Samantha Hubbard
Annotated Bibliography
* Books
** Scholarly Articles
Madagascar
Colonial Era:
Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.
This source provides a useful, yet brief overview of Madagascar’s history. The
study divides the history into five sections: Pre-colonial Era (prior to 1894), Colonial Era
(1894-1960), Independence, The first Republic and the Military Transition (1960-1975),
The Second Republic (1975-1992), and The Third Republic (1993- ). The information
within the Pre-colonial Era section describes the introduction of foreigners into the
Malagasy society, the introduction of slavery (all before colonization), the development
of power and rule by the dominant ethnic group, the Merina, and the relationship with
Europe that suffered under Queen Ranavalona I (1828-61), flourished under her
successor King Radama II (1861-63), and then was maintained by the following ruler
King Rainilaiarivony. The second section, Colonial Era (1894-1960) begins with the
official French declaration of colonial rule in 1896. The source then moves immediately
into nationalist, anti-colonial movements and therefore lacks information about French
motives for colonization. This source does, however, provide good evidence of the
Malagasy anti-colonial sentiments: the first movements beginning in 1913, the 1947
revolt and France’s response, and then the emergence of the two main Malagasy political
parties in 1950. The remaining sections are found under the decolonization heading. This
will be helpful in the research paper as to provide a basis from which to start further
analysis.
Robinson, Bruce. “Madagascar Captured.” Bbc.co.uk. WW2 People’s War. May 1942.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/ww2/A1122490.
This is a brief source that described Madagascar’s position during World War II,
specifically during the German invasion of France and the creation of the French Vichy.
According to Robinson, the colonies were allowed to choose which side to follow and
Madagascar chose the French Vichy government. This made the allies nervous as they
realized the potential for Japan to take advantage of Madagascar’s position in the Indian
Ocean and use them to bomb Allied shipping boats. To prevent this, the Allied forces
“simulated” invasion of Madagascar and bombed French Vichy government ships that
were in port. There was a small encounter with the French Vichy, but the Allies emerged
victorious and the French Vichy governor and troops drew back to the south of the island,
making the Allies successful in preventing Madagascar from taking the opposition’s side.
This is an interesting article as it describes a brief time in Madagascar’s colonial history
when their colonizing authority lost legitimacy, which, it can be argued, was a
fundamental factor in decolonization.
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** Cooke, James J. “Madagascar and Zanzibar: A Case Study in African Colonial
Friction.” African Studies Review. Vol. 13, No. 3, 435-443. December 1970.
In this article, Cooke focuses on the conflicts that arose between England and
France due to the colonial territories, using Madagascar and Zanzibar as classic
nineteenth century examples. France initially claimed Madagascar, and demanded large
territorial sacrifices by the Malagasy rulers. The British did not acknowledge French
presence as valid and insisted that the rulers refuse these land concessions to France.
Although in 1890 an agreement was signed between France and Britain to end the
conflict, both countries continued to interfere in colonial relationships. The French sent
Catholic missionaries to the region, while the British sent Protestant missionaries.
According to Cooke, the French Catholics wanted to wage war against the British
Protestants in order to drive them from Madagascar (and Zanzibar). The French and
British habitant of the colonies would report to their respective state of the offenses and
surmounting tension in the area, and the state would respond with empty promises of
improvement. Another French offense against Britain was implemented through tariffs.
France put a tax much higher than any other nation on British imports into Madagascar.
When native uprisings against French colonial powers in Madagascar gave England the
opportunity to gain power in the island, they withdrew and refused to do anything that
would harm France’s position in Madagascar. After France beat the nationalist uprisings
down, they re-issued the high tariff on British imports and arrested several Frenchmen in
Madagascar for giving aide to the Malagasy people during the uprising. Just as the
conflict had reached a head, the French withdrew the tax and ended conflict in
Madagascar and Zanzibar as they realized the upcoming conflicts with their holdings near
the Nile, and they did not want anything to jeopardize their position with the Nile.
According to Cooke, this conflict shows the European scramble for African land to
colonize and the lack of restraint and balance of the Europeans, specifically the French
and English. This article is interesting within the context of my research paper in that it
shows weakness and uncertainty in a Europe that is usually pictured as unshakable. This
article also raises a question of French legitimacy within Madagascar, as they, at one
point, rely on England to restrain from invasion so they can conquer ‘their’ colony.
** Campbell, Gwyn. “The Structure of Trade in Madagascar, 1750-1810.” The
International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol. 26, No.1, 111-148. 1993.
In this article, Campbell discusses the status of trade pre-French conquest. She
looks at the rise of the Merina empire, which dominated economically and politically
from 1820s until 1895 as a small landlocked region in the middle of Madagascar.
Campbell focuses on the time period from 1750-1810 so as to analyze the Merina
empire’s rise to power and the role that the leader of the empire, Andrianampoinimerina
played in the process. In the beginning of the nineteenth century, each region of the
empire contained its own markets with some interaction with neighboring markets. The
development of the plantation in neighboring islands created a market within Madagascar
for slaves, which was the major stimulant to trade. Andrianampoinimerina played the role
of organizer and regulation setter for the trade economy that developed. After a series of
wars in 1790, a system of weights and measurements was developed which led to the
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development of an inter-island trade network. Regional specialization emerged out of this
island trade economy. Goods such as cloth, piastres, and gunpowder were used as money.
An interesting point that Campbell states is that this development of a market economy
was a direct result from their strong agricultural base. The development could not be
maintained given the position of Merina within Madagascar, therefore Merina began to
combine their economic and political power in the early 1800s so as to establish the
island empire that emerged in the 1820s. This article is relevant in that it shows the
economic status of Madagascar pre-French conquest, and establishes that Africa, at least
in Madagascar, did have a functioning economic and political system established prior to
colonization.
Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.”
January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.
Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.
The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html
Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.
These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar.
They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the
media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources
are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.
* Fuglestad, Finn and Jarle Simensen, eds. “Norwegian Missions in African History Vol.
2: Madagascar.” Vol. 2. London: Norwegian University Press, 1986.
This book focuses on the influence of Norwegian missionaries throughout
Madagascar beginning in 1866. The authors dedicate two chapters to background
information and then look at individual regions of Madagascar and role of the
Norwegians in their history. The first chapter, The Malagasy Background I: The Early
Phase, gives a succinct summary of Malagasy ethnicity, both historically as well as
modernly. The chapter then moves into a detailed report of the pre-colonial Merina
empire that maintained power in the island, including information on the trading
economy as well as on the religious development under the Merina empire. The second
chapter of the book, The Malagasy Background II: The Nineteenth Century, begins with
a continued description of the end of the Merina empire and the initial contact with
Europe, in the form of Britain. The result of this contact is a change in authority to King
Radama I, and a strong movement toward paganism that included the persecution of
Christians. After the death of the king, King Radama II, there was a time of social unrest
and wars for power that caused the leader of one movement to turn to Christianity as a
means to power. Christianity also played a role in the economic success of the late
nineteenth century as they were so closely affiliated with the government. This source is
useful in developing a thorough and clear sense of the pre-colonial years in Madagascar.
As the book develops it narrows its focus to specific regions in Madagascar and the direct
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effect the Norwegian missionaries had in each region. This provides a good look into the
political, economic, social and religious environment of individualized Malagasy regions
pre-French colonial rule. This is useful information in understanding the situation into
which the French entered in 1894.
Decolonization:
Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html
The continuation of the five segments begins with Independence, the First
Republic, and the Military Transition (1960-75). This piece begins with a brief
explanation of how Madagascar obtained independence, and how the first president,
Tsiranana, signed fourteen agreements to maintain ties with France. There is a brief
description of the corruption that came with Tsiranana’s government in the form
incumbent favored actions that put his party above the other ethnic parties. The source
goes on to describe opposition that arises in response to the corruption and the
maintenance of French ties: the unsuccessful 1971 Monima party uprising, the 1972
unsuccessful student protests, and then the final violent uprising of a combination of
forces that were successful in forcing Tsiranana to dissolve his government and give
power and control to the National Military. This ended the First Republic in 1972.
Continued economic stagnation and uprisings led to a deeper divide among
ethnic/political parties. Finally, a unifying leader emerged that would initiate the desired
“revolution from above”: Ratsiraka, under the ruling body of the Supreme Revolutionary
Council (SRC). The section, the Second Republic (1975-92), began with the election of
Ratsiraka into a seven year term as president on December 21, 1975. Ratsiraka’s
presidency focused on implementing a new Malagasy government as it was described in
the “Red Book”. This meant a “new society” based on the “five pillars of the revolution”,
a focus on a new foreign policy of detachment with the West, a decentralized domestic
government, and strong economic development based on careful planning. In March of
1976 the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution (Arema) became the government’s party
and Ratsiraka was named the secretary general. This party was one of the six parties that
formed in a coalition that unified under the National Front for the Dense of the
Revolution (FNDR). But after only three years of peaceful rule, policies of centralization
of dominant economic sectors uprising and opposition began, and this led to a more
authoritarian rule by Ratsiraka. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) successfully
pressured Ratsiraka to open the Malagasy economy in order to obtain the economic
assistance it offered. Enemies of Ratsiraka saw this as a rejection of the “scientific
socialism” to which he had been committed. Ratsiraka’s popularity declined dramatically
and he was accused of an unfair election in 1989. This resulted in a peaceful march of
400,000 people on the President’s Palace in August of 1991. The Presidential Guard
opened fire on the citizens and a leadership catastrophe occurred. Ratsiraka’s response
was to democratize including a rewritten constitution as well as free multiparty elections.
The result of those elections was Albert Zafy, the main leader of the opposition forces, a
member of the côtier party (coastal party) and the first president of the Third Republic. In
August of 1992 a new constitution was approved by 75% of those who voted in the
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national referendum. On February 10, 1993 Zafy beat Ratsiraka with a 67% popular vote
and became the next president of Madagascar and as the leader of the Comité des Forces
Vives (Forces Vives) coalition party consisting of sixteen other parties. The party and
Zafy have experienced problems with the IMF as they require reforms that are of no
direct benefit to the Malagasy citizens as well as using inexperienced political institutions
to resolve the multitude of problems facing the country. This information will be useful
in the paper in that it contains historical background information that can be used to make
further connections and comparisons.
Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.”
January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.
Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.
The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html
Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.
These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar.
They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the
media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources
are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.
** Logan, Rayford W. “Education in Former French West and Equatorial Africa and
Madagascar.” The Journal of Negro Education. Vol. 30, No. 3. 1961.
Logan focuses on the education problem that faced the French colonies
after decolonization, but he also mentions other problem areas that ex-colonies
experienced in their decolonization period. He sites three main reasons for the
educational deficiency that ex-French colonies found themselves in: 1) the short
duration of stay of France within their colonies (the longest being eight years in
Senegal), 2) the premature desertion of the French policy of “assimilation” that
left only a small number of Africans actually “civilized”, and 3) a period of
decolonization/autonomous rule that did not last long enough for Africa to learn
how to be independent. Logan goes on to mention that the extremely diverse
people that were left behind had different tribes and dialects of Malagasy.
Therefore communication was primarily French as it was the universal languge.
Africans were forced to communicate in French which, although it did facilitate
unity and growth, it also promoted class divisions and ‘elitism’. Logan states that
within Africa, aside from the aforementioned problems as a result of colonization,
education also suffered due to environmental issues (rainstorms, moths, mildew),
disease (intestinal diseases), social (value of leisure and comfort), financial
(without and funding), and philosophical issues (the only teachers available were
French, therefore French philosophy was taught). This source provides good
examples, with education as a focus, of the struggles and conditions that were
facing Madagascar post-French colonialism.
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Economic Development:
Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.”
January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.
Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.
The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html
Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.
These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar.
They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the
media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources
are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.
Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html
The Country Study of Madagascar divides the economic sector of Madagascar
into nine areas: Government Policy and Intervention, Structural Adjustment, National
Accounts and Budget, Balance of Payments and Debt, Traditional Agriculture,
Agricultural Production, Industrial Development, Foreign Trade, and Transportation and
Telecommunications. As this source is of 1994, it provides a limited look into the
contemporary Malagasy economic situation. In 1994, the President Zafy announced the
economy as his focus and set out five major aims for agricultural policy, such as the
improvement of existing crop production and the development of new export products.
The IMF and World Bank (WB) have been helpful in loaning Madagascar millions of
dollars in structural and adjustment funds. This monetary funding came with conditions
such as the devaluation of the Malagasy franc and macroeconomic stability. The latter
condition, combined with several others, although it was economically beneficial, was
politically destructive for Zafy’s presidency. As of November 1993 the external debit
loomed at US$4 billion, with an outstanding initial debt of US$295 million and a US$625
million debt as rescheduled. Agriculture is Madagascar’s main source of revenue
providing the country with 80% of its exports, employing 80% of the labor force, and
containing 33% of GDP in 1993. Industry within Madagascar improved by a small 1.1%
from 1987-1991 and in 1993 constituted 13% of the GDP with the major sectors falling
in food-processing, mining, and energy. In 1992, 81.1% of Madagascar’s foreign trade
sector was located within the West with four main trading partners: France, United
States, Germany, and Japan, consecutively. This source offers a strong general
background in Malagasy economy during the last decade of the twentieth century,
however it lacks great detail in any of the nine subjects. This will be useful in the
research paper as background information and a point from which to further
investigation. These sources, especially the section on structural adjustment, will be very
helpful in determining the economic situation of post-colonial Madagascar.
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Millennium Development Goals. World Development Indicators database. “Madagascar
Country Profile.” April 2004.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/idg/IDGProfile.asp?CCODE=MDG&CNAME=Ma
dagascar&SelectedCountry=MDG.
This site lists eight areas in which the Millennium Development Goals focus:
eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve universal primary education, promote
gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria, and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and to develop a global
partnership for development. The database indicates Madagascar’s statistics in each of
the above categories for the years 1990, 1995, 2001, and 2002 as well as the target goal
for the year 2015. This site his helpful in providing a clear outline of what the
Millennium Project requires of Madagascar for the future and the point from which
Madagascar has to start.
Millennium Development Goals. The World Bank Group. World Development Indicators
database. “Madagascar Data Profile.” April 2004.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=MDG&PTYPE=C
P.
This site is similar to the other country profiles that have been used, however it
provides a more in depth look at the people, the environment, the economy, the
technology and infrastructure, and the trade and finance of Madagascar. The statistics
provided are for the years 1999, 2002, and 2003. This is helpful information in
interpreting the Millennium Development Goals that have been set for Madagascar as it
indicates the state in which Madagascar has been in the past, as well as the current
situation. This will be helpful with the research paper in providing specific data and
statistics that is not offered in general country study resources.
The World Bank Group. “Madagascar at a glance.” 29 September 2004.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/M
ADAGASCAREXTN/0,,menuPK:356378~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSit
ePK:356352,00.html.
This site provides the similar information as a country profile with data on
Madagascar’s poverty and social climate, the structure of the economy, trade, balance of
payments, and external debt. This source provides a comparison both with other African
countries and Madagascar, as well as with Malagasy data as far back as 1983, which will
provide a better look at the economic situation of Madagascar after independence. This
source will be helpful in the research paper as it also contains graphs and charts for some
of the data and statistics listed.
Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “Millennium Challenge Corporation.” 5
June 2004.
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http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2
&artid=317.
This article announces Madagascar’s acceptance into the Millennium Challenge
Corporation which is a government corporation that was designed to reward developing
countries that have met certain political, economic, and social criteria. This article is
short, yet important as it is a clear statement of the improvements that Madagascar has
made, and the incentive they have to continue with improvements.
The World Bank Group. Madagascar. “IMF and World Bank Support US$836 Million in
Debt Service Relief for Madagascar.” 20 October 2004.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/M
ADAGASCAREXTN/0,,contentMDK:20270346~menuPK:356358~pagePK:141
137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:356352,00.html.
This article describes the reasons for which Madagascar reached its completion
point for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The HIPC Initiative was
created in 1996 by the IMF and World Bank to offer debt relief to the entire world’s
poorest and most indebted countries to decrease the stress and allow for build-up in these
countries. The HIPC Initiative contains three areas of advancements: 1) deeper and
broader relief, 2) faster relief, and 3) a stronger link between debt relief and poverty
reduction. Since 1997, Madagascar has made extensive efforts for structural reforms, for
a more welcoming environment for foreign direct investment, and efforts in the way of a
more integrated economy. The 2002 political crisis set Madagascar back in the
improvements it had made, but the government responded with poverty reduction plans,
infrastructure improvement programs, primary education improvement, and made
progress in the government. In 2004 there were two natural disasters (cyclones) that
destroyed what little infrastructure existed and caused an increase in homelessness, but
the government responded quickly to maintain the macroeconomic stability. These are
the actions that have allowed Madagascar to reach its completion point and be awarded
US$836 million (US$1.9 million nominal terms) in debt relief. This article is important in
that it provides a good example of the current condition of the economy and some of the
steps and incentives that were necessary in making the improvements.
The World Bank Group. Madagascar. “Madagascar: World Bank Approves a US$125
Million Project Supporting Poverty Reduction And An Additional US$50 Million
For A Community Development Fund Project in Madagascar.” 20 July 2004.
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/M
ADAGASCAREXTN/0,,contentMDK:20228358~menuPK:356358~pagePK:141
137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:356352,00.html.
The World Bank is providing Madagascar with the Poverty Reduction Support
Credit (PRSC) for government improvement and human development reforms. The
PRSC loan will increase quality of education, eliminate school fees, improve teacher
recruitment processes, and support public expenditure management reforms
(anticorruption and judiciary). Madagascar is already offering progress reports that show
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a growing economy, increased education enrollment rates, and success in the roads
program which is reconstructing the roads and infrastructure. The Community
Development Project credit money is going to help aide in the post-cyclone
redevelopment time. This article is important as it shows the strong relationship that
Madagascar holds with the international relief bodies, such as the IMF and WB. This
article is another example of the positive implementation of relief money within
Madagascar and the improvements that the country is making.
Press Release NO. 05/35. International Monetary Fund. “IMF Executive Board
Completes Sixth and Final Review Under Madagascar’s PRGF Arrangement and
Approves US$17.2 Million Disbursement.” 18 February 2005.
http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2005/pr0535.htm.
The Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement was initiated on
March 1, 2001 and reviewed five times after its initiation, with each review ending in the
allocation of more money to Madagascar. This final review has found Madagascar’s use
of its funding to be successful, and therefore, deserving of another US$17.2 million. The
First Deputy Managing Director and Acting Chair of the IMF’s Executive Board, Ms.
Anne Krueger, stated that Madagascar’s performance has been successful and outlined
the issues in which the country needs to direct its future attention, as well as suggested
the areas in which the US$17.2 million should be spent. This is important in that it shows
the most recent economic state of Madagascar as improving and committed to the
improvement. This article is evidence of the continued dedication of the government to
advancement that is further discussed in the annual reports.
USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse. “USAID/Madagascar Annual Report
FY 2004.” 14 June 2004. http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PDACA033.pdf.
This report states the government of Madagascar’s commitments and priorities in
the political, economic, and social arenas. It goes into detail within each arena and
indicates specific examples of progress during 2003. The report goes on to state the risks
that Madagascar faces in continuing the ambition that the government has had in the
recent past. Some of these risks include a weak bureaucracy that will be unable to
implement the plans, and the public impatience that will result from that. The Mission
Performance Plan in sited as the document in which the U.S. objectives in Madagascar
are expressed: promotion of democracy, broad-based economic development, including
health, and environmental protection. Also discussed are the challenges that the newly
developed government is going to have to overcome in order to maintain this good
relationship with the U.S. Finally, the report presents in detail the three key areas of
improvement during 2003, which directly follow the three key U.S. objectives: 1)
democracy and economic growth, 2) health, population, and nutrition, and 3)
environment. Also briefly mentioned at the end of the report is the relationship that
Madagascar maintains with its financial donors (World Bank, EU) as well as the
advancements in gender equality that are being made along with the economic and
political advancements. This report is very useful in determining the current status of the
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economy. It provides an in-depth review of the improving conditions that have been the
reason for the financial rewards from the World Bank and the IMF.
Bureau for Africa. U.S. Agency for International Development. USAID/Madagascar.
“Madagascar Integrated Strategic Plan FY 2003-2008.” November 2002.
http://www.dec.org/pdf_docs/PDABY400.pdf.
U.S. financial development assistance in Madagascar will be given for the
promotion of good governance and for economic reforms that will allow for the better
management of Madagascar’s natural resources, which will lead to a decrease in poverty
and an improvement of social conditions. A program that accomplishes the
aforementioned improvements, and also created positive secondary effects, such as
HIV/AIDS reduction or the increased ability to respond to natural disasters, will be
considered a successful program that has best utilized the assistance. The plan goes into
detail about Madagascar’s problem areas: poverty, untapped potential of the economy,
and governmental corruption. The new Mission Goal of the Integrated Strategic Plan
(ISP) for 2003-2008 is “Sustainable and Inclusive Economic Development.” This goal is
believed to combine the previous goal of poverty reduction with current concerns as well
as with foreign donor priorities. This plan outlines strategic objectives for Madagascar in
the five year span the plan covers: “Governance in Targeted Areas Improved”, “Use of
Selected Services and Products Increased, and Practiced Improved”, “Biologically
Diverse Forest Ecosystems Conversed”, and “Critical Private Markets Expanded”. This
source is particularly valuable in establishing the objectives as it gives a more specific
and explicit objectives that are then further explained. It is interesting to note that the key
areas of improvement in Madagascar (as mentioned in the “USAID/Madagascar Annual
Report FY 2004”) follow closely with the four stated objectives. This indicates that
Madagascar is seriously and ambitiously pursuing these objectives in what appears to be
an honest attempt to eradicate corruption, poverty, etc. as to become a more favorable
nation for investment and, subsequently, growth.
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRINNEWS.ORG. “Madagascar:
Debt campaigners call for total write off.” 18 October 2004.
http://www.irinnews.org/print.asp?ReportID=43731.
This article calls on the IMF and World Bank to cancel Madagascar’s complete
debt, as opposed to only half the debt which is owed, as Madagascar cannot service the
remaining US$2 billion. According to the source, the total external debt that Madagascar
owes is US$4 billion, and the IMF and World Bank are only prepared to forgive US$2
billion of the debt for completion of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC)
Initiative. This article is important as it adds another detail to the story of debt relief in
Madagascar. The Malagasy government asked for a complete forgiveness of the debt, but
it was denied, therefore there remains US$2 billion debt to the IMF and World Bank.
UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRINNEWS.ORG. “Madagascar:
Debt write-offs should benefit poor, analysts.” 30 April 2003.
http://www.irinnews.org/print.asp?ReportID=33802.
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This article discussed France’s decision to cancel US$55 million of Madagascar’s
debt from 2000-2004 so as to allow for more funds to be invested in poverty reduction
plans and economic reconstruction. This is a significant step because France initially
refused aide to Madagascar during their 2002 political crisis. This article is good
evidence of Madagascar’s relationship with its former colony, but also with European
nations.
* Andriamananjara, Rajaona. “Economic Development Cycles in Madagascar 19501989.” Eds. R.T. Appleyard and R.N. Ghosh. Canberra: Australian National
University.1990.
This brief book is a comparative analysis of the economic situation of Madagascar
as it were during the final decade of French colonial rule (1950-1960) with the final years
of Ratsiraka’s presidency. This is important information in analyzing the effects that
colonialism has had on Madagascar and the problems that were left behind. With this
information the decolonization period can be better analyzed. The general increase in
GDP shows that although there struggles and issues surrounding political legitimacy and
economic openness, independence of Madagascar, in general, was beneficial to their
economy.
Ethnicity:
Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.
This source divides the Malagasy ethnicities into five groups: 1) the People of the
East Coast, 2) the People of the West Coast, 3) the People of the Central Highlands, 4)
the People of the Tsaratamana Massif and the Southwest, 5) the Minorities. The division
based on geography explains why the cultural similarities in these areas have been
determined by the natural environment. The Malagasy population is increasing due to
healthier and more youthful citizens that are a result of health care systems and economic
growth. The south and west populations are zebu-cattle raising regions, and have a
landscape that resembles East Africa while the central-highlands region has rice fields as
resembles Southeast Asia. Although Madagascar does have ethnic divisions, they are
uniquely homogenous in language (most all speak the indigenous language, Malagasy or
a similar form of it) as well as in kinship which can be traced either through their paternal
or maternal heritage. They share a similar respect for the dead, and they are divided into
the same basic social classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves (or decedents of slaves). It
is important to note that in recent years the ethnic divisions have become less important,
instead the focus of division is on the côtiers and those of the central highlands (the
Betsileo and Merina ethnic groups). This is a very important source in identifying the
history of the Malagasy people which directly relates to the current ethnic divisions. The
source is also helpful in that it provides a substantial amount of information on each
ethnic group individually.
11
** Hunt, W. H. “Madagascar.” Journal of the American Geographical Society of New
York. Vol. 32, No. 4, 297-307. 1900.
Hunt begins this article proposing the question, who were the first inhabitants of
Madagascar and from where did they come? He goes on to propose origins of the word
Madagascar, ultimately determining that it was derived from France although its
significance is unknown, which makes the ethnology of the Malagasy even more
mysterious, according to Hunt. He sites three primary immigrant ethnic groups that came
to the island: the Andriana or the Nobles of Imerina in the central highlands, the
Antaimoro of the southeast coast, and then the Antalaotra of the northwest coast. After
this initial development by these three groups, other groups arrived and there was a
mixture of peoples that has left Malagasy peoples almost unidentifiable. Hunt goes on to
describe the geography and cartography of Madagascar. This article gives a very in-depth
analysis of the origination of the Malagasy people and how the ethnicities continued after
the initial settlement.
** Bloch, Maurice. “The Ethno-history of Madagascar.” Ethnohistory. Vol. 48, No 1-2,
293-299. 2001.
Bloch suggests that of all the studies done on Malagasy ethno-history did not
make the distinction that is usually made in ethno-historical studies, which is that
between ‘anthropologized history and historized anthropology’. The distinction between
history (looking at the past) and anthropology (looking more at the present) usually
created a dichotomy between the past and the present, but in the case of Madagascar this
dichotomy does not exist; there is not a sense of a “traditional society”. The Malagasy
people are a people of constant movement and transformation. According to Boch,
reconstruction and development have always been present. Whether it was due to Indian
Ocean trade, the Napoleonic Wars, or French colonization, the Malagasy people have
never been isolated from the rest of the world and left to themselves, the result of this
being the lack of a traditional civilization or society. She points out the effect of
globalization of Madagascar, asking whether the changes are new for Madagascar, or just
at a faster pace. Bloch also makes the distinction between the lack of a traditional society
and uniformization within Madagascar by saying that one does not necessarily imply the
other. She goes on to lay out two tasks that one must undertake in analyzing ethnicity:
questioning the very importance of ethnicity, as well as the political and historical context
surrounding the ethnic labeling. This article is beneficial in that it points out an
interesting fact about the constantly changing history and ethnicity of the Malagasy
people. This raises an interesting question, if the Malagasy people are so used to change
and reconstruction, why has Madagascar experienced typical decolonization
problems/issues? This article implies they are experienced in change, therefore, it seems
to me, Madagascar should have been able to avoid some of the typical decolonization
issues (formation of a new government, legitimacy, and economic integration are
examples).
** Walsh, Andrew. “When Origins Matter: The Politics of Commemoration in Northern
Madagascar.” Ethnohistory. Vol. 48, No. 1-2, 237-256. 2001.
12
Walsh begins by describing in great detail the traditions and customs of the
Antankaraña polity of northern Madagascar, specifically the Tsangantsainy (“standing up
of the mast”) tradition. He uses this example of commemoration to explain his idea that
these rituals and rites are understood differently at different times throughout Malagasy
history, and that the way in which the ritual was interpreted can speak for the political
interests of the time. This article uses an extensive amount of detail in describing the
Tsangantsainy tradition and all that follows, although the end point is a good one which
can shed some light onto other Malagasy historic traditions.
Ethnologue report for Madagascar. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. “Languages of
Madagascar.” December 2004.
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Madagascar.
This is a brief outline of the seven “spoken living languages” found in
Madagascar presently. This is interesting in that it shows the amount of Malagasy people
that speak the language and the region in which it is spoken. This division in languages
can help explain the current ethnic situation in the country in that although there are
different dialects of Malagasy, it is spoken in nearly every ethnic/geographic region in
Madagascar.
Fuglestad, Finn and Jarle Simensen, eds. “Norwegian Missions in African History Vol. 2:
Madagascar.” Vol. 2. London: Norwegian University Press, 1986.
This book focuses on the influence of Norwegian missionaries throughout
Madagascar beginning in 1866. The authors dedicate two chapters to background
information and then look at individual regions of Madagascar and role of the
Norwegians in their history. The first chapter, The Malagasy Background I: The Early
Phase, gives a succinct summary of Malagasy ethnicity, both historically as well as
modernly. The chapter then moves into a detailed report of the pre-colonial Merina
empire that maintained power in the island, including information on the trading
economy as well as on the religious development under the Merina empire. The second
chapter of the book, The Malagasy Background II: The Nineteenth Century, begins with
a continued description of the end of the Merina empire and the initial contact with
Europe, in the form of Britain. The result of this contact is a change in authority to King
Radama I, and a strong movement toward paganism that included the persecution of
Christians. After the death of the following king, King Radama II, there was a time of
social unrest and wars for power that caused the leader of one movement to turn to
Christianity as a means to power. Christianity also played a role in the economic success
of the late nineteenth century as they were so closely affiliated with the government. This
source is useful in developing a thorough and clear sense of the pre-colonial years in
Madagascar. As the book develops it narrows its focus to specific regions in Madagascar
and the direct effect the Norwegian missionaries had in each region. This provides a good
look into the political, economic, social and religious environment of individualized
Malagasy regions pre-French colonial rule.
13
* Esoavelomandroso, F. “Madagascar and the neighboring islands from the twelfth to the
sixteenth century.” Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Ed. Joseph
Ki-Zerbo and Djibril Tamsir Niane. Vol. IV. London: Villiers Publications, 1988.
This brief selection from the volume provides a general overview of the ancient
history of the Malagasy island. In particular, there is a helpful breakdown of the African,
Islamic, and Asian contributions to the island during this time. It is hard to draw a very
clear distinction between these three contributors to Malagasy history, but some
variations can be recognized and this brief text, specifically that of religious differences.
Although this source lacks depth, it touches on an important aspect of Malagasy
background that other sources have failed to mention which is the cultural and religious
contributions made to Madagascar prior to the sixteenth century. This blending of
backgrounds helps explain the reason for which the ethnohistory of Madagascar is
confusing and blurred.
* Vérin, P. “Madagascar.” General History of Africa II.” Ed. G. Mokhtar. Vol. II.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1981.
In this selection, Vérin recognized the mystery and confusion that lies with the
Malagasy ethnohistory, as well as the unity that has evolved from the ancient ethnicities.
He first discussed the linguistic influences on the Malagasy language that is so common
and widely spoken among the present Malagasy citizens. Vérin continues in the analysis
of the physical anthropology of Madagascar breaking the population into four divisions
with percentages: Indonesion-mongloid type, Negro-Oceanic type, Negro-African type,
and European type. In this he offers an explanation of the varying skin tones that can be
found on the island that are attributed to the mixture of all the ancient habitants. He then
goes on to break down the individual arrivals of each Malagasy settlement: Phoenicians
and Hebrews, Indonesians, and African and Swahili immigration. This is an interesting
aspect of Madagascar’s history that seems to be different from traditional African history.
Whereas the majority of African countries were tribal or at divided in some way before
colonization, and then reorganized after colonization, Madagascar has retained its
ethnohistory since it began. Although it has undergone changes and developments, it is
interesting that the mixture and blending of ethnicities and backgrounds is so
predominant in Madagascar, and the absence of post-colonial divisions has led to an
ethnically peaceful country free from civil wars based on background differences.
* Southhall, Aidan. “White Strangers and Their Religion in East Africa and
Madagascar.” Strangers in African Societies. Eds. William A. Shack and Elliott P.
Skinner. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1979.
Southall focuses on two specific “white strangers” in Malagasy history: the
Portuguese Luis Mariano to the southeastern coast in the early seventeenth century, and
the British James Hastie and his relationship with King Radama I within the Merina
empire in the early nineteenth century. Southall focuses on the failed religious influence
that Mariano had within the coastal Madagascar. The reason for the failure of this
Portuguese, and other, attempts of Christian missionaries, Southall states, was not due to
14
the dominance of Islam, but because they were often involved with political motives and
power struggles for trade and also because they were attempting to convert small
politically and ethnically united African societies. However, as can be seem with the
British relationship between Hastie and King Radama I, the white missionaries who
focused their efforts on larger inland societies and operated along the side of the ruler
were largely successful. It is important to note the difference between the ability of
missionary penetration on the coast vs. in the central highlands. The central highlands
were able to be politically successful due to their centralized position as can be seen with
the Merina empire, however this led to their conversion into Christianity and created
problems within the society.
Political Stability:
Country Studies. Library of Congress. “A Country Study: Madagascar”. August 1994.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/mgtoc.html.
The government and politics section of the country study outline is divided into
three sections: constitution and institutions of governance, the fokonolona and traditional
governance, and foreign relations. The constitutions and institutions of governance
section begins with the Third Republic. In signing the new constitution, the voters signed
in a system of separation of powers among the legislative, judiciary, and executive
branches, the creation of a multiparty political system, and the protection of individual
human right and freedom of speech. This section then goes further explaining each
branch of the government in detail of responsibilities and expectations. The fokonolona
and traditional governments section of the outline explains the initial return of the
government to the traditional form (fokonolona) immediately after independence in 1962,
and then goes into detail explaining the working fokonolona political system both
historically and in post-colonization. The foreign relations section outlines the FrancoMalagasy relationship after independence, and then moves into a wider explanation of
Madagascar’s dynamic relationship with the West as it moved through the different
political leaders with their different international visions.
Country Profiles. BBC News. “Country Profile: Madagascar.” 9 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063208.stm.
The World Factbook. CIA. “The World Factbook: Madagascar.” 10 February 2005.
http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ma.html
Timelines. BBC News. “Timeline: Madagascar.” 12 November 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1832645.stm.
These sources provide a recent, brief, and comprehensive outline of Madagascar.
They offer general information about the people, the government, the economy, the
media, and a plethora of statistics about Madagascar in each of these areas. These sources
are useful in gathering basic information and providing a basis for further analysis.
McNeil, Donald G. Jr. “The Land of Endangered Species in Danger.” The New York
Times. 21 July 1996.
15
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=9866885&SrchMode=1&sid=1&
Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=11093136
45&clientId=15546.
This article focuses on the problems that face Madagascar and states the most
important and most fierce problem is political. McNeil states that the politicians make
poor choices that harm the country more than the lack of international concern for the
island. Some of the bad choices that the politicians have made include an allying with
North Korea from 1975-1990, nationalization of the banks, mines, oil companies, and
export houses, and the suppression of the French language which caused many important,
influential, helpful Frenchmen to leave the government. These types of actions were
under the rule of President Ratsiraka. This is an important article as it gives a brief
description of the political turmoil that was present in Madagascar during the late 1980’s
and 1990’s and sites these problems as the root of the country’s extended problems with
poverty and the economy.
Cauvin, Henri E. “Competing Presidents Worsen the Hardships on Madagascar.” The
New York Times. 13 April 2002.
http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?index=0&did=113581577&SrchMode=1&sid=4
&Fmt=3&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=PQD&TS=110931
5350&clientId=15546.
This article refers to the 2002 political crisis in Madagascar that was the result of
two politicians claiming the title of President after the 2002 elections. Ratsiraka had been
the president for the past twenty-five years and claimed that he was cheated out of his
victory in the 2002 election by Ravalomanana, who has since claimed his rightful role as
the president, as well as the capital city of Antananarivo. Ratsiraka relocated to another
important city, Toamasina, and has set up a blockade not allowing Ravalomanana access
to the port. Violent actions have ensued between the two in the form of blowing up
bridges and cross fires that occasionally kill and injure innocent citizens. Most of
Madagascar’s financial transactions have been cancelled, and most exports have been
stopped which caused the economy to suffer drastically. This is an extremely important
event that occurred in the recent political past of Madagascar and caused a struggling, yet
improving, economy to crash. This source provides a great overview of the crisis with
accurate data and clear points.
Bureau of African Affairs. US Department of State. “Background Note: Madagascar.”
January 2005. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5460.htm.
This source provides basic information about the government of Madagascar. The
government is a Republic that holds Marc Ravalomanana as the President and Jacques
Sylla as the Prime Minister. There are eight parties that obtained seats in the 2002
National Assembly elections, with the ruling party (the party of the president) as the I
Love Madagascar (TIM) party, and other seats being held by parties such as the Be
judged By Your Work (AVI) party and the Rally for Social Democracy (RSPD) party. At
the end of 2002 political crisis the emerging President Ravalomanana began a campaign
16
of reform and development targeting corruption and poverty. As part of Ravalomanana’s
decentralization program, September 2004 brought about the formation of 22 Regional
Chiefs that would report directly to the president. This is important background
information that provides a basis for the improvements and success that Madagascar has
experiences in the last two to three years (using the aforementioned articles on debt relief
and completion of the HIPC Initiative as a reference to Malagasy success).
The Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “President Ravalomanana’s
Message.” 18 April 2002.
http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid
=59.
This speech made by President Ravalomanana to his citizens marks the end of the
2002 political crisis between him and President Ratsiraka. In his speech, Ravalomanana
announces that there will be a recounting of the votes, and the outcome of that will
determine the action he will take, but until that time, his Prime Minister and his
politicians will maintain power. This is an important speech in that the president is
keeping his citizens informed, while taking the most non-corrupt actions possible in
calling for a recount. This shows the potential of the current president to be the ambitious
leader Madagascar needs.
Reeker, Philip T. “Political Developments in Madagascar.” U.S. Department of State.
Washington D.C. 11 April 2002.
This official statement from the U.S. Department of State urges the president of
Senegal to help end to political crisis of 2002 in Madagascar. The United States advised
both President Ratsiraka and President Ravalomanana to accept President Wade (from
Senegal) to peace talks in Dakar. The United Stated openly called for the two presidents
to put the issue behind them and put the state of Madagascar in front of them. This is an
important statement in showing the U.S. response to the political crisis in Madagascar. It
is interesting to note the role that the pressure of the U.S. to end fighting may have had in
the peaceful ending of the crisis.
USAID Democracy and Government. Congressional Budget Justification for
Madagascar. “Democracy and Governance in Madagascar.” 2005.
http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance/regions/afr/madagas
car.html.
This article is a brief synopsis of the policies that the current President
Ravalomanana has set as primary objectives during his regime. These objectives coincide
with the recommended objectives by the United States: good governance, economic
growth, and social welfare. The article goes on to briefly describe some of the specific
plans of the Government of Madagascar (GOM) have taken in order to achieve these
objectives. An economic improvement can already be seen after not even one year. This
article is important in that it summarizes the objectives of the current political institution
and portrays them in a positive and hopeful light.
17
Opinions concerning the current situation:
The Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “President Marc Ravalomanana’s
Speech at the UNO” 121 September 2004.
http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2
&artid=344.
This is a speech given by President Ravalomanana to the United Nations
Organization that states Madagascar’s commitment to the African Union and other
international organizations, including the United Nations. In this speech the president
affirms Madagascar’s devotion to the values and objectives that have been set before it;
those of good governance, strong economic policies, and the rejection of terrorism. He
also reminds the UNO of the dangers and risks that Madagascar faces and suggests
investment to help cure those problems. Finally, the president announces five areas in
which Africa will flourish: human resources, agricultural potential, economic potential,
natural energy, and ecological potential. This is an important statement as it shows the
president’s willingness and ambition to step up to Madagascar’s problems and announce
to the United Nations that it is ready and willing to handle its responsibilities and wishes
to have the continued (financial) opportunities to do so.
Official Website of the Malagasy Government. “Millennium Challenge Corporation.” 5
June 2004.
http://www.madagascar.gov.mg/modules.php?name=Sections2&sop=viewarticle2
&artid=317.
This article announces Madagascar’s acceptance into the Millennium Challenge
Corporation which is a government corporation that was designed to reward developing
countries that have met certain political, economic, and social criteria. This article is
short, yet important as it is a clear statement of the improvements that Madagascar has
made, and the incentive they have to continue with improvements.
Reeker, Philip T. “Political Developments in Madagascar.” U.S. Department of State.
Washington D.C. 11 April 2002.
This official statement from the U.S. Department of State urges the president of
Senegal to help end to political crisis of 2002 in Madagascar. The United States advised
both President Ratsiraka and President Ravalomanana to accept President Wade (from
Senegal) to peace talks in Dakar. The United Stated openly called for the two presidents
to put the issue behind them and put the state of Madagascar in front of them. This is an
important statement in showing the U.S. response to the political crisis in Madagascar. It
is interesting to note the role that the pressure of the U.S. to end fighting may have had in
the peaceful ending of the crisis. This implies that the United States takes interest in the
domestic problem within Madagascar and strongly suggests courses of action of the
young government.
18
Press Release NO. 05/35. International Monetary Fund. “IMF Executive Board
Completes Sixth and Final Review Under Madagascar’s PRGF Arrangement and
Approves US$17.2 Million Disbursement.” 18 February 2005.
http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2005/pr0535.htm.
The Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) arrangement was initiated on
March 1, 2001 and reviewed five times after its initiation, with each review ending in the
allocation of more money to Madagascar. This final review has found Madagascar’s use
of its funding to be successful, and therefore, deserving of another US$17.2 million. The
First Deputy Managing Director and Acting Chair of the IMF’s Executive Board, Ms.
Anne Krueger, stated that Madagascar’s performance has been successful and outlined
the issues in which the country needs to direct its future attention, as well as suggested
the areas in which the US$17.2 million should be spent. This is important in that it shows
the most recent economic state of Madagascar as improving and committed. This article
is evidence of the continued dedication of the government to advancement that is further
discussed in the annual reports.
19