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Annotated Bibliography:
The potential uses and benefits of open- source software in the
developing countries of Africa
This bibliography aims to provide sources which are concerned with the potential uses and benefits if
open-source software in the developing countries of Africa. There is a variety of information varying
from basic information about the what open source software is, the potential benefits of it in
comparison to proprietary software, its possible uses within health and education systems and finally
its potential to bridge the digital divide both between African states and between Africa and the rest of
the world.
1. BBC News (2004) “’Jambo’ to Open Source Software”,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4078753.stm, last updated 9.12.04, last accessed
03.03.08
The Open Swahili Localization Project - or kilinux - based in Tanzania, has developed software called
Jambo open office which is in Swahili, and runs off Linux. It has many of the features similar to
Microsoft Office, and is aimed at the 100 million people in East Africa who speak Swahili, and around
10% of these have access to computers.
It is part of the drive to free Africans from the Western designed and therefore appropriate
technologies, being in Swalhili will allow people to use computers in the language that the majority
think, talk and write in.
2. Braa, J, Hedberg, C (2002) “The Struggle for District-Based Health Information Systems in
South Africa”, The Information Society, vol. 18, issue 2, pp 113-127
This is a study into health information systems in South Africa, and the need for a decentralized
structure based on district. It includes a detailed description and analysis of the development of
information systems, especially focused on the need to create a standard system, which can
incorporate local flexibility. Use of open-source software is key to this study, as it enables adaptability,
empowerment, horizontal flow of knowledge and support for a decentralized system. The study
rounds up with a discussion of the possible relevance of such a system in, amongst others, Malawi
and Mozambique.
3. Bruggink, M (2003) “Open Source in Africa: Towards Informed Decision-Making” IICD
Research Brief, no.7, August 2003
The paper gives a definition of open-source software and documents its possible advantages
and disadvantages. Describes a 2003 study taken by research teams in Burkino Faso, Uganda and
Tanzania, which identified a number of possible obstacles to future widespread use of open-source
software in Africa, the first of which was that the majority of open-source is available via the internet,
and poor quality expensive connections, means that the availability is fairly low. They also noticed
scepticism towards the security of using open-source software, and also a lack of awareness of the
variety available, many people interviewed thought Linux was the only option, and that that was not
user-friendly.
The study notes that attitudes are, however, changing, for example in South Africa which has
recently approved an open-source strategy for the public sector, and the Uganda Martyrs University
which is planning to switch the entire system over to open-source software
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4. Carmichael, P, Honour, L (2000) “Open Source as appropriate technology for global
education” International Journal of Education Development, vol. 22, pp47-53
Open source software are used to create and power many of the big search engines used on the
internet, the quality of the software is not inferior to propriety software, for example Apache which
currently has a 55%share of the world server market.
In April 1998 many of the leading producers of open source software held a summit on how to
promote and expand their business, one of the outcomes was the Open Source Definition.
There has since been the development of the Basic Support for Cooperative Work (BSCW) project,
which provides shared workspaces over the internet, which they have piloted in the UK and hope to
expand to developing countries, such as those in Africa.
5. Casley-Hayford, L, Lynch, P (2003) “A review of good practice in ICT and Special
Educational Needs for Africa” Imfundo KnowledgeBank Initiative, 8th October, 2003
The aim of the study was to investigate the use of good practice ICTs to support children with
special educational needs, the main disability groups considered are the hearing impaired, vision
impaired and children with general learning disabilities in Africa.
In terms of open-source software the study advocates how open-source software can, with
widespread use and promotion, create a collaborative network of software technology tools for African
education institutes, as well as giving states high tech independence
6. Chonia, G, H, (2003) “Free and Open Source Software in Africa”, Round Table on
Developing Countries Access to Scientific Knowledge, pp25-29 (Available at
http://ejds.org/meeting2003/ictp/papers/Gideon.pdf)
This paper discusses how Africa can better take advantage of the opportunities presented by the
increasing emergence of open source software, particularly in a situation of limited financial
resources and capabilities. It presents the opportunity for African nations to help themselves, instead
of waiting for handouts from the West, enabling to more actively participate in an increasing high tech
world. Open source software can offer less dependency, reduced costs and the flexibility to make the
programs local specific, through, for example the addition of local languages. The open source
philosophy lends itself to making technology available to the masses.
7. Daniel, J, West, P (2006) “Open Source for Open Learning”,in, Daniel J (eds) “Developing
a Commonwealth of learning: selected speeches of Sir John Daniel and colleagues in
India, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritius and Singapore”, Commonwealth of Learning pp 25-28
The Commonwealth of Learning is interesting in the role open source software can play in
educations, training and all other forms of learning. The main focus is on the role that open source can
play in open and distance learning (ODL), which is an umbrella term for applying technology to
learning, sometimes known as eLearning, virtual learning, blended learning and distributed learning.
Open source is presented as aiding ODL in two ways, firstly empowering people, as they have the
ability to add to and adapt the software systems to their specific situations, without a dependency on
the producers of the software, and secondly through its ability to help cut costs. It could potentially
allow the mass production of good quality goods and services at a low cost. The speech also makes
the important point that not all open software is free open source software, but the all come with the
open source code which enables them to be adapted to be more place specific.
8. Downes, S, (2007) “Models for Sustainable Open Educational Resources”,
Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, Volume 3, pp 29-49
(http://ijklo.org/Volume3/IJKLOv3p029-044Downes.pdf)
Open Educational Resources (OER) are the focal point of this paper, and the use of open source
software within this, in terms of funding, technical sustainability and content. The main focus is on the
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sustainability of this approach, for example the issue of payment for extra services further down the
line, the incentives involved, partnerships and distributed control.
The paper is divided into five main models associated with Open Educational Resources, the first of
these is funding models, for example via donations or the contributor-pay model; whereby contributors
pay for the maintenance in order for the provider to maintain free access. Secondly, the paper looks at
technical models, which is concerned with the development and distribution of OER, Content models,
which are based around the issue of whether the content developed is sustainable, is the next stage.
Fourthly, is the staffing model, concerned with the selection and hiring of staff, and the sustainability of
the use of volunteers to enable free access, as there are no wages involved. The final section
deliberates the future for OER and the steps needed to ensure sustainability.
9. East African Centre for Open Source Software, n.d, http://www.eacoss.org/, last accessed
05.03.08
This is the website of the East African Centre for Open Source Software (EACOSS), the centre was
formed in 2004, and is based in Kampala, Uganda. It believes, and promotes, that the use of free and
open source software can bridge the digital gap between developed and developing nations, with
lower costs and free access, it enables people in East Africa to learn more about the open source
software, and it’s effectively, affordability and appropriateness, it also provides quality training in the
programs it promotes.
10. Feller, J, Fitzgerald, B (2001) “Understanding Open Source Software Development”,
Addison-Wesley
This book provides a useful overview of Open Source Software, and could be of use to those wishing
to perhaps implement it as part of a strategy to encourage wider spread access to knowledge and
information in Africa. The book starts with a brief chapter on the what open-source software actually is,
then a chapter on the history of its development, followed by a section on the activities of some of the
most common providers of open-source software, such as Linux, the GNOME foundation and
Apaches. The subsequent chapter defines what exactly defines a system as open source, followed by
a segment by how open source software is managed, then a chapter on the stakeholders involved in
the use of open source software. The final chapters are concerned with the environment within which
open-source software is developed, the motivations behind this and issues for the future.
11. Fioretti, M (2006) “The Rule Project”, http://rule-project.org/?q=node/1, last accessed
11.03.08
RULE stands for Run Up-to-date Linux Everywhere, it is a project run by Linux that aims to
provide free modern software which can be used on computers up to five years old. It is aimed at
people who cannot afford new hardware, but would still like to use up-do-date modern software with
good documentation available. This means it is perfect for use by NGO’s, schools and health centres
across Africa who may have electricity and connectivity but lack the hardware needed for the most
up-to-date software, which run on larger memories, as it is smaller and therefore more appropriate.
12. Ford, N (2006) “Microsoft launches Swahili Word”, African Business, issue 317, pp 22-23
Windows Created a Swahilli version of its Office software in order to allow the language to
improve its place in the world of commerce. The software is largely directed at the Eastern African
market where Swahili is the most commonly spoken language, but is neglected in the realms of
business and education.
The software can be used of open-source platforms, such as Linux, which allow more people
to get access to it as there are no licensing costs, which would exclude a large amount of the
population. Also it may be able to increase IT literacy, as much of the population may feel more
comfortable using a system in Swahili, allowing people with less developed English skills to access
computers.
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13. 2003 Geneva Declaration of Principles, n.d,
http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/dop.html, last accessed 10/02/08
This website documents the Geneva declaration of principles, which was part of the World Summit
on the Information Society (WSIS), the most relevant of which is shown below:
B3) Access to information and knowledge;
27. “Access to information and knowledge can be promoted by increasing awareness among all
stakeholders of the possibilities offered by different software models, including proprietary, opensource and free software, in order to increase competition, access by users, diversity of choice, and to
enable all users to develop solutions which best meet their requirements. Affordable access to
software should be considered as an important component of a truly inclusive Information Society”
14. Geissbuhler, A, Ly, O, Lovis, C, L’Haire, J (2003) “Telemedicine in Western Africa:
lessons learned from a pilot project in Mali, perspectives and recommendations” AMIA
Annu Symp Proc, pp 249-253
This is a project for the development of a national telemedicine network in Mali 2001, using internetbased technologies, for example Linux, open-source software, for distance learning and teleconsultations. It documented that the use of such as system enabled north-south collaboration, where
courses for students at university were prepared by experts in Switzerland, wider-spread postgraduate and public health courses, south-north collaborations whereby students in Geneva were able
to benefit from experts in Mali on topics such as Leprosy, and consultation based at these three scales
as well. The study also identified risks, such as need to understand socio-cultural contexts, the need
to help develop managerial skills and also the risk of increasing digital divide if the periphery is not
considered.
15. Grant, A (January 2004) “Open vs. Closed Source Software”, Science in Africa,
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2004/january/software.htm, last accessed 10.03.08
This article discusses the major advantages and disadvantages of using open source and closed
source software. It first describes the difference between the two types, in that closed is developed by
a single company, and the source code is kept secret, which means it can not be legally copied or
modified. Open source software, on the other hand, is free to use and distribute. The benefits of
closed source software is that they come with guarantees, and can be expected to work as advertised,
however there are issues surrounding bugs and viruses. Open source software is open to read a, for
larger projects, therefore read by more people, making bugs, and security, less of an issue, but can be
too complicated for less expert users
16. Hoe, N, S (2006) “Breaking Barriers. Using free and open source software for
development”, http://www.apdip.net/publications/ict4d/BreakingBarriers.pdf, UNDP-APDIP
pp 17-40
This is a study which has gained from contributions by UNESCO and the International Open Source
Network and the International Development Research Centre of Canada. It is a collection of case
studies about the uses and impacts of implementing open source software, both the benefits and the
challenges. Particularly relevant are the case studies of; creating business and educational
opportunities in South Africa, Localizing free and open software in South Africa and the section on
making legal information freely available in Burkino Faso.
17. James, J (2002) “Low-cost information technology in developing countries: current
opportunities and emerging possibilities”, Habitat International, vol. 26, pp21–31
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The study investigates how the digital divide between rich and poor countries will only be diminished
in low-cost or free information technologies are available is, and open source software can aide this by
freeing them from a largely financially inaccessible commercial software system, with expensive
implementation and upgrades. However, it does note that the use of technologies like open-source
software cannot solve the problem of the digital divide in Africa, as there are many who are unable to
get access to the resources needed to take advantage of such software, such as electricity and
connectivity to the internet.
18. Kshetri, N “Economics of Linux Adoption in Developing Countries”, IEEE Software, vol. 4
This paper explores the benefits of using open source software, specifically Linux and compares it
with Microsoft Windows, which is the operating system used in over 90% of the worlds desktops. It
looks at issues and cost involved with the ownership of Linux, the effective use of the two operating
systems, for example the benefits of Linux in that it can be adapted into local languages. The paper
then explores the issues of training and switching to a system like Linux, which is renowned for not
being very user friendly. Also, the possible problems associated with compatibility when using
traditional systems like Windows when using older computers, which is often the case in developing
economies, such as many in Africa, this can be combated by using Linux and similar systems which a
generally smaller. They end by suggesting that Linux and open-source software in Africa is not
currently being exploited to its full potential.
19. Lander, A (2007) “Ghana: Signs of Software Success”, ,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/focus_magazine/news/story/2007/03/07
0315_semacode.shtml, BBC world Service, last updated March 27th, 2007, last accessed
13/03/08
The University of Ghana has been leading a project called Semapedia, it’s a technology which
matches a sticker or tage, in the physical world, to information help on Wikipedia. It is a good example
of an African-created technology, and hints at the potential that a developed IT industry in Africa could
have. Semapedia does, however, rely on high tech mobiles and technology which is not readily
available to most Africans; however the point of the project is to start bringing knowledge to the parts
of the world that need it. The university advocates open-source software, and is working with creative
wireless solutions to make rural areas more connected.
20. May, C (2000) “Escaping the TRIPs’ Trap: The Political Economy of Free and Open Source
Software in Africa” Political Studies, vol. 54, pp 123-146
In sub-Saharan Africa governments currently pay out around US$24billion per year to software
companies, the open-source software movement could eradicate this expenditure. The use of ICTS
could help encourage a more people-centred development; however this is not an affordable option
with traditional propriety software.
Free Open Source Software, can help combat this preventing situations such as the cost of
Windows XP being fifty times higher, in terms of relative cost by GDP, for people in sub-Saharan
Africa than people in the US. Open-source software is also much more flexible, allowing modifications
for local communities to be engineered into the software immediately, for instance, local languages.
21. Marson, I (2004) “South African TV show evangelises open source”,
http://news.zdnet.co.uk/software/0,1000000121,39174917,00.htm, ZDNet.co.uk, last
updated 24.11.04, last accessed 06.03.08
This article documents the production of a 13-part television show, Go_Open, which is aimed at
promoting the use of open-source software to children in South African schools. It is aimed at children
who are not technical trained, in order to excite them in the possibilities such software could offer them,
as well as making them familiar with retailers from which they can get the software.
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The show experienced a positive response with over a 1000 people enetering a competition the first
show advertised within an hour of it finsihing. This atricle provides an interesting example of a different,
more innotive way, that can be used to raise peoles awrareness of open source software and its
benefits, however, its important to note the show was not cheap to produce, and could exclud sections
of society unable to afford luxeries like televisions.
22. Open Source Initiative, http://www.opensource.org/about, last updated 13.03.2007, last
accessed 05.03.08
This is the website of the Open source Initiative, which is a non-profit organisation formed with the
aim of educating and advocating about the benefits of using open-source software across a variety of
activities. It also maintains the Open Source Definition, which can be found on this website, which
enables it to act as a standards body for the open source movement.
The “getting help” section includes a variety of useful links, including links to various open source
projects and packages, lists of conferences on the subject and links to books and other research
which has been done on the benefits of open source software. This website could be of use to anyone
wishing to get a further understanding of the definition of open source software, and also a useful way
of gauging some of the projects out there which may be of use in the context of Africa.
23. Open Source Africa, n.d, http://www.opensourceafrica.org/index.php, Open Research and
Techtonics, last accessed 05.03.08
Open Source Africa is a website supported by the Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, which
aims to promote the use of open source software throughout Africa. There are many case studies
covering a variety of topics including its use in the protection of human rights, education, skills
development, gender empowerment and uses in university. The website also includes a useful section
called “migration guide”, which provides an overview of the benefits and myths of open source
software, and some of the most prominent organisations involved in open source software.
24. Paterson, J, Weaver, P (2005) “South Africa”, Technology Review, Vo. 108, no. 4, pg 50-50
South Africa’s 46 million people speak eleven official languages, 80% of the countries $6 billion
annual spending on software goes to foreign companies, on proprietary software, this high cost is said
to hinder development of information technology skills and as a result economic growth. Open source
software would dramatically reduce this cost, and run much faster on the old computers which struggle
to deal with Windows, therefore making them more accessible to the public and in schools. Go Open
Source is campaigning to increase the presence of open source in South Africa, and is funded by the
African business man Mark Shuttleworth, they distributed CD’s containing open-source software, with
a translation utility, aimed at promoting is ability to increase accessibility. The article finishes with the
conclusion that Africa could potentially become the producers of IT products for the West, rather than
a consumer of Western products.
25. Piotti, B, Macome, E (2007) “Public Healthcare in Mozambique: Strategic issues in the ICT
development during managerial changes and public reforms”, International Journal of
Medical Informatics, vol. 76, pp 184-195
Emergence of open source software could help health care organisations better technology
transfer and improved quality of delivery, both of which could benefit Mozambique. Illustrates the
digital divide through the example of telephones/1000 people, of which, in 2001 there were 5 in
Mozambique and 667 in the USA. In the last ten years there has been a trend of increasing use of
open source software instead of traditional propriety software, and in order for Mozambique to take
advantage of this,
The software applications and systems design in developing countries “must therefore allow any
combination of stand/alone and Intranet based system and systems distributed using Internet” ([43]:
11)
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26. Reijswoud, V, Topi, C, n.d, “Alternative Routes in the Digital World：Open Source
Software in Africa”, http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/reijswoudtopi.pdf, last accessed
27.02.08
The article explains the differences between Open and Closed Source Software and possible
benefits that open source software could bring to organizations across the African continent, for
example the lack of license fee structure which means that after initial acquisition, where they may be
some cost, although this is usually much less than proprietary software, the software can be freely
distributed.
The paper talks through a variety of organisations involved in the promotion of open source software
across African including the Free and Open Source Foundation for Africa (FOSSFA) and the
International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD).
27. Tuxlab, (2006), http://www.tuxlabs.org.za/, Inkululeko Technologies ltd, last accessed
09/03/2008
This is the website for tuXlabs, which was originally known as the Open Source Learning Centre, and
has been in opertaion since 2001. The aim of tuXlab is to provide a step-by-step process for
establishing a sustainable ICT environment in the education sector, using open source philosophies
and technologies. The program was initiated in 2002 and now consists of over 200 school community
partnerships throughout South Africa serving over 160000 learners. tuXlabs was further recognised
among the Top 100 Technology Awards during 2005 and was awarded Community Builder of the Year
Award in the same year.
28. Weber, S “Open Source Software in Developing Economies”
http://programs.ssrc.org/itic/publications/ITST_materials/webernote2.pdf, last accessed
05.03.08
Explains the differences between proprietary software and open source software, describes three
brands of open-source software; Linux, Sendmail and Apache. The study documents the possible
benefits of open-source software for developing economies in terms of Total Cost of Ownership,
Independence, Security and Autonomy and Intellectual Property Rights. And also tackles issues
involved in the implementation of open-source software.
This paper is particularly interesting due to its concentration on The Free and Open Source
Foundation for Africa (FOSSFA) formed in 2003 aimed at promoting the use of Open-Source software
throughout the continent. FOSSFA predicts that open-source software could encourage the
development of software systems for Africans by Africans, which are sustainable and cost-effective,
and which could therefore help bridge the digital divide.
29. Weiss, T, R (2005) “Linux makes its way into the classroom”, Computerworld, vol. 39, no.
29, p 38-39
Makes the important note that infrastructure across Africa cannot be generalised, with widespread
reliable bandwidth in South Africa and sparse connectivity across Zimbabwe.
Schoolnet is one organisation working to promote the use of open-source software in schools, thereby
improving the quality of education. Translate-org.za has been working to translate open-source
software into the eleven official languages of South Africa.
The main issue is downloading the software in the first instance, in order to burn it to CD’s and
distribute, due to a lack of bandwidth in many locations.
30. Wright, B (2006) “OSS Could be the answer for Africa” African Business, Issue 325, pp6263
Open Source Software has no licensing fee structure; this means that once it has been bought it
can be freely distributed. This could help bridge the digital divide ass it helps make computers,
specifically software affordable, this could especially be of use on the African Continent. For example,
the South African government put in place a pro-open source software scheme, whereby they
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advocated its possible benefits in saving foreign currency, savings on acquisitions, wider access to
information and in providing an instrument for IT training. The South African Department of
Communications have announced a shift to Linux open-source operating system, and are forecasting
a saving of $338 million a year.
There are, however, some problems related with Open Source Software, for example incompatibility
with propriety systems used by business partners.
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