
basin. The principal soil types found in the basin are black soils, red soils,
laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas
in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas. The culturable area of the
basin is about 5.8 M. ha which is about 3% of the culturable area of the country.
River System
Cauvery river rises at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats
in Karnataka at an elevation of abut 1341 m and flows for about 800 km before
its outfall into the Bay of Bengal. The important tributaries joining the Cauvery are
the Harangi, the ‘Hemavti,Kabini, the Suvarnavathi and the Bhavani. A map of
the basin showing the river system and other features is at Figure 10.
Status of Surface Water Development
During the pre-plan period many projects were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in
Tamil Nadu. Lower Bhavani is the only important project completed duing the
plan period. Hemavati, Kabini, Harangi and Varuna canal are important on-going
projects in the basin. Salient featues of water resources development in the basin
are given in Table 10.
Almost 87% of the utilizable surface water potential of the basin has already
been tapped. The ground water utilization is about 32% of the utilizable potential.
A dispute exists between the basin States regarding water utilization in the basin.
The dispute is still to be finally settled. The basin states have approached the
centre for setting up of a Tribunal to settle the issue.
Hydropower Development
Recent hytdropower potential survey in the basin has identified 30 hydropower
projects with a total potential of 1359 MW at 60% load factor. Out of these, 16
are storage schemes and the remaining are run-of-the- river schemes. So far
37% of the assessed potential has been exploited through 11 schemes with a
total installed capacity of 763 MW.
Urban Centres and Industries
The most important urban centre situated in the basin is Coimbatore with a
population of 9.2 lakhs as per 1081 census. The city of Bangalore (29.1 lakhs) is
situated just outside this basin. Important industries in the basin include cotton
textile industry in Coimbatore and Mysore, cement factories in Coimbatore and
Trichinapally and industries based on mineral and metals. The Salem steel plant
and many engineeringindusties in Coimbatore and Trichinapally are also situated
in this basin.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observation in the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 16 gauge-discharge
sites in the basin. At 10 of these sites, sediment observations are also taken. In
addition, gauge-discharge data are available at 46 sites established by the Sate
Governments concerned.
PENNAR BASIN
Physiorgaphy
Pennar basin extends over an area of 55213 sq. km. which is nearly 1.7% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the Erramala
range, on the east by the Nallamala and velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats,
on the south by the Nandidurg hills and on the west by the narrow ridege
separating it from the Vedavati valley of the Krishna basin. The basin lies in the
States of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The State-wise distribution of drainage
area is given below:
State
Adndhra Pradesh
Karnataka
Drainage area (sq. km.)
48276
6937
-------------Total
55213
-------------The important soil types found in the basin are red soils, black soil, sandy soil
and mixed soil. The culturable are of the basin is about 3.54 M. ha which is about
1.8% of the total culturable area of the country.
River System
Pennar river rises from the Chenna Kesava hills of the Nandi ranges of
Karnataka and flows for about 597 km before outfalling into Bay of Bengal. The
Principal tributaries of the river are the Jayamangal, the Kunder, the Sagileru, the
Chitravati, the Papagni and the Cheyyeru. A map showing the river system and
other features is at Figure 11.
Status of Surface Water Development
During the pre-plan period most of the projects constructed in the basin were
medium and minor schemes. Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna basin
irrigated areas in Pennar basin also. The only major project in the basin is the
Somasila project under construction. Salient features of water resources
development in the basin are given Table 11.
Against the tuilisable surface water potential of 6.9 cubic km, the present
utilization has been estimated to be about 5.0 cubic km. The projected utilization
by 2000 AD is about 6.8 cubic km. The ground water utilization is about 24% of
the utilizable potential.
Urban Centres and Industries
The only important town in the basin is Nellore with a population of 2.36 lakhs
(1981 census). With limited water and power potential and mineral resources, the
scope for industrial development is limited in the basin. There are no major
industries. The existing small industries are mostly based on agricultural produce
such as cotton weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills etc. Beedi, paints and
varnishes, glass and ceramics, matches and soaps are some other small
industries.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observations ini the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 6 gauge-discharge sites
in the basin. At one of the sites, sediment observations are also taken. In
addition, gauge-discharge data are available at 5 sites established by the State
Governments.
Issue
The basin lies in a zone of poor rainfall and hence is frequently hit by famine. The
drought-prone Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh partly lies in this basin.
MAHANADI BASIN
Physiography
Mahanadi basin extends over an area of 141,589 sq. km. which is nearly 4.3% of
the total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the
Central India Hills, on the south and east by the Eastern Ghats and on the west
by the Maikala range. The basin lies in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,
Bihar and Maharashtra. The State-wise distribution of drainage area is given
below:
State
Drainage area (sq. km.)
Madhya Pradesh
Orissa
Bihar
Maharashtra
75136
65580
635
238
------------141589
-------------
Total
Physiographically, the basin can be divided into four regions, namely, the
Northen Plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the Coastal Plain and the erosional plains of
Central Table Land. The first two are hilly regions. The Coastal plain is the fertile
delta area. The cenral table land is the central inerior region of the basin,
traversed by the river and its tributaries. The main soil types found in the basin
are red and yellow soils, mixed red and black soils, laterite soils,and deltaic soils.
The basin has a culturable area of about 7.99 M. ha which is about 4% of the
total culturable area of the country.
River System
Mahanadi rises from Raipur district of Madhya Pradesh and flwos for about 851
km before its outfall into the Bay of Bengal. Its main tributaries are the Seonath,
the Jonk, the Hasdeo, the Mand, the ib, the Ong and the Tel. Amap of the basin
showing the river system and other features is at Figure 12.
Status of Surface Water Development
Two important projects completed during pre-plan period in the basin are the
Mahanadi main canal and Tandula reservoir. During the plan period many
projects were taken up and completed. Important among them are the hirakud
dam, Mahanadi delta project and Haso barrage. Among the projects under
construction, the important ones ae the Mahanadi reservoir project, Pairi dam,
Bango dam, Jonk dam and Birupa barrage. As at the end of VIth Plan ther were
6 completed and 7 under construction major projects in the basin. Salient
features of Water resources development in the basin are given in Table 12.
The present utilization of surface water has been estimated to be about 17 cubic
km against the utilizable potential of 50 cubic km. The projected utilization by
2000 AD is about 23 cubic km. The ground water utilization is only about 4% of
the utilizable potential.
Hydropower Development
As per latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 627
MW at 60% load factor. Out of a total of 6 schemes identified in the basin, 2
schemes with a total installed capacity of 305 MW are in operation and one
scheme with an installed capacity of 55 MW is under construction. These 3
schemes together will account for 37% of the assessed potential.
Urban Centres and Industries
Three important urban centes in the basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack with
populations 3.39 lakhs, 4.9 lakhs and 3.26 lakhs respectively (as per 1981
census)
Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral resource and adequate power
resource, has a favourable industrial climate. The Important industries presently
existing in the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at Bhilai, aluminium factories at
Hirakud and Korba, paper mill near Cuttack and cement factory at Sundargarh.
Other industries based primarily on agricultural produce are sugar, textile and okl
mills. Mining of coal, iron and manganese are other industrial activities.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observations are carried out by the Central as well as State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 17 gauge-discharge
sites in the basin. At 13 of these stations, sediment observations are also made.
In addition, gauge-discharge data are available at 34 sites established by the
State Governments. The Central Water Commission maintain 3 flood forecasting
stations in the basin.
Issues
The basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to
inadequate carrying capacity of the channels. The multi-purpose Hirakud dam
provides some amount of flood relief by storing part of flood water. However, the
problem still persists and a lasting solution need to be evolved.
BRAHMANI-BAITARANI BASIN
Physiography
The combined basin consisting of Brahmani and Bitarani extends over an area of
51822 sq. km. which is nearly 1.7% of the total geographical area of the country.
The independent drainage areas of Brahmani and Baitarani are 93033 sq. km.
and 12879 sq. km respectively. The basin is bounded on the north by the
Chhotanagpur Plateau, on the west and south by the ridge separating it from
Mahandi basin and on the east by the Bay of Bengal. The basin lies in the States
of Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The State-wise distribution of drainage
area is given below:
State
Orissa
Bihar
Madhya Pradesh
Drainage area (sq. km)
34749
15757
1316
------------Total
51822
------------Physiographically, there are four well-defined regions, namely , the northen
plateau, the eastern ghats, the coastal plains and the central table land. The first
two regions are mostly hilly and forested. The coastal plains consist of fertile
delta area well-suited for intensive cultivation. The main soil types found in the
basin are red and yellow soils, red sandy and loamy soils, mixed red and black
soils and coastal alluvium. The basin has a culturable area of about 3.2 M. ha
which is 1.6% of the total culturable area of the country.
River System
The Brahmani river rises near Nagri village in Ranchi district of Bihar at an
elevation of about 600 m and has a total length of 799 km. The Baitarani river
rises in the hill ranges of Keonjhar district of Orissa at an elevation of about 900
m and has length of about 355 km. Both river systems outfall into the Bay of
Bengal forming a common delta area. The important tributaries of Brahmani are
the Karo, the Sankh, and the Tirka and those of Baitarani are the Salandi and the
Matai. A map of the basin showing the river system and other features is at
Figure 13.
Status of Surface Water Development
Orissa canal system which uses waters of Mahanadi, Brahmani and Baitarani
was the only important irrigation project existing in the basin in the pre-plan
period. During the plan period, important project completed in the basin was
Salandi project. Rengali multi-purpose projecton Brahmani; nearing completion
ad the Anandapur barrage on Baitarani are important projects under
construction. Salient features of Water resources development in the basin are
given Table 13.
About 6% of the basin’s utilizable ground water potential has been tapped so far.
Hydropower Development
As per the latest assessment, the hydropower potential of the basin is 548 MW at
60% load factor. Out of 17 schemes identified in the basin, only on schemes with
an installed capacity of 135 MW is in operation. The potential tapped is thus only
16% of the assed potential. Therefore, a large hydropower potential of this basin
remains to be exploited.
Urban Centres and Industries
There are no important urban centres in the basin. The basin is rich in a variety
of minerals such as iron ore, copper, bauxite etc. The industrial development
potential of this basin is very high due to this rich mineral resources and power
potential. Rourkela is an important industrial centre located in this basin. Iron and
steel, fertilizers, DDT and insecticide factories are located here.
Hyderologic Network
The Central Water Commission maintains 7 gauge-dicharge sites in the basin. All
these stations take sediment observations also. Six of the sites are in Brahmani
and one site is in Baitarani basin. The Central Water Commission operates three
flood forecasting stations in the basin, one on Brahmani and two on Baitarani.
The State Government also maintains some gauge-discharge sites in this basin.
Issues
The lower reaches of this basin near the deltaic area is subject to floods. Since
Mahanadi, Brahmani and Baitarani are interconnected near their delta, worst
flood occur when there is simultaneous heavy rains in all the three catchments.
Prolonged submergence and breaching of embankments are common
occurrences during floods. Floods are also caused from cyclonic storms since
the coastal areas of the basin are cyclone-prone.
SABARMATI BASIN
Physiography
Sabarmati basin extends over an area of 21674 sq. km which is nealy 0.66% of
the total geographical area of India. It is bounded on the north and north-east by
the Aravalli hills, on the east by the ridg separatin ti from the Mahi basin, on the
south by the Gulf of Cambay and on the west by the ridge separating it from the
basins of minor streams draining into Rann of Kuch and the Gulf of Cambay. The
basin lies in the States of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The State-wise distribution of
drainage area is given below:
State
Gujarat
Rajasthan
Drainage area (sq. km)
17550
4124
------------Total
21674
------------The important soil types found in the basin are black, alluvial and sandy soils.
The culturable area of the basin is about 1.55 M. ha which is 0.8% of the total
culturable area of the country.
River System
Sabarmati river rises from Aravalli hills in Rajasthan at an elevation of about 762
m and flows for about 371 km before outfalling into the Arabian sea through the
Gulf of Cambay. The principal tributaries of Sabarmati are the sei, the Wakal,
the Harnv, the Hathmati, and the Wartak.
Status of Surface Water Development
Sabarmati basin is well-developed in water resources. Most of the project are
medium and minor, Hathmati reservoir project completed during the plan period
and the Sabarmati reservoir project which is under construction are the two
important projects in the basin.
Out of the total utilizable surface water potential of 1.93 cubic km., the present
utilization has been assessed as 1.8 cubic km. The projected utilization by 2000
AD is 1.93 cubic km. The ground water utilization is about 29% of the utilizable
potential.
Urban Centres and Industries
Ahmedabad with a population of 25.2 lakhs (1981 census) is the only important
urban centre in the basin. Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated on the banks
of Sabarmati. Important industries are textiles, leather and leather goods, plastic,
rubber goods, paper, newsprint, automobile, machine tools, drugs and
pharmaceuticals etc.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrologic observation in the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 1 gauge-discharge site
where sediment observations are also taken. In addition gauge-discharge data
are available at 30 stations established by the State Governments. The Central
Water Commission operates 2 flood forecasting stations in the basin.
Issues
The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses the danger of water pollution by
industrial waste.
MAHI BASIN
Physiography
Mahi basin extends over an area of 34842 sq. km. which is nearly 1.1% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north and north-west
by the Aravalli hills, on the east by the ridge separating it from the Chambal
basin, on the south by the Vindhyas and on the west by the Gulf of Cambay. The
basin lies in the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The Statewise distribution of drainage area is given below:
State
Rajasthan
Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh
Total
Drainage area (Sq. Km.)
16453
11694
6695
------------34842
-------------
The upper part of the basin mostly lies in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and
comprises mostly hills and forests except the lower half in M.P. which is fairly
plain. The central part lying in Gujarat consists of developed lands. The lower
part of the basin lying in Gujarat is flat and fertile and well developed alluvial
tract. Imprtant soil types in the basin are red and black soils. The culturable area
of the basin is abut 2.21 M. ha which is 1.1% of the total culturable area of the
country.
River System
Mahi river rises from the northern slopes of Vindhyas in Madha Pradesh at an
elevation of about 599m and flows for about 583 km before outfalling into the
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay. The principal tributaries of the river are
the Som, the Anas and the Panam.
Status of Surface Water Development
Jaisamund tank in Udaipur district of Rajasthan is the oldest irrigation project in
the basin constructed in the pre-plan period. Kadana dam (Mahi project) was
completed later during the plan periods. The important projects under
construction in the basin are Mahi bajaj Sagar, Jakham, Panam and Mahi (M.P.)
projects.
The present surface water utilization in the basin has been assessed as 2.5 cubic
km against the utilizable potential of 3.1 cubic km. The projected utilization by
2000 AD has been estimated as 3.0 cubic km. The ground water utilization is
about 23% of the assessed potential.
Hydropower Potential
As per the latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is
68.6 MW at 60% load factor. Out of 5 schemes identified in the basin, one
scheme with an installed capacity of 37 MW is in operation and another two
schemes with a total installed capacity of 63 MW are under construction. These
three schemes together accounts of 95% of the assessed potential. Therefore,
hydropower development is nearing saturation in this basin.
Urban Centres and Industries
Vadodara with a population of 7.44 lakhs (1981 census) is the only important
urban centre in the basin. There are not many industries in the basin. Some of
the industries are cotton textile, paper, newsprint, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Most of these industries are located at Tatlam.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observation, in the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 5 gauge-discharge sites
in the basin. Sediment observations are also taken at 4 of the above sites. In
addition, gauge-discharge data are available at 13 sites established by the State
Governments. The Central Water Commission operates two flood forecasting
stations in the basin.
Existing Organisation
Mahi Bajaj Sagar is an important interstate project of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Mahi Control Board was set up by the Government of India in 1971 in
consultation with the State Governments to ensure early execution of Mahi Bajaj
Sagar Project
NARMADA BASIN
Physiography
Narmada basin extends over an area of 98796 sq. km. which is nearly 3% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the
Vindhyas, on the east by the Maikala range, on the south by the Satpuras and on
the west by the Arabian Sea. The basin lies in the States of Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat and Maharashtra. The State-wise distribution of drainage area is given
below:
State
Drainage area (sq. km.)
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat
Maharashtra
85859
11399
1538
-----------98796
-----------
Total
Physiographically, the basin can be divided into hilly and plain regions. The hilly
regions are in the upper part of the basin as well as in the lower middle reaches
and are forested. The plain regions in between the hilly tracts and in the lower
reaches are broad and fertile areas well suited for cultivation. The available
information on soil survey conducted in the basin indicates that black soils are
predominant in the basin. The coastal plains are composed of alluvial clays with
a layer of black soil on top. The culturable area of the basin is about 5.9 M. ha
which is 3% of the total culturable area of the basin.
River System
Narmad river rises near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of about
900 m and flows for about 1312 km before outfalling into the Arabian Sea
through the Gulf of Cambay. Its principal tributaries are the Burhner, the Tawa,
the Hiran, the Barna the Kolar and the Orsang.
Status of Surface Water Development
The surface water development in the basin had been very insignificant during
the pre-plan period. Tawa, Barna and Sukha are the important projects
completed during the plan period. With the award of the Narmada Water
Disputes Tribunal, the basin is poised or alround development in the water
resources front. Among the projects under construction in the basin, Sardar
Sarovar and Narmada Sagar are the most important. Omkareswar is an
important project included in the VII Plan.
The present surface water utilization in the basin has been assessed as 8 cubic
km against the utilizable potential of 34.5 cubic km. The projected utilization by
2000 AD is about 11 cubic km. The ground water utilization is about 10% of the
utilization potential.
The Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal has allocated the Narmada waters (75%
dependable utilizable flow of 34.54 cubic km at Sardar Sarovar dam) a,pmgst the
States as imder:
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat
Rajasthan
Maharashtra
Total
22.51 cubic km
11.10 “
0.62 “
0.31 “
--------------34.54
“
---------------
Hydropower Development
As per latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 1321
MW at 60% load factor. Out of a total of 13 potential schemes identified, 3
schemes with a total installed capacity of 1260 MW are under construction.
These three schemes will account for 63.2% of the total assessed potential of the
basin.
Urban Centres and Industries
Jabalpur with a population of 7.58 (1981 census) is the only important urban
centre in the basin.Other important twons situated in the basin are Khandwa
(1.14 lakhs) and Baruch (1.12 lakhs).
The basin has only few industries located mainly at Jabalpur, Khandwa and
Baruch. These are textiles, drugs and pharmaceuticals, tobacco products,
machine tools, glass and ceramics etc.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observation in the basin are carried out by the Central and State
Governments. The Central Water Commission maintains 19 gauge-discharge
sites in the basin. Sediment observations are also taken at 12 of the above sites.
In addition, gauge-discharge data are available at 34 sites established by the
State Government. The Central Water commission also operates 3 flood
forecasting stations in the basin.
Existing Organisation
The Narmada Control Authority is an interstate high level administrative authority,
set up by the Govt. of India in 1980 for the purpose of securing compliance with
the implementation of the decisions of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal by
the basin States.
The Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee has been set up by the
Government of India in 1980 for ensuring efficient, exonomical and early
execution of the Sardar Sarovar project.
The Government of Madhya Pradesh has formed a Narmada valley Development
Autority to look after the alround development of the portion of Narmada basin
lying in Madhya Pradesh.
TAPI BASIN
Physiography
The Tapi basin extends over an area of 65145 sq. km. which is nearly 2% of the
total geographical area of the country. It is bounded on the north by the Satpura
range, on the east by the Mahadeo hills, on the south by the Ajanata range and
the Satmal hills and on the west by the Arabian Sea. The basin lies in the States
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The State-wise distribution of
drainage area is given below:
State
Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
Gujarat
Drainage area (sq. km.)
51504
9804
3837
-----------Total
65145
----------There ae two well-defined physical regions in the basin, namely, hilly region and
the plains. The hilly regions comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Ajanta and Gawilgarh
hills are well forested. The plain areas ae broad and fertile suitable for cultivation.
Primarily, the basin consists of black soils. The coastal plains of Gujarat are
composed of alluvial clays with a layer of black soil above. The culturable area of
the basin is about 4.29 M. ha which is 2.2% of the total culturable area of the
country.
River System
Tapi river rises near Multani in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh at an
elevation of about 752 m and flows for about 724 km before outfalling into the
Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay. Its principal tributaries are the Purna,
the Girna, the Panjhra, the Vaghur, the Bori and the Aner.
Status of Surface Water Development
The pre-plan water resources development in the basin wal mainly through
medium and minor projects. During the plan period Kakrapar, Ukai and Girna
projects were completed. Important projects under construction in the basin are
Upper Tapi and Waghur.
About 25% of the basins utilizable ground water potential has been tapped so far.
A number of inter-state agreements exist between the basin states regarding the
utilization of waters of this basin. It has been agreed that out of the water
available upto Ukai dam site (Gujarat). 7/4 ciboc l, wo;; be fpr i[strea, ito;osatopm
bu <adjua {radesj amd <ajarasjtra/ Tjese twp States jave agreed tp sjare tjos
water as imder:
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
1.98 cubic km
5.42 “
Hydropower Development
As per latest assessment, the hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 119.7
MW at 60% load factor. Out of 7schemes identified in the basin, one schemes
with an installed capacity of 120 MW is in operational and another scheme with
an installed capacity of 7 MW is under construction. These two schemes together
account for 70% of the assessed potential.
Urban Centres and Industries
Surat with a population of 9.12 lakhs (1981 census) is the most important urban
centre in the basin. Other important towns in the basin are Amravati (2.61 lakhs),
Malegaon (2.46 lakhs), Akola (2.25 lakhs) and Jalgaon (1.45 lakhs). Important
industries in the basin are textile factories in Surat and paper and newsprint
factory at Nepanagar. Other industries are machine tools, drugs and
pharmaceuticals, plastic and allied products.
Hydrologic Network
Hydrological observations are carried out by the Central and State Governments.
The Central Water Commission maintains 11 gauge-discharge sites in the basin.
Sediment observations are taken at 8 of the above sites. In addition, gaugedischarge data are available at 43 sites established by the State Government.
The Central Water commission also operates 3 flood forecasting stations in the
basin.
PART III
Existing Organisation
BACKGROUND
Our National Water Policy recommends that resource planning in the case of
wate has to be done for a hydrological unit such as a basin or sub-basin (para
3.2). This means that all developmental projects in a basin should be formulated
within the framework of an overall plan for a basin/sub-basin. The National Water
Policy further lays down that there should be an integrated and multidisciplinary
approach to the planning, formulation, clearance and implementation of projects,
including catchment treatment and management, environmental and ecological
aspects, rehabilitation of affected people and command area development (Para
4.4). Such an integrated, multidisciplinary and basin-wise approach to river basin
planning and management requires the establishment of an appropriate
organization at the river basin level for ensuring optimum, alround and balanced
development of the water resources of a river basin.
River basin organizations envisaged above shall function as a planning, coordination and management organization for the basin. It will combine various
specialist disciplines related to water resources development, drawing expertise
from these disciplines, in order to achieve optimal and integrated development of
the water resources of the basin. It shall be charged with the authority for storage
apportionment, regulation and control at various points in the river basin,
publishing statistics or other information relating to various aspects of the
regulation and development of the inter-state rivers and undertaking
investigations, surveys etc. as found necessary.
The Central Government, as early as 1956, had enacted the River Boards Act,
recognizing the necessity of some establishment for the control and regulation of
interstate river basins. The Act authorizes the Union Government to establish
River Boards, on a request received in this behalf from a State Government or
otherwise, for advising the Governments interested in relation to such matters
concerning the regulation or development of an interstate river or river valley or
any specified part thereof and for performing such other functions as may be
specified in the notification. The Board were, whoever, to be purely advisory in
nature. Even then, the Act has remained mostly inoperative.
So far, no effective river basin authority or organization has been established in
the country for the integrated and optimum development of the water resources
of basins. However, over the years since independence, a number of basin
organizations have been created for limited purposes such as speedy
implementation of master plans for specific purposes. An overview of the existing
organizations is given below:
EXISTING ORGANISATIONS
(I)
Damodar Valley Corporation
The establishment of Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) by an Act of Parliament
in 1948 marks the beginning of an authority with the responsibilities for designing
and administering comprehensive programme of development of river basin. The
DVC was modeled on the lines of Tennessee Valley Autority (TVA) of the United
States. The principal objectives of the DVC as laid down in the DVC Act, 1948
are promotion and operation of schemes for irrigation, water supply and
drainage, generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy, flood
control and navigation, promotion of afforestation, control of soil erosion,
promotion of public health and the agricultural, industrial, economic and general
well beings in the valley and its area of operation. The DVC is headed by a
Chairman and has two full-time members. The Secretary and the Financial
Advisor works directly under the Chairman. The DVC has under its authority four
dams namely at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet. Irrigation system from
Durgapur barrage is with West Begal Government since 1964.
(II)
Bhakra-Beas Management Board
The Bhakra Control Board and the Bhakra Advisory Board were constituted in
1950 by the Ministry of Works, Mines and Power for ensuring efficient,
economical and early execution of the Bhakra-Nangal Project. Later the
Bhakra Management Board was constituted in 1966 for the purpose of
administration, maintenance and operation of Bhakra Dam and appurtenant
works, hydel stations and irrigation installations. Similar functions with regard
to the Beas Project were also subsequently entrusted to the Bhakra
Management Board which was renamed as Bhakra-Beas Management
Board. The Board is entrusted with the task of administration, maintenance
and operation of the two reservoirs for irrigation and power generation and
regulation of supply of water to the States of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The Board comprises of a Chairman, with two full time members. In addition,
the Secretaries of irrigation and Power Ministries of Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh are part-time members of the Board.
(III)
Tungabhadra Board
The Tungabhadra Board was constituted by the President in exercise of the
power vested under the Andhra State Act, 1953 for completion of the
Tungabhadra Project and for its operation and maintenance. The Board is incharge of the common portions of the Tungabhadra Project which comprises of
Tungabhadra Dam and reservoirs, low level canal, high level canal and right
bank power houses. The Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal has made specific
provisions in the Award for the use of Tungabhadra Waters by the States of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The responsibility for carrying out these specific
provisions relating to the use of Tungabhadra waters has been entrusted to the
Tungabhadra Board by the Tribunal. At present the Board consists of a Chairman
appointed by the Government of India, a Finance Member also from Government
of India and Members representing Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, all working
part time on the Tungabhadra Board.
(IV) Mahi Control Board
The Mahi Control Board was set up in 1971 in consultation with the State
Governments of Gujarat and Rajasthan for ensuring early execution of Mahi
Bajajsagar Project, a joint venture of the two states. The Board is headed by
the Union Minister of Water Resources and has 15 other members. It looks
after matters relating to the construction of the dam and appurtenant works.
(V)
Ganga Flood Control Commission
The Ganga Flood Control Commission was constituted in 1972 by the erstwhile
Ministry of Irrigation and Power through a Government resolution. The
Commission serves as the executive limb and secretariat of the Ganga Flood
Control Board, which is a body headed by the Union Minister of Water Resources
as Chairman and Chief Ministers or their representatives of the basin-states and
Lt. Governor of Delhi or his representative as members. The Commission is
responsible for preparing a comprehensive plan of flood control in the Ganga
basin and drawing out a phased programme of implementation of works to
proper standards besides examinations of various schemes from technoeconomic angle, monitoring of important flood management schemes and
providing other technical guidance to the basin-states. The GFCCC is headed by
a chairman appointed by the Govt. of India who also acts as the MemberSecretary of the Ganga Flood Control Board, and is assisted by two full-time
Members. The representatives of the concerned Central Ministries/Departments
as well as the Chief Engineers of the basin-states are either part-time members
or permanent invitees of the Commission. The Commission’s function is
restricted to only flood control projects and has jurisdiction over the Ganga basin.
(VI) Betwa River Board
Betwa River Board was constituted by the Union Ministry of Water Resources
under the Betwa River Board Act, 1976. This was in accordance with the
provisions of the interstate agreement reached in 1973 between the states of
U.P. and M.P. regarding construction of Rajghat dam project and is responsible
for the early, efficient and economical execution of the project. The Board is
headed by Union Minister of Water Resources as Chairman. The Union Minister
of Energy, Chief Ministers and the ministers in charge of Finance, Irrigation and
Power of the States of UP and MP are members of the Board. The activities of
the Board are managed by an Executive Committee under the chairmanship of th
Chairman, Central Water Commission.
(VII) Bansagar Control Board
Bansagar Control Board was constituted in 1976 in pursuance of an interstate
agreement between the states of Mahya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
regarding construction of Bansagar dam on Sone. The Board is in overall
charge of the Bansagar da, and its appurtenant structures and is responsible
for the early, efficient and economical execution of the project. The Board is
headed by Union Minister of Water Resources as its Chairman. The Union
Minister of Energy, Chief Ministers and Ministers in charge of Irrigation and
Finance of three states of UP, Mp and Bihar and the Minister in charge of
Electricity of Madhya Pradesh are its members. The affairs of the Board are
managed by an Executive Committee under the Chairmanship of Chairman,
Central Water Commission.
(VIII) Brahmaputra Board
Brahmaputra Board was established by the Govt. of India under the
Brahmaputra Board Act, 1980. The Board was set up with the objectiveof
carrying out surveys and investigations and preparing a master plan for the
control of flood and bank erosion and improvement of drainage of the
Brahmaputra Valley. In preparing the master plan, the Board shall have
regard for the development and utilization of the water resources for irrigation,
hydropower, navigation and other benefical purposes. The Board is headed
by a Chairman, appointed by the Govt. of India and has 20 members of whom
3 are appointed by the Govt. of India and 17 are members representing
States of the North-Eastern Region, North-Eastern Council, concerned
ministries and other agencies of the Govt. of India. Apart from Brahmaputra
Valley, the Board has jurisdiction over the adjacent Barak Valley also. There
is provision for the Board to take up construction of multipurpose projects in
the approved master plan with the approval of the Central Government.
(IX) Narmad Control Autority
Narmad Control Autority was set up in 1980 by the Governmrnt of India in
pursuance of the final orders of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribumal
(NWDT). It is an inter-state high level administrative authority, charged with
the responsibility of securing compliance with the implementation of decisions
and directions of the NWDT by the four party states of Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. The Autority is headed by the Secretary,
Union Ministry of Water Resources as Chaiman. It has seven engineering
members, three appointed by the Govt. of India, one of whom is the executive
member and four appointed by the basin states among the Engineer-in-Chief/
Chief Engineer/ Additional Chief Engineer of Irrigation of Power Department
of State Electricity Board. In addition, Secretaries of the Union Ministries of
Energy, Environment and Forests and Welfare and Chief Secretaries of the
basin states are also members of the Authority. The Authority is meat only for
the compliance of the Award of the Tribunal.
(X)
Sone River Commission
Sone River Commission was set up by the Government of India in 1989 in
pursuance of the agreement of Bansagar Project between the states of Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The objective of the Commission was to
prepare and present a comprehensive basin plan for optimum use of Sone
waters for irrigation and multipurpose uses. The Commission, after
submission of its final report, was wound up in August 1988.
(XI) Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee
Sardar Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee was set up in 1980 by
Government of India in pursuance of the final orders of NWDT. The
Committee is responsible for the efficient, economical and early execution of
the dam and appurtenant works and the power complex of the inter state
Sardar Sarovar Project. The Committee scrutinizes the technical features,
designs and estimates and also the annual works programme of the project.
The Committee is headed by the Secretary, Union Ministry of Water
Resources as Chairman and has members representing Government of India,
four party states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan
and the Narmada Control Authority.
PART IV
Some Aspects of Water Resources Development
INTRODUCTION
In the early stages of development in our country, with the then existing
population and vast land resources, available water resources seemed
inexhaustible compared with the requirements. As the tempo of overall
development increased there has been increasing pressure n meeting water
demands for various purposes like drinking water supply, irrigation,
hydropower generation, navigation, industrial and various requirements due
to increase in population, fast growing industrialization and rise in living
standards. The water related activities involve both quality and quantity. Since
the water resources planning and management activities are becoming
progressively ore complicated, a proper assessment of the resources, their
demand and their status of utilization are prerequisite for successful planning
and management of the resources. Some of these aspects are discussed
briefly in the following paragraphs.
ASSESSMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
The first attempt to assess the water resources of India was made by the First
Irrigation Commission (1901-03). As data in respect of river flows for many of
the most important river basins was not available, the assessment has to rely
upon coefficients of runoff and actual flow which the Commission had itself
described as mere approximations. It was estimated that the average annual
runoff of all the river systems in India (as it was then but excluding Burma,
Assam and East Bengal) as 1443 cubic km. Dr. A.N. Khosla, the founder
Chairman of the then Central Waterways Irrigation and Navigation
Commission (CWINC) had developed a formula in 1940;s based on his
studies of the Sutlej, the Mahanadi and other river systems. The Khosla’s
formula gives runoff as a function of rainfall and temperature. According to the
studies made by Dr. Khosla, the total average annual runoff of all the river
systems in the country was estimated as 1673 cubic km. The then Central
Water and Power Commission (CW & PC) during the period 1954-66 had
worked out the average annual runoff of the river systems of the country as
1881 cubic km. based on the statistical analysis of the available flows rivers,
wherever available, and on suitable rainfall-runoff relationships wherever the
observed data were meager. Dr. K.L. Rao, the former Union Minister of
Irrigation and Power in his book India’s Water Wealth (1973) had assessed
the country’s available annual surface runoff as 1645 cubic km. An attempt
has been made for the assessment of water resources of India by Central
Water Commission (CWC) in 1988taking into consideration runoff at the
terminal sites, evaporation from reservoirs, evapo-transpiration and various
other consumptive uses. The average annual natural runoff available in India
has this been worked out to be 1880 cubic km. for the main land, i.e.
excluding the Islands of India.
The scientific assessment of the ground water potential of the country was
undertaken only a few years ago by the Central Ground Water Board
(CGWB). The ground water potential has been assessed as about 418 cubic
km.
Utilisable Water Resources
Utilisation of water resources can be considered in two different ways.
Utilisation can be taken as a quantum of possible withdrawal of water from its
place of natural occurrence such as river or ground water. Alternatively, it can
be considered as additional evaporation/evapotranspiration of the natural
water through its present and likely possible future diversion and use. The
former approach has been used more commonly. As per recent estimate
made by the CWC, the utilizable water from surface structures is about 690
cubic km. Similarly, the CGWB has estimated the possible utilization from
ground water as 418 cubic km.
REQUIREMENT FOR DIFFERENT USES
Domestic
The National Water Policy adopted in 1987 has assigned the highest priority
for drinking water supply needs followed by irrigation, hydropower, navigation
and industrial and other uses. In the successive five year plans and the
intervening annual plans, efforts have been made to rapidly develop water
supply and sanitation systems. In the context of the “International Drinking
Water Supply and Sanitation Decade”, the Govt. of India launched the decade
programmes in April, 1981 with a view to achieving population coverage of
100% water supply facilities in urban and rural areas, 80% sanitation facilities
in urban areas and 25% sanitation facilities in rural areas respectively by the
end of the decade i.e., March 1991. As on March, 1981 about 72% of the
urban population and 31% of the rural population had protected water supply
facilities in our country. As regards sanitation, the coverage was about 25% in
urban areas and merely 0.5% in the rural areas. However, due to financial
and other constraints the originally set decade targets may be scaled down to
90% in the case of urban water supply and 85% in the case of rural water
supply, 50% in case of urban sanitation and 5% in the case of rural sanitation
respectively. Assessment in regard to the demand of water for drinking
purposes revealed that the urban population which may reach a figure of 201
millions in 1991 would require about 10.22 cubic km. of water at an average
per capita supply of 140 lpd. Approximately, the rural population in 1991 may
be 611 million which would require a demand of 15.7 cubic km. at an average
of 70 lpd. Thus, approximately 25.9 cubic km. of drinking water would be
required by 1991. This demand is estimated to be 51.10 cubic km. i.e.
doubled by 2025 AD.
Irrigation
Irrigation in India is as old as its civilization. The Grand Anicut on Cauvery
built in the 2nd century AD was by far the greatest engineering feat of Ancient
India. The Virnarayana and Gangaikoonda Cholapuram tanks in Tamil Nadu
and the Anataraja Sagara in Andhra Pradesh were constructed at early as
10th century and 14th century respectively. Later, a few diversion works mainly
for utilizing the perennial flows of Northern rivers were constructed. Notable
among these were the Western Yamuna canal and the Eastern Yamuna
canal originally built around 14th and 18th century respectively. More run of the
river schemes were constructed in the later part of the 19th century, the
important among them being the Upper and Lower Ganga canal, Upper Bari
Doab canal, Godavari and Krishna Delta Projects, Agra canal, Sone canal,
etc.
The Planning Commission recognized the importance of developing irrigation
to increase agricultural production and accordingly assigned a very high
priority to it in the various five year plans. Large schemes like the Bhakra
Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley Corporation, Nagrjunasagar, Rajasthan
Canal, etc. were taken up to increase the irrigation potential and thereby
contributing to maximisation of the agricultural production.
The total geographical area of the country is about 329 M. ha.
According to the statistics (1984-85) the net irrigated area is 41.78 M.ha. and
gross irrigated area is 54.06 M.ha. out of the total cropped area of 176 M. ha.
The ultimate potential of the country has been assessed as 113.5 M. ha of
which 58 M. ha is from major and medium schemes and 55 M. has from
minor irrigation schemes. Even if this full potential is developed there will still
remain considerable gap between the potential developed and the demand in
the light of the fact that the gross cropped area even at present is 176 M. ha.
It is, therefore, essential to explore methods to increase the irrigation potential
by alternate means such as integrated operation of reservoirs, conjunctive
use of surface and ground water, evaporation control, seepage control
improved methods of irrigation and inter-basin transfer of water from surplus
to deficit areas. It has been estimated that an additional 35 M. ha. Of irrigation
potential may be possible by such planning. This may undergo revision in
future with more data and information. The irrigation potential created and
utilized through major and medium projects in the successive five year plans.
Industrial
Generally water needs of industries form part of domestic water supply
system in many of the urban areas especially metropolitan cities. Data
colleted from 8 metropolitan cities in the country reveal that the industrial
demand is of the order of about 12% of the total water supply in cities. In
addition to this there are major industries in remote areas which will be
utilizing water from surface and ground water sources. The surface sources
are from rivers, canals, tanks, rivulets and sub-soil flows from infiltration
galleries, collector wells,deep tubewells, etc. It has been assessed that the
industrial demand of water will be 30 cubic km by 2000 AD and 120 cubic km
by 2025 AD and which will be almost equal to domestic requirements in
2000AD and double that in 2025 AD.
Thermal Power
Thermal Power is one of the important sources of power in our country. For
thermal power generation a large quantity of water is required for cooling
purposes. The country has been divided into 5 regions for administrative
conveniences so far as power generation/distribution is concerned viz.
Northern, Western, Southern, Estern and North-eastern regions. Requirement
for consumptive use of these regions as roughly estimated in the Central
Electricity Authority (CEA), is given below:
Sl No.
Region
Water requirement
(Cubic Km)
1. Northern Region
0.605
2. Western Region
0.937
3. Southern region
0.563
4. Eastern region
0.553
5. North-Eastern region
0.041
Total
2.669 or
Say 2.70
DEVELOPMENTAL POTENTIAL
Storages
The occurrence of rainfall in India is very uneven, both temporarily and
spatially. About 80% of the annual rainfall occurs during the monsoon season
from June to October in most part of the country. The flow in the remaining
seven months is insignificant. The northern and north-eastern rivers of Indus,
Ganga and Brahmaputra, since they originate from the Himalayan Glaciers,
carry some considerable flow during the non-monsoon season also. This was
the reason for the success of so many diversion projects in north India for a
long time in the past. However, a good amount of water in the monsoon
period is going waste and empty into the oceans. Often they cause heavy
damages by way of floods. In the case of the peninsular rivers, the quantum
of water that can be put to use by purely diversion projects is very limited and
for a limited period in the monsoon months. This calls for the necessity of
constructing storages for storing the excess water during the high flow
periods and using it during the low flow periods.
Until the end of 19th century, only a few major projects were constructed in
India. Khadakwasla and Periyar Valley dams were the two most important
storage built during this period. After the famine of 1897-98 and 1899—1900
which was followed by the constitution of the First Irrigation Commission
(1901-03), there was a spurt in the construction of storages in India.
Nizamsagar, Mettur and Krishnarajasagar dams are some of the important
storages constructed in the pre-independence period. A number of large
storages were taken up and completed in the various five year plans and
some are under construction and uner consideration. Bhakara dam, Pong
dam, Hirakud dam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Koyna, Sri Ram Sagar, Idukki, Saravati,
DVC reservoirs, Kangsabati, Mayurakshi, Kosi, etc. are important among the
completed projects. The storage built up in the completed projects upto the
end of 6th plan is about 143 cubic km. Another 79 cubic km of storage will be
available from projects under construction, making a total of 222 cubic km. In
addition there are a large number of tanks which may be assumed to add up
to about 30 cubic km. Thus the total storage available in India after
completion of the on-going projects will be about 82 cubic km. The basin-wise
break up of the storages, completed, under construction and under
consideration is presented in Figure 19. The data includes the storages
created for all purposes such as irrigation, domestic and industrial water
supply, hydro-electric power generation and other uses.
Hyro-electric
A comprehensive hydro-electric survey of various river systems of the country
was carried out by the then CW & PC during 1953-59. This study placed the
country’s hydro-power potential (including Sikkim) at about 42,100 MW at
60% load factor. The study has also identified a total number of 256
economically feasible schemes. The CEA, has recently completed the
reassessment study of the hydro power potential and identification of
economic hydro-electric schemes all over the country. As a result of their
recent load factor against 42,000 MW estimated in the previous study. A total
of 845 hydro electric schemes have been identified in the various basins and
the annual energy contribution from these schemes is expected to be about
600 TWh including seasional energy generation. The assessed potential,
however, does not include contribution from small schemes (the assessment
of hydro-electric potential from small rivers/streams, canal falls etc. in the
country has been undertaken separately by the CEA). In addition, a total of 56
attractive pumped storage schemes have been identified in various regions
with installed capacity of about 94,000 MW.
Navigation
Inland water transport has been recognized as the cheapest mode of
transport and development of inland water transport is of crucial importance
from the point of energy conservation. The following ten waterways were
identified for consideration for being declared as national waterways.
1. The Ganga-Bhagirathi-hoogli
2. The Brahmaputra
3. The Mandavi, Zurai river and the Cumbarjua canal in Goa
4. The Mahanadi
5. The Godavari
6. The Narmada
7. The Sunderbans area
8. The Krishna
9. The Tapi
10. The West Coast Canal
The Ganga--Bhagirathi-hoogli and Brahmaputra have already been declared as
National Waterways. Recently the Farakka Navigation Lock has been opened for
transport thus allowing transport for upstream reaches of Ganga to Calcutta. With
network of national waterways, the carriage and cargo in this sector in the 10
river systems is expected to increase by 35 million tones per year. The
consumptive use of water for navigation is not substantial as the wastage is only
at he point of terminal projects.
Pisciculture
The 7th Plan aims at raising the production of fish from inland water bodies to 18
lakh tones by 1989-90 from the present level of about 12.2 lakh tones. There is
considerable scope for developing pisciculture in inland water bodies and storage
reservoirs in scientific lines. Out of 0.75 M.ha. of the available pond area, only
0.15 M. has is being currently operated upon. There is scope for taking
pisciculture to the rest of the area. Similarly 1.7 M. ha. Of the available reservoir
area is also not yet properly utilized for fish production. At present the bulk of the
production i.e. about 85% is contributed by fisheries in about 29,000 km of rivers
and canals. Through short-term better management practices the average
production in tanks and pond could be raised from 700 kg/ha per year to 15003000 kg/ha per year. Similarly, the production from reservoirs could also be
substantially raised. The development of pisciculture will have to be made an
integral part of the reservoir projects. The consumptive use of water is almost
negligible.
FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Broadly the country has been divided into flood regions depending on the river
systems such as Ganga-Brahmapura region, the North-West region and the
Central India and Deccan region. The main problem in the Ganga-Brahmaputra
region is the drainage congestion, bank erosion, land slides, aggradation,
changes in river courses and their regime etc. The problem in the North-West
region covering the states of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan
is of lesser magnitude as compared to that in Ganga-Brahmaputra region. In the
Central India and Deccan region, the rivers are generally well defined and have
stable courses. With the ever increasing population and the consequent
unplanned encroachment of low lying areas adjacent to the rivers, know as flood
plains, the problem is getting worse.
As assessed by the Rashriya Barh Ayog (RBA), an area of 40 M. ha in the
country is prone to floods. Not all the vulnerable area is affected each year. The
area affected annually on an average is about 7.7 M. ha. It had been as much as
about 17.5 M.ha in a single year like 1978.
On an average, the crop area affected annually is about 3.5 M.ha which was as
high as about 10M.ha in the worst affected year. The average annual direct
damages is about Rs.7680.8 million which is as high as over Rs.40592.5 million
in a single year. In fact, the statistics of damage from 1961-87 indicate that the
total damage to crops, houses and public utilities suffered by the country during
this period is over Rs.264,002 million.
In tackling flood problem so far, almost all known methods of flood protection
have been employed. In case of Damodar river in Bihar and West Bengal a
series of four dams were constructed for moderating the floods apart from
providing benefits of irrigation and power generation. The Hirakud dam on
Mahanadi is mitigating the problem of flood in the fertile Mahanadi delta. In other
rivers where reservoirs could not be constructed so far for storing flood waters,
large lengths of embankments have been constructed mostly in Bihar and
Assam. Number of important towns like Delhi, Srinagar, patna, Lucknow, Surat,
etc. have been protected by the construction of embankments or river training
works. A number of anti-erosion and river training works have been carried out
essentially for protection of towns and vital communications. Flood forecasting
activities were initiated by CWC in 1959 when the first forecast was issued for the
Yamuna at Delhi. Since then this activity has been vastly expanded by CWC on
most of the inter-State rivers in the country. For this purpose, about 500
hydrometeorological stations have been set up by CWC from which data is
communicated through a network of about 400 wireless stations for formulation
and dissemination of forecasts. On an average about 5000 forecasts and
warnings are issued every year from 147 flood forecasting sites indicating the
levels of the rivers likely to be attained 10-50 hours in advance. An accuracy of
about 95% has been attained. The CWC continues to be the vanguard and is
playing a leading role in India in the field of flood forecasting and warning
activities on the inter-state rivers.
WATER QUALITY
Any stretch of a river or coastal water is usually subjected to a variety of uses
such as irrigation, drinking, industry, power generation, fisheries, navigation etc.
and also acts as a receptacle for the waste or used water. The water quality
problem arises as a result of increased concentration of pollution and also from
increased discharge of waste into the water bodies. The user sectors require
water with a certain standard of quality depending upon the specific use. It is,
therefore, necessary to monitor and manage the water quality in the various
stretches of the river, to check whether the water is of adequate quality for
specific uses and to take appropriate remedial measures in case the quality is
found unsatisfactory.
The water quality requirements for each of the water uses vary. Water quality
monitoring and control is a stupendous task as the parameters involved ate many
and their effect on the uses is complex. The Bureau of Indian Standards had
identified 44 water quality parameters and prescribed tolerance limits for various
uses such as drinking, bathing, irrigation, industrial cooling, fish culture and wild
life propagation. These tolerance limits for selected parameters for drinking
water, industrial use and irrigation are given below (IS:2296-1982)
Drinking Water
Irrigation and Industrial
without conventional
with conventional Industrial
treatment (class A)
treatment (class C) Cooling (class E)
605-8.5
6.5-8.5
6.0-8.5
1. pH value
2. Dissolved oxygen
mg/I, min.
3. Biochemical oxygen
Demand mg/I max.
4. Total dissolved
Solids mg/I max.
5. Chlorides mg/I max.
6. Sulphates mg/I max.
6
4
-
2
3
-
500
250
400
1500
600
400
2100
600
1000
The Central Pollution Control Board with the help of the State Pollution Control
Board is monitoring the water quality of the rivers all over the country. The
Central Water Commission as part of the hydrological observation network
covering most of the rivers of the country is also monitoring the water quality at
about 270 observation stations on a regular basis.
The Central Ganga Authority was constituted in 1985 under the chairmanship of
the Hon’ble Prime Minister of India, to determine policies, allocate funds and
oversee progress of the Ganga Action Plan. A separate wing of the Union
Ministry of Environment and Forests known as the Ganga Project Directorate
was created to administer the Ganga Action Plan for which about Rs.240 crores
have been provided during the 7th Five Year Plan period. The Ganga Action Plan
proposes to divert the sewage flowing into the river to other locations for
treatment and convert it into a valuable source of energy. It is planned to reduce
the pollution in the Ganga by at least 75%. The CWC has contributed
substantially in the activities under the Ganga Action Plan. The CWC was also
actively associated in the water quality modeling work for the studies undertaken
under the Ganga Action Plan.
Annexure
ORGANISATIONAL SET UP FOR WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT
Planning, development and management of water resources and hence of the
river basins come under the purview of the Central as well as State
Governments. Thus there is a two-tier organizational set up; one functioning
under the State Government and the other functioning under the Central
Government. At the Centre, the Union Ministry of Water Resources’ role and
activities are categorized under the flowing heads :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
overall planning, policy formulation, coordination and guidance in
respect of the sector as a whole;
technical guidance, scrutiny, clearance and monitoring of the irrigation,
flood control and multi purposes projects (major/medium) of the States;
general infrastructural, technical and research support of sectoral
development at the State level;
in some cases, providing of special Central financial assistance, and
assistance in obtaining external finance from World Bank and other
agencies;
in respect of minor irrigation and command area development – a role
of overall planning, policy formulation and guidance, all the
administration and monitoring of the Centrally sponsored schemes in
these area;
in respect of ground water development, the role of overall resources
planning the establishment of utilizable resources and the
formulation of policies of exploitation; overseeing of and support to
State level activities in ground water development;
the formulation of national water development perspective and the
determination of the water balance of different basins/sub-basins for
the purpose of the eventual consideration of possibilities of inter-basin
transfers;
coordination, mediation and facilitation in regard to the resolution of
differences or disputes relating to inter-state rivers, and in some
instances the over-seeing of the implementation of inter-state projects;
in respect of flood control, the operation of the Central network for
flood forecasting and warning on inter-state rivers, the provision of
Central assistance for some State schemes in special cases, and the
preparation of flood control master plans for the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.
Talks and negotiations with neighboring countries (Bangladesh, Nepal
and Pakistan) in regard to river waters, water resources development
projects, the operation of Treaties (Indus Treaty) etc.
Some of the above functions are performed by specialized organizations. For
instance the technical guidance and scrutiny of major and medium projects is
done by CWC. The general infrastructural and research support to sectoral
development at the State level is provided by CWC, CWPRS, CSMRS, NIH and
CBI & P. Consultancy services in regard to Water Resources projects is provided
by WAPCOS (India), a public enterprise of the Ministry of Water Resources. In
regard to ground water development, the Ministry of Water Resources. In regard
to ground water development, the Ministry functions largely through the CGWB.
Under the national perspectives of water resources development, the water
preparation of a comprehensive plan in regard to the Sone river were carried out
by the Sone River Commission. In addition there are also a number of Boards
and Committees concerned with specific inter-state projects.
The Central Water Commission is an apex technical organization in the field of
water resources development. Since its creation in April, 1945, through a
Government Resolution, the Commission has been associated with every phase
of water resources development in the country. The commission has made
considerable contribution in furthering and promoting measures throughout the
country and in the development of irrigation, hydropower generation and flood
control and protection measures. The main functions of the Commission include
investigation of water resources projects, technical appraisal of such projects in
the state sector, providing consultancy in the design and preparation of detailed
project reports, flood control and forecasting, river management and research
and development in the allied fields.
At the State level most of the States have an independent Department in-charge
of water resources development. The State plan, construct and manage water
resources projects in their territory either independently or with the cooperation of
the neighbouring States in the case of inter-state rivers/river valley projects. In
the case of inter-state rivers, their regulation and development can be controlled
by the Central Government to the extent possible declared by parliament by law
to be expedient in public interest. Most of the river basins are inter-state and
hence participation of Central Government in their planning and development
becomes necessary.