Lecture 1
Date: Sept. 10, 004
By Bhaweshwar Das
Introduction:
COURSE DETAILS
Section I
Natural Resources of Nepal:
Eco-climatic division of Nepal; The biodiversity and its Economic strength
Species in trade: Plant genera in trade; Species in Export, import; & Re-trade As for
example: Swertia, Nardostachys, Parmelia, Asparagus, Picrorhiza, Taxus, Daphne, Sapindus,
Euphorbia, Zanthoxylum. Etc
Challenges in commercialization of plant resources: Quality management [raw material to
finished products; Opportunity with plant resources]
Section II
an Introduction of Natural Product Chemistry: Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Carotenoids,
Anthocyanins, Flavonoids, Xanthones, and Steroids
Section III Chemistry of twenty major species of trade [Species of Export 10, import 5; &
Re-trade
Alkaloids Anthraquinones, Catechins, Tannins, Glycosides, Terpenes, Xanthones,
Section IV Isolation, purification and identification of active ingredients:
Pulverization, Distillation, Solvent extraction, Solvent-solvent extraction, Crystallization and
re-crystallization, T.L.C., Column chromatography; G.C., HPLC;
Analysis of active ingredient of above selected Species: Application of modern analytical
methods.
M.P.; B.P.; refractive index, Optical rotation, Flash point, Co-TLC; G.C.; U.V.; I.R.; N.M.R.;
----------[Species in trade: Plant genera in trade: Species in Export, import; & Re-trade As for
example: Swertia, Nardostachys, Parmelia, Asparagus, Picrorhiza, Taxus, Daphne,
Sapindus, Euphorbia, Zanthoxylum. etc]
-------------What are the gaps?
Where shall we concentrate?
Where to read?
Lecture 2
Date: September 12,2004
Session Topic: Eco-climatic division of Nepal:
Ecology and climate of a place is governed by fact where the place is located.
1)


2)
3)
4)
5)
Location:
Longitude
Latitude
Altitude from sea level
Mountains around
Ocean and sea around the place
Hot and cold water current of air and water
We are located in Asia between 80°03” E to 88°10” E and 26°30”N to 30°26”N.
This geographical location encompasses a portion of Himalayan range in the north and
gangetic plane in south.
The specific location spreads its geographical territory on either side of Himalayan range.
Districts west to Rasuwa like Manang, Mustang, Dolpa, Mugu, Humla lie in the north of
Himalayas.
Because of its specific location on earth the country has wide altitudinal range.
These mountains contribute a lot to climate of Nepal.
The mountains are too cool some part even below -30°c; while the planes are much hotter
some places above +30° c.
Max.
Stations
Dadeldhura
* Dipayal
Dhangadi
*
Birendranagar
temp. (ºC) temp.
15.5
26.2
25.5
38
22
33
33.2
Min.
Max.
21.5
(ºC)
Min.
temp. (ºC) temp.
3.4
15.5
4
22.8
5.8
23
21.8
4.5
(ºC)
Rainfall
Rainfall
(mm)#
12.8
0
0
(mm)#
Traces
0
0
0
0
Nepalgunj
Jumla
Dang
* Pokhara
Bhairahawa
Simra
* Kathmandu
Okhaldhunga
Taplejung
* Dhankuta
Biratnagar
Nagarkot
Jomsom
Bharatpur
33.7
26
32.2
31
34.9
32.5
30.2
24.6
24.4
26.5
34.2
21.2
23
35
21.2
13.1
22.4
22.6
22.6
26
20.5
17.6
15.8
21.8
27.5
25.8
13.3
0
24.5
12.5
21.5
22
26
22.5
20
17.6
17.9
20.8
25
14
13
19
5.5
-5.5
4
7
6
6.5
3
7.5
4.6
8.1
7.8
8.5
0
0
0
0
0
22.5
0
7.2
0
0
1.5
Traces
12.8
0.3
0
10.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NA
Climatic Information is based on HMG Department of Hydrology and Metrology.
The rain in Nepal is mainly due to monsoon, which originates in Bay of Bengal and passes all
the way as lead by the Himalayan range. It is cooled due low temperature of mountains and
precipitates as rain. These rains are heavy in the eastern Nepal and as monsoon moves
west, it becomes water deficient and there is low rain in the western Nepal.
These clouds are also blocked by the mountain range the area falls in rain shadow zone.
This is why districts west to Rasuwa like Manang, Mustang, Dolpa, Mugu, Humla which lie
in the north of Himalayas have low rain.
These physiographic processes have created different climatic zones in Nepal.
Altitude: Our geographical location
Belts
Altitude
Sub-tropical climate
Up to 1200m
Warm temperature climate 1200-2000m
Cool temperate climate
2100-3300m
Alpine ‘Lekali’ climate
3300-5000m
Himalayan desert climate
Above 5000m
Lecture 3
September 17, 2004
CLIMATE TYPES AND ITS SPECIFIC FEATURE:
1. Sub-tropical climate:
The climate is seen in southern planes of the country earth at present, which has an altitude between
60m to 1200m. They include Terai, Bhawar, Chure, and inner terai; it can also be observed in Besi, Tar,
and khonch. Some part of the country with low altitudes is too hot, while others are humid semitropical
climate. This climate is found up to 1200m. Climatologically speaking this is sub-tropical but for Nepal,
this is tropical. Summer temperature in this zone ranges from 25°c to 40°c. The climate has hot waves
in summer.
Western terai districts like Kanchanpur, Kailali, Bardiya, Banke, valleys of Dang and Surkhet,
Kapilbastu, Rupandehi are among hot compared to eastern districts like Saptari and Morang and
Jhapa.
Rain is due to monsoon, which originates in the Bay of Bengal and enters from east form where it
extends to west where upon it gradually desiccates and western terai has low rain in summer.
When the monsoon returns from Hinudkush in the winter, the winter rain prevails. The winter rain is
more in west than in the east.
The terai has over 200mm rain.
Accacia, Adina, Alastonia, Annona, Bombax, Bamboo, cassia, ceaselpinea, Cinnamomum, Eagle,
Ficus, Hollorhena, Mallotus, melia, Nerium, Oroxylon, Phyllanthus, Sapindus, Shorea, Dalbergia,
Strychnos, Tamarind, Terminalia are the major the major tree genera of this climate, while Mucuna,
Dioscorea, Gloriosa, Gymnema are the major climbers in this climate.
Adhatoda, Basil, Cassia, Lantana, Pogostemon, Pandanus constitute the major shrubs and Acorus,
Amorphophyllus, Andrographis, Asparagus, Bacopa, Boerhavia, Eclipta, Eulophia, Phyllanthus Swertia,
Vinca, Vetiver Withania are some of the typical herbs found in this climate.
2. Warm temperature climate: This climate prevails in the Mahabharat range from 1200m to 2100 m .The
summer temperature is ranges between 24°c to 30°c while the winter temperature falls up to 0°c
depending on altitude. River basins are hot and humid.
The valleys like Kathmandu fall in a climate where summer days reaches up to 33°c and cool winter
night are as low as minus 3°c.
In the southern face of the Mahabharat range, there is heavy rain up to 125 cm, while on the northern
side of the range the rain is relatively low only up to 100 cm.
Accacia, Adina, Bombax, Bamboo, cassia, Cinnamomum, Eagle, Ficus, Mallotus, Phyllanthus,
Sapindus, Terminalia are the major the major tree genera of this climate, while Mucuna, Dioscorea, are
the major climbers in this climate.
Basil, Cassia, Lantana, Pogostemon, constitute the major shrubs and Acorus, Asparagus, Swertia,
Vinca, are some of the typical herbs found in this climate.
This is the climate range where most of the mountainous caste lives.
3. Cool temperate climate: The Himalayan climate above 2100m to 3300m is quite contrasting to tropical
climate of the terai. Various districts that lie between south of Himalayas and Mahabharat range are in
this climate zone. They include Taplejung, Panchthar, Sankhuwasbha, Ramechap, Dolkha, in the East
and Rasuwa, Dhadhing, Gorkha, Lamjung, Parbat in the west represent such districts. With the
exception of river basin with low altitude and small valley in the range the whole of the above districts
are in cool temperate climate zone.
4.
5.
The summer temperature in these districts ranges between 15°c to 20°c. They have near zero°c
temperature in the winter. They have snowfall in the winter.
Rain is mainly due to monsoon but only up to 100 cm. The rain is high in the south and in the east and
comparatively lower in the north and west. Districts in this climate zone have cool and windy days and
nights in the winter.
The tree species present are Pinus, Rhododendron, Quercus, Daphnephyllum, Abies, and Tsuga
Among the Medicinal plant, several important traded species of Nepal such as Rhubarb, Aconitum,
Asparagus, Gaultheria, and Pseudo-panax are collected from this climate zone.
Alpine ‘Lekali’ climate: The Himalayan range above 3300m to 5000m is in this climate zone. This
climate is similar to climate of Alps in Europe and there fore called alpine climate. The nine-month of
the year is snow laden. The snow melts in summer months. The summer temperature ranges between
10°c to 15°c. The Rain is below 40 cm. Tree species of the zone are Cedrus, Junipers, Cuperessus,
Larix, Hipophae, and Taxus. Some of the high value medicinal plants like Cordyceps, Aconitum,
Picrorhiza; Nardostachys, Ephedra, Onsoma, Rheum, Carum, are collected from this climate zone.
Himalayan desert climate: The altitude above 5000m i.e. above snowline is laden with snow all the year
round and are not suitable for any vegetation not even lichen can grow here. Because the typically ice
laden characters round the year like polar region it is also called third pole.
The evolution of earth: The earth was formed from a solar cloud of Hydrogen under
gravitation. Earth’s first rock was formed over 3500 million year ago.
Different continent of the earth was a single landmass by that time. This single landmass;
according to continental drift theory of Alfred Wagener (1915) split into Laurasia and
gondwana land. The Gondwana land further split into India, Antarctica and Australia.
EVOLUTION OF EARTH
The sediments of shallow sea “Tethys Sea” between Africa and Tibetan plateau raised due to
drift of India and Africa northward. The Himalayan range emerged due to this drift.
A radical idea of plate tectonics assumes that the earth is made of series of rigid crusts called
plates. These plates are moved by convection current within the surface of earth. These
plates diverge and converge along margins, which is marked by earthquakes and volcanoes.
Molten lava within pushes plates up, by which mountains and ranges are formed.
The soil:
This formation of mountains and ridges took of years. The rain and other denudation
processes went on. The soft-top soils were carried and deposited at riverbeds.
The terai of to day is made up of such alluvial soils brought and deposited by river Ganges
and its sisters. Moreover, whole of terai except Dang, and Chitwan is made up of such
alluvial soils.
Geological map of Nepal
Sub Himalayan basin /dun of northern Dang, Northern rauthat, Northern Sarlahi is made of
Alluvial soils brought by respective rivers.
Lesser Himalayan Fluvial soils of Kathmandu valley and northwestern Tanahun are
conglomerates and lacustrine clay.
Lower part of sivaliks in Kanchanpur, Kailali, and peripheral Dang is made up of marine
shells and limestone and fluvial soils.
South of Salyan, Rolpa, Pyuthan, North of Palpa, Nawalaparashi are mainly shallow marine
sediments phyllites, sandstone, and quartzite.
Soils of Myagdi, Kaski, and Lamjung are flyschoid sequences of bedded schist, phyllites and
Meta sandstone.
Several mountain districts are rich in high-grade metamorphic rocks; these districts include
Dolkha, north Ramechap, Solu and other eastern districts.
Thus, what we see that the soils of Nepal are made up of various types of rocks, which in
course of time denudated contributed to the formation of different soil structures of the
country.
The difference lies not only in names of its component rocks but also in its chemical
compositions and presence or absence of micro-components like individual elements. They
also contribute to water holding capacity of the soils.
The soil composition has immense impact on growth or flourishing of individual plant species.
If a soil structure is suitable for a species of plant, it may or may not provide enough nutrients
to other plant species.
Lecture 4
September 24, 2004
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity = Bio [= plants animals] + diversity [= variances, multiplicity, difference,
dissimilarity]
 Ecosystem level
 Species level
 Genetic level [Chemo-type level]
Ecosystem level:
In our earlier lectures, we talked on how the physiography of Nepal has significant impact on
its climates; and how the origin of the mountain ranges and river-system created different soil
condition within small area of the country.
These differences in climate, water availability, soil composition and the soil moisture, create
different ecosystem in the different part of the country.
Stainton (1972) classified the country in to seven different ecosystem as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Terai and Bhawar.
Siwalik, and Dun valley.
Mahabharat.
Mid lands
Himalyas.
Inner Himalayas
Arid zones
1. Terai and Bhawar. Southern part of the country adjoining Indian Territory in the south and
siwalik range in the north is called Terai. Its altitude varies from 60 m from sea level to
300 m. Forest zone called “charkose jhari” in the area was once very rich and diverse in
tropical plant diversity.
2. Siwalik, and Dun valley. This lies between north of terai and south of Mahabharat
range.The altitude of this ecosystem is between 300 m to 1500 m. The range is wide in
the western Nepal and less wider in the east. Chitwan,Dang and trijuga are inner terai
valley of Nepal. They are sloppy and fertile.
3. Mahabharat. Mahabharat is the range spread east to west in north of Siwalik and south of
mid land. The altitudes ranges from 1500 m to 2700 m. River like Bagmati, Babai flow
through it.
4. Mid lands: this ecosystem prevails in the north of Siwalik and Mahabharat and south of
Himalyas. Altitude ranges from 600m to 3500 m. Kthmandu, Pokhara, Banepa are located
in this zone. This is densely populated next to terai. The climate here is more appropriate
and land is fertile.
5. Himalyas. High mountains like Saipal, Lhotse, Machpuchre, Annapurna, Choyu, Manaslu,
Makalu, , Sagarmatha, Kanchanjungha range are located here. The altitudes above 5500
m are snow laden and are devoid of flora.
6. Inner Himalayas: The trans Himalayan districts like Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustng, can
also be considered inner Himalayas. Plants species like Taxus, Abies, Tsuga, and
Rhododendron are found here.
7. Arid zones: Some part of Dolpa, Manang, and Mustang are part of Tibetan plateau and
the climate here is arid.
Species level:
Living beings capable of breeding mutually are called species. Species diversity means
number and frequency of different species in an area. The earth is expected to in habit
from 5,000000 to 3 0,000000 species of living beings (Wilson, 1988).
Richness in diversity means total number of different species in particular area while
The term relative abundance indicates availability of one species compared to the other.
The dominant species means the species which out numbers other species.
Example cited from Class / village.
Community forest where tree species having timber values are kept and other bushy and
thorny species are taken out cannot be considered rich in diversity.
Thus, Richness in diversity implies proportionate growth of all potential species in the
area.
Plant
Species in
the World
Lichen
20000
Fungi
69000
Algae
26900
Mosses /liver. 16600
Pteridophytes 11300
Gymnosperm 529
Angiosperm
220000
Species in
Nepal
465
1822
687
853
380
27
58600
Compared to world
[%]
2.3
2.6
2.5
5.1
3.4
5.1
2.6
These different species are sources of different chemical example
Genetic level:
Gene is the smallest entity present in DNA that carries parental character to the progeny.
Genetic diversity indicates differences in arrangement of genes in the chromosomes. This
leads to differentiation of brothers and sisters from among their sisters.
Example: there are different types of rice in Nepal such as Kuriya, Basmati, Anandi,
Thapchininya, Marsi, Chomrong etc.
This not only creates morphological variances among the progenies but also its content
and composition.
To a chemist the genetic variation is significant because it differentiates the chemical
composition from among the plant of same species.
Example:
ARTEMISIA SPECIES IN NEPAL
1. Artemisia albida Willd.ex Ledeb.
2. Artemisia biennis Willd.
3. Artemisia caurifolia
4. Artemisia capillaris Thunb.
5. Artemisia dubia Wall.
6. = vulgaris
7. Artemisia gmelinii var. vestita (Wall.ex DC.)
= Artemisia vestita (Wall.ex DC.)
Artemisia gmelinii var. minor (Ledeb.)
= Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb.
8. Artemisia indica =vulgaris
Artemisia indica var. canadensis Besser
Artemisia indica var. orientalis (Pamp.) H.Hara
Artemisia indica Willd.
9.
Artemisia japonica Thunb.
10. Artemisia juncea Kar. & Kir.
11. Artemisia maritima Linn.
12. Artemisia moorcroftiana Wall.
13. Artemisia myrianth
14. Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham.ex Roxb.
15. Artemisia roxburghiana Bess.
16. Artemisia siversiana Ehrh.ex Willd.
17. Artemisia vulgaris Burm.f. = indica
18.
Lecture 5 + 6
September 26, 2004
We have seen that in a small area of Nepal we have quite good number of plant species as
high as 62834 plants (so far known), stay alive.
These species are in continuous threat of extinction due to changes in ecology, Climate and
human intervention.
In the late twentieth century, it was realized that if no attention is paid on these changes,
existence of future generation will be impossible.
.
Convention of Biodiversity
At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, world leaders agreed on a comprehensive
strategy for "sustainable development" -- meeting our needs while ensuring that we leave a
healthy and viable world for future generations. One of the key agreements adopted at Rio
was the Convention on Biological Diversity. This pact among the vast majority of the world's
governments sets out commitments for maintaining the world's ecological underpinnings as
we go about the business of economic development. The Convention establishes three main
goals:
1. Conservation of biological diversity,
2. Sustainable use of its components,
3. Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources;
Representatives of 155 countries agreed this document to achieve the common goal of
sustainable development.
There are 21 articles the document. These articles are further sub articles. These article
explain the process by which the world can achieve the above goals.
International Union of Conservation Nature [IUCN] Nepal enlisted all the plant and animal
species, which are under threat or at the verge of extinction in its “red list”. It has also
published some books such as “Rare and endangered plants of Nepal” and "National
Register of Medicinal plants " second edition.
These books enlist plants, which are under threat, and especially the "National Register of
Medicinal plants " second edition tried to enlist are which has been traditionally used in
Nepal.
The book claims to serve the purpose of Article 15,16 and 19 of “Convention Of Biological
Diversity [CBD]”. Hence, we have tried to aware our colleagues on CBD Article 15,16 and 19.
Article 15 Access to genetic resources
1. Recognizing the sovereign rights of States over their natural resources, the authority to
determine access to genetic resources rests with the national governments and is subject to
national legislation.
2. Each Contracting Party shall endeavor to create conditions to facilitate access to genetic
resources for environmentally sound uses by other Contracting Parties and not to impose
restrictions that run counter to the objectives of this Convention.
3. For the purpose of this Convention, the genetic resources being provided by a Contracting
Party, as referred to in this Article and
Articles 16 and 19 are only those that are provided by Contracting Parties that are countries
of origin of such resources or by the Parties that have acquired the genetic resources in
accordance with this Convention.
4. Access, where granted, shall be on mutually agreed terms and subject to the provisions of
this Article.
5. Access to genetic resources shall be subject to prior informed consent of the Contracting
Party providing such resources, unless otherwise determined by that Party.
6. Each Contracting Party shall endeavor to develop and carry out scientific research based
on genetic resources provided by other Contracting Parties with the full participation of, and
where possible in, such Contracting Parties.
7. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as
appropriate, and in accordance with Articles 16 and 19 and, where necessary, through the
financial mechanism established by Articles 20 and 21 with the aim of sharing in a fair and
equitable way the results of research and development and the benefits arising from the
commercial and other utilization of genetic resources with the Contracting Party providing
such resources; Such sharing shall be upon mutually agreed terms.
Article 16: Access to and transfer of technology
1. Each Contracting Party, recognizing that technology includes biotechnology, and that both
access to and transfer of technology among Contracting Parties are essential elements for
the attainment of the objectives of this Convention, undertakes subject to the provisions of
this Article to provide and/or facilitate access for and transfer to other Contracting Parties of
technologies that are relevant to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
or make use of genetic resources and do not cause significant damage to the environment.
===================Lecture 6===================================
2. Access to and transfer of technology referred to in paragraph 1 above to developing
countries shall be provided and/or facilitated under fair and most favorable terms, including
on concessional and preferential terms where mutually agreed, and, where necessary, in
accordance with the financial mechanism established by Articles 20 and 21. In the case of
technology subject to patents and other intellectual property rights, such access and transfer
shall be provided on terms, which recognize and are consistent with the adequate and
effective protection of intellectual property rights. The application of this paragraph shall be
consistent with paragraphs 3, 4 and 5 below.
3.Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as
appropriate, with the aim that Contracting Parties, in particular those that are developing
countries, which provide genetic resources are provided access to and transfer of technology
which makes use of those resources, on mutually agreed terms, including technology
protected by patents and other intellectual property rights, where necessary, through the
provisions of Articles 20 and 21 and in accordance with international law and consistent with
paragraphs 4 and 5 below.
4. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as
appropriate, with the aim that the private sector facilitates access to, joint development and
transfer of technology referred to in paragraph 1 above for the benefit of both governmental
institutions and the private sector of developing countries and in this regard shall abide by the
obligations included in paragraphs 1, 2 and 3 above.
5. The Contracting Parties, recognizing that patents and other intellectual property rights may
have an influence on the implementation of this Convention, shall cooperate in this regard
subject to national legislation and international law in order to ensure that such rights are
supportive of and do not run counter to its objectives.
Article 19: Handling of biotechnology and distribution of its benefits
1. Each Contracting Party shall take legislative, administrative or policy measures, as
appropriate, to provide for the effective participation in biotechnological research activities by
those Contracting Parties, especially developing countries, which provide the genetic
resources for such research, and where feasible in such Contracting Parties.
2. Each Contracting Party shall take all practicable measures to promote and advance
priority access on a fair and equitable basis by Contracting Parties, especially developing
countries, to the results and benefits arising from biotechnology based upon genetic
resources provided by those Contracting Parties. Such access shall be on mutually agreed
terms.
3. The Parties shall consider the need for and modalities of a protocol setting out appropriate
procedures, including, in particular, advance informed agreement, in the field of the safe
transfer, handling and use of any living modified organism resulting from biotechnology that
may have adverse effect on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.
4. Each Contracting Party shall, directly or by requiring any natural or legal person under its
jurisdiction providing the organisms referred to in paragraph 3 above, provide any available
information about the use and safety regulations required by that Contracting Party in
handling such organisms, as well as any available information on the potential adverse
impact of the specific organisms concerned to the Contracting Party into which those
organisms are to be introduced.
NTFP policy 2061, has recently been released by HMG Department of Plants Resources
[Kantipur Bhadra 2061]
CITES AND NTFPs OF NEPAL
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or
CITES, came into effect in 1975. The United Nations Environment Program administers the
Convention and 150 countries are a Party to the Convention.
The Convention was established with the aim of controlling and monitoring the international
trade in plants and animals considered being threatened, or likely to become threatened, and
affected by such trade. Generally, the Convention does not prohibit the international trade in
listed species, but seeks to prevent the unsustainable exploitation of wild populations of
plants and animals.
The Convention consists of a text setting out the main "rules" and three Appendices, or lists,
of plants and animals. Trade in species included in these Appendices is controlled and
monitored by means of a permit system. In CITES terms, "trade" means movement across
international borders.
Appendix: 1
All parts and derivatives subject to control, including live plants, hybrids, seeds, and
herbarium and spirit material.
1.Saussurea costus
2.Vanda coerulea
Appendix 2
All parts and derivatives subject to control, including live plants, hybrids, herbarium and spirit
material, but not seeds (except seeds of Mexican Cactaceae originating from Mexico),
spores and pollen (including pollinia), in vitro cultures unless otherwise annotated.
1. Aloe spp.
2. Cyathea spp.
3. Cycadaceae spp.
4. Dioscorea deltiodea
5. Euphorbia spp.
6. Hedychium philippinense
7. Nardostachys grandiflora
8. Orchidaceae spp.
9. Panax ginseng [Panax pseudoginseng]*
10. Picrorhiza kurroa*
11. Podophyllum hexandrum*
12. Pterocarpus santalinus
13. Rauvolfia serpentina
14. Taxus wallichiana
Appendix 3
Controls = As appendix 2
1. Gnetum montanum
2. Magnolia liliifera var. obovata
3. Meconopsis regia
4. Podocarpus neriifolius
5. Tetracentron sinense
Lecture 7
October 3, 2004
Economic Strength of Bio-diversity
Again we will limit our self to plant diversity because the animal are not the primary sources
of secondary metabolite and also because by definition secondary metabolites are
products of plant origin.
 Past trade
 Present trade
 Future trade
Past trade: In the past, several species of plants were lost due to human intervention and
popular use of plants.
To enlist few of them here:
Santalum album
Pterocarpus santalianus
Aqularia agalocha
Strychnos nuxvomica
Many others have become sparse
Melia indica, Ficus hamiltony, and perhaps several species of Ficus like religiosa,
benghalensis, and Eagle marmelos, Madhuca butyracea, Alstonia scholaris, which are, now
listed, as religious plants can be included in this list.
Several of these species are sources of novel secondary metabolites.
Present day trade:
================== Lecture 8================================
The list of plants that are in the revenue list of H.M.G. department of Forest and published in
Forest act 049 and Forest regulation 051 can be considered as sources of secondary
metabolites that are traded from Nepal.
Table below shows list plants that are in the revenue list:
VOLUME OF MAP COLLECTED [DATA PUBLISHED BY MOFSC]
NTFPs collected
056/057
Allo
Amarisho
Amla
Argeli
Atish jara
Babiyo
Bair
Ban karaila bia
Bel
Bet ko phal
Bhadraksha
Bhoja patra
Bhorla ko bokra
Bhutkesh
Bhyakur
Bilauni
Bish jara
Bish phenj
Bojho
Budhani
Chabo
Champabati
Chiaraito
Choya bokra
Chyau
Dalchini
Daru haldi
Dhupi pat
East
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
4000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3670
0
3100
0
14752
0
64387
0
0
0
0
0
Central
0
0
4394
11827
0
0
500
4610
0
0
14254
0
7200
681
0
0
3631
442
2270
200
0
444
62834.8
0
0
0
0
10684
MidWestern west
Farwest
Total
0
0
848
0
1683
300
0
0
4794
11827
2531
0
87
0
0
0
0
0
0
465
1450
1625
0
1979
800
0
0
14216
0
0
2586
0
1875
0
0
0
19365
0
0
15000
0
0
150
1652
1016.5
2885
0
0
0
24454
0
3270.5
13585
172
8557
0
0
0
0
0
2529
12232
2200
3104
0
0
0
1866
0
0
0
3470
200
33
0
3500
200
500
4697
4000
19365
14254
2529
34432
2881
3569
1600
10578
1458.5
12100
1000
14752
444
169361.8
200
3303.5
16171
3672
21316
Gamdol
Ghortapre
Gobresalla ko pat
Gurjo
Harro
Inreni biu
Jatamanshi
Jhyau
Jivanti
Kachur
kainyo phul
Kakar sighi
Kakoli jara
Kaladana
Kantakari phul
Kara
chulthi/amalbet
Khair
Khoto
Kukur tarul
Kumkum pat
Kurilo
Kutaki
Launth salla
Lohan
Lokta
Maha
Main
Majitho
Mashala pat
Mushali jara
Nagbeli
Nagkeshar
Nigalo gota
Nirmashi
Nundhiki pat
Okhar bokra
Paban
padamchal
Pangra
Pipal pat
Pipla
Raktachandan
Rasulla
Ritha
Rudraksha
0
0
0
0
0
1000
0
700
0
0
0
0
0
0
3950
1910
2150
5000
2227.5
7979
0
3752
40392
9625
0
16030
0
3348
0
0
0
0
10358
0
0
6771
0
29600
0
30850
21673
4755
4493
42554
134342
0
0
43270
87008
0
0
30246
218
0
0
11643
1487
5787
35
200
0
358000pcs
266
974.5
3000
0
0
275
500
0
1656
1297
100
0
400
0
0
1973.5
174
0
0
0
2589.5 150
2797
0
0
210
370
1000
10835
64000
0
0
25201
0
0
1300
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
50
0
0
0
54200
1050
353
0
0
0
0
0
6224
16090
0
0
0
2958
0
0
0
220
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72914
700
83624.5 91871
0
0
0
32
0
0
0
0
800
0
7381
0
0
2483
2150
5000
2227.5
7979
1000
83590
232677.5
9625
32
16030
2958
4148
3769
0
14127
0
0
32706
35354
0
570
11100
0
0
1020
11933
0
0
9140
6771
29600
86459
56905
177896
11405
214518
2651
0
0
0
0
100
20825
0
0
0
58416
59.5
0
0
0
300
0
0
290
0
14000
98410.5
0
0
0
650
0
600
0
0
0
0
0
208388
0
1300
3000
925
500
3953
150
400
2263.5
174
14000
363738
3847
3950
13130
7122
200
Salla ko Simta
Satawari
Satuwa
Setak chini
Shal dhup
Shikakai
Shila jit
Shrikhanda
Simal khoto
Somlata
Sugandha kokila
Sugandhwal
Sunpati
Tapre
Tej pat
Thingure salla
Tigeri
Timmur
Tite pati
Tuki phul
Pakhanbhed
100
0
0
0
0
200
0
0
0
0
0
0
300
0
0
5400
0
1870
0
0
0
40459
765
0
0
280
2304
0
150
850
0
0
1427
4860
200
0
0
0
231
5460
876
0
0
0
347
0
6800
200
0
0
1450
0
1610
0
0
0
0
0
125
0
0
1350
0
5660
0
0
0
0
47365.5
0
0
2940.5
835
20813
0
0
3825
0
5585
358573
8663
2800
0
0
27
631
2448
0
0
0
0
0
1770
0
10481
0
0
10160
0
0
493
1073
0
2997
40559
6452
978
2448
280
9304
47565.5
150
850
6160.5
835
34331
5160
200
13985
5400
5585
361292
15196
3676
4347
Lecture 9
October 10, 2004
Name of the herb
Amaltashphal
Anwala
Arjun bokra
Ashwagandha
Babari
Barro bokra
Barro singo
Banapsha
Banslochannila
Bayabidang
Bel
Chirayito
Chobchini
Dalchini
Guggul
IRs per kg at Delhi Oct.1st 04
12
32 –38
8
45-65
11-25
7
4-5
350-550
35
35-50
20-25
11-140
50-51
150-175
Harro [syanu+thulo]
Harro syanu
Harro thulo
Indrajau chal
Jatamanshi
Jethimadhu
Jhyau
Kakoli
Kalmegha
Kankarasighi
Kaphal
Kapurkachari
Kulanjan
Kutaki
Laha [pipal]
Lodha
Lokhandi
Maida lakari
Makoya
Manjuphal
Menhandi
Mushali kalo
Mushali seto
Nagermotha
Padamchal
Panchaunle
Pashanbhed
Pipala syanu
Pipalathulo
Rasot/chutro sar
Ratanjot
Ritha
Salabdana
Salabgantha
Salabmishri
Sarpagnadha
Shahijan gunda
Shatawari /kurilo
9-11
35-50
5
[panhelo]
110-220
100-130
60
14
11
175-210
80-100
16-22
200-225
20-28
35-36
56-58
30-32
50
250-1350
9-11
60
700-1500
15
90
200
70-100
15
65-80
2800-3200
95-105
35-110
Shikakai
Shilajeet rock/
Shitalchini
Suddha shilajit
Sugandhabal
Sugandhakokila
Talishpatra
Tejpat
Timmur
30
150
192-200
550-1100
65
90
25
25
120
Sources of price information:
Primary source are the traders dealing the item; and secondary sources are price bulletin like
daily and weekly magazines ex Navbharat times; Financial express
Alternatively, specialty reporters like Public ledger are the sources of information for prices.
Shorting of MAP by volume TOP 10 is
Name
Chiaraito
Jatamanshi
Jhyau
Kurilo
Kutaki
Lautha
Salla
Lokta
Ritha
Sila jit
Timmur
TOTAL
169361.8
83590
232677.5
86459
56905
Rate(NRs.)
200
150
32.5
210
110
177896
214518
363738
47565.5
361292
85
100
13.5
150
80
33872360
12538500
7562018.75
18156390
6259550
15121160
21451800
4910463
7134825
28903360
15,59,10,426.8
Export of NTFPs and their derivatives:
Commodity
HERBS
Herbal oil
Herbal Medicine
Taxus resin
Pine Resin
Revenue Million NRs
94
44.5
8.18
25
361.6
533.28
 Home assignment:
Short out next twenty major plants collected:
Give assign Scientific names to the major twenty plants collected.
Lecture 10
Date October 31, 2004
Challenges in commercialization of plant resources:
Let me explain you the case with an instance by a clip from to-days Kantipur: [October 31st,
2004]
Translation by Author:
Kantipur reporter: Sarlalhi, 14 Kartik – A couple dies by eating an herbal drug
being sold by himself as a remedy of gastric.
Indra Bahdur shrestha and his wife man maya shrestha of
karmaiya VDC ward no 1 died by eating an herbal drug
called Nirmashi.
According to family sources the couple ate 3 pieces of the
drug before bed.When the trouble increased they were
brought to Ekta Nursing Home.Man Maya was declared
dead on arrival to the hospital.Indra Bhadur was refered to
Birgunj Hospital the he doed.
According to Govind bahadur mainali a local health worker
the drug taken was Bish [poison].Indra bahadur used to
sale the same drug as nirmashi.According to Deepak Rana
Bhat the took the drug clear the bowel toxicity.
The above instance explains how our knowledge on identity & the activity of Herbal crude drug
of regarding is fatal to us: Similar knowledge has caused near death of Herbal trade.
1. Local Name: Bikh, Bish
English Name: Nepali aconite
Scientific Name: Aconitum spicatum
Summary of Information
Distribution: Found around 3500m in
high altitude.
The plant: A herb with tuberous roots,
60-90cm in height.
Parts used: tubers, roots
Uses: Tubers and roots are used for
medicinal
Local Name: Nirbisi, Nirmansi, Nilo bish
English Name:
Scientific Name: Delphinium
denudatum
Summary of Information
Distribution: which is distributed in
between 1300-4500m.
The plant: A glabrous branching annual
herb, 60-90 cm in height. Found on
private lands. Harvesting time during
September-October.
Part used: roots
Properties and uses: The roots are
acrid, bitter, thermogenic, digestive, and
carminative and are useful in jaundice,
fever, ulcer, leprosy, cough and ulcers.
First barrier to commercialization therefore is true identity of the material.
Majority herbs are traded in crude form. And the exact identity; and the quality requirements
for the products are not defined.
WHO and Crude drugs trade:
The plant material, crude drugs are used through out the developed and developing
countries as home remedies, over the counter drug products and raw material for the
pharmaceutical industries and represent a substantial proportion of the global market. It is
therefore essential to establish internationally recognized monographs and analytical
guidelines.
The World health Assembly –in its resolution WHA 31.33[1978], WHA 40.33[1987] and WHA
42.43[1989 has emphasized the need to ensure the quality of medicinal plant products by
using modern quality control techniques and applying suitable standards.
International pharmacopoeia provides information on selected medicinal plants that are
included in model list, besides many countries has their herbal pharmacopoeia.
The WHO monographs are available for a number of globally accepted plant materials
though while monographs are not available for regionally traded medicinal plant materials.
These pharmacopoeias and monograph have testing procedures for the test of medicinal
plant materials.
The testing and set standards are optional in Nepal but are mandatory for once the country
becomes parties of WTO after 2006.
There are ample example of technical barrier that barred Chinese Honey and crude drugs
not complying the standards for entry in European market.
The following list of test is enlisted in “quality control methods for Medicinal plants”.
1. Determination of foreign matterMacroscopic and microscopic
3. Thin layer chromatography
4. Determination of ash value
5. Determination of extractable matter
6. Determination of water and volatile matter
7. Determination of Volatile oil
8. Determination of bitterness value
9. Determination of hemolytic activity
10. Determination of tannin
11. Determination of swelling index
12. Determination of foaming index
13. Determination of Pesticides residue
14. Determination of arsenic and heavy metals
15. Determination of microorganism
16. Determination of radioactive contamination.
Standards for Spices and Condiments:
International Standard Organization [ISO] has 191 technical committees out of which ISO
/TC 34 is one. ISO /TC 34 has 15 sub committee one of which is ISO /TC 34 /SC 7. The ISO
/TC 34 /SC 7deals with spices and condiments and its secretariat is in Bureau of Indian
Standards. The ISO /TC 34 /SC 7 has finalized over 59 international standards for spices.
These standards have included testing procedures also.
American Spice Traders Association [ASTA] has cleanliness specification of 29 spices.
ASTA specification effective from 1 January 1990 has minimum permissible limit of Whole
insect, excreta of mammalian by mg /lb; excreta other by mg/lb; mould % weight; insect
defiled % weight and extraneous foreign matter % weight.
Nepal Standards of common spices : Part 50,Number 42 of Nepal Gazette section 3 date
2057/10/23 describes standards for Nepal Cardamom [Amomum subulatum], fruit, seed,
powder; Dried Ginger, Dried ginger powder; Turmeric, Turmeric powder; Cumin, cumin
powder; Whole pepper, pepper powder; Chilies, Chilies powder; Coriander and coriander
powder.
Nepal Standards of common spices has defined specification based on moisture %,
Volatile oil %, Cold-water soluble extract, alcohol soluble extract Total ash Dil HCl insoluble
ash and fiber content in some cases. It does refer CaO in dry ginger, lead chromate and
curcumin in case of turmeric and fiber content in case of pepper.
Part 50; Number 42 of Nepal Gazette section 3; date 2057/10/23 is
silent in many other requirements required globally. It also does not
talk on testing procedure. Similarly it is also silent on Zanthoxylum .
Thus, we can infer that quality management and certification is one of the major
Lecture 11
Date: Friday November 05,2004
Section: An Introduction To Natural Product Chemistry:
Primary metabolites: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats & oils. These primary metabolites in plant
chemistry is neither less important nor unrelated to metabolites but because we have limited
time in a semester we do not focus here, and also because trade of Jaributi of Nepal
[medicinal plant / NTFPs] are often due to unique secondary metabolites in it.
Say for example: Asparagus racemosus and Saussurea sps are traded because of unique
combination of Polysccharides with glycosides, and traces of alkaloids and other secondary
metabolites in it.
Secondary Metabolites: Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, Flavonoids,
Xanthones, and Steroids
Here from we enter to organic chemistry
ALKALOIDS:
Introduction
These compounds are renown for their potent pharmacological activities. Whilst tiny
amounts of some can immobilise an elephant or a rhinoceros, others have important clinical
use such as analgesics, antimalerial, antispasmotics, for pupil dilation, and treatment of
hypertension, mental disorders and tumours.
They are all nitrogen heterocycles which occur mainly in plants as their salts of common
carboxylic acids such as citric, lactic, oxalic, acetic, malic and tartaric acids as well as
fumaric, benzoic, aconitic and veratric acids. Their amine character produce an alkaline
solution in water and hence the origin of their name -alkaloids.
The alkaloids are extracted from plants by extraction with organic solvent. For example Just
as seeds, which are rich in oils, can be extracted with petroleum ether. Solvents like Ethanol
and Methanol is also used to extract the alkaloids and after filtration and evaporation the
extract is diluted with water acidified and steam distilled to remove the last traces of
methanol. After several days at 0 - 5oC the aqueous residue usually clears and it is then
possible to separate the organic layer. The organic material is extracted with ether or
chloroform, the extracts evaporated and steam distilled again. Volatile alkaloids are
separated. The aqueous residue is made alkaline and extracted yet again. The extracts are
evaporated and then begin the task of trying to separate the constituents in crystalline form
either as the freebase or if not as acid salts.
There is a wide variety of structural types of alkaloid e.g. monocyclic, dicyclic, tricyclic,
tetracyclic etc. as well as cage structures.
Monocyclic alkaloids:
Coniine (1), whose structure is based on piperidine, is highly toxic. It may be extracted from
Conium Maculatum [hemlock] and it was used by the ancient Greeks for state executions,
Socrates being the most famous victim.
On the other hand, nicotine (2), the main alkaloid constituent of tobacco Nicotiana tabacum ,
is based on the five membered pyrrolidine and six membered pyridine structures. It is without
doubt the most well known alkaloid, and its calming effect together with its addictiveness has
probably caused the death of more people in the world than any other compound.
The Biosynthesis of Coniine. - Lysine was thought to be the most likely precursor and indeed
feeding the hemlock plant with 14C labelled lysine produced radioactive coniine. However it
is possible that lysine is degraded to a simpler compound which is the real precursor. Indeed
feeding the hemlock plant with diamino pentane and also with labelled acetate also led to
incorporation of the label. The feeding of labelled acetate produces coniine with alternating
carbon atoms (2, 4, 6, and 2’) labelled. The high level of label incorporation indicates that the
actual biosynthesis of coniine originates from a polyketide.
2. BICYCLIC ALKALOIDS:
The tropane alakaloids are based on 1,4 nitrogen bridged cyclohepatane structure.The
compound atropine is isolated from Atropa belladonna .
Atropine is widely used in medicine in doses of about 0.1 mg for its muscle relaxant
properties. Thus it is used as an antispasmotic including the dilation of the pupil by relaxing
the eye muscles and so assists eye treatment, and it is available for the treatment of
organophosphate/nerve gas poisoning.
Not surprisingly cocaine, which comes from the coca plant, has similar properties to atropine
and at one time it was used as a local anaesthetic but is rarely used medically nowadays due
to its toxic and addictive effects.
There are a number of alkaloids, which are derivatives of quinoline, isoquinoline and their
hydrogenated analogues.
Papaverine, an opium constituent, has antispasmotic properties and has also been used as
an analgesic. Today it is used as a minor constituent with morphine usually to enhance the
analgesic properties of a weaker drug such as aspirin.
Emetine is a derivative of tetrahydro isoquinoline which is isolated from the root of a S.
African creeper. It has been used as an expectorant, but now replaced by codeine and other
non alkaloid drugs such as ephedrine and diphenylhydramine.
The most widely used of the quinoline alkaloids is quinine which is isolated from the bark of
the cinchona tree. It is used as an antimalarial drug in 0.6 g doses, as a skeletal muscle
relaxant it is used in .2 g doses to relieve nocturnal cramps and at trace levels as a bitter
flavouring in tonic water.
3. POLYCYCLIC ALKALOIDS
The indole structure is also a common feature of alkaloid structures and can be identified as
part of polycyclic alkaloids such as reserpine Rauwlofia serpentina , vinblastine of Vinca
rosea , strychnine of Strychnos nuxvomica and lysergic acid.
Of these reserpine has the most important clinical use i.e. for the treatment of high blood
pressure and as a tranquilliser.
Vinoblastine and its analogues are used to treat acute leukaemia, lymphomas and some
solid breast and lung tumours.
Strychnine is very poisonous and was once used to control rodents, but it has been replaced
by poisons which are less toxic to man.
The active ingredient of the ergot fungus which grows on cereal grasses such as rye, is a
lysergic acid amide. LSD is the diethylamide derivative (X = NEt2) of lysergic acid has
hallucinogenic properties. It has no medical applications, but ergotamine tartrate (a tripeptide
derivative) is used to treat acute migraine. Its dihydro derivative is even more powerful.
Note that Cannabis (marijuana/Indian hemp), which is a mild hallucinogen, is a pyrone
dreivative and not an alkaloid. It is also said to be "habit forming"
Morphine, which constitutes ca 10% of the extract from opium poppies, is one of the most
potent alkaloids. It is a very effective pain killer and is used in medicine when pain is
absolutely intolerable.
On the other hand, its acetyl derivative, heroin, is widely abused because of its short-term
production of an overwhelming relaxing well-being feeling. Both are highly addictive and with
prolonged use produce very harmful physiological effects on the body.
The most commonly used of this class of opioids in medicine is codeine. It is a minor
constituent of opium but is made by the methylation of morphine. It is a fairly good analgesic
but causes constipation. Thus about 8 mg is often added to either .4 or .5 g. tablets of
aspirin or paracetamol. It is also used as a cough suppressant and as an antidiarrhoeal
drug. It must be used with care since it is still addictive although to a lesser extent than
morphine.
Lecture 12
November 07,2004
Terpenes
INTRODUCTION
Terpenes are probably the most widespread group of natural products. They
may be defined as a group of molecules whose structure is based on a various
but definite number of isoprene units (methylbuta-1,3-diene, named
hemiterpene, with 5 carbon atoms).
This definition leads to a rational classification of the terpenes depending upon
the number of such isoprene (or isopentane) units incorporated in the basic
molecular skeleton.
Terpenes
Isoprene
units
Carbon
atoms
1
Monoterpenes
2
10
2
Sesquiterpenes
3
15
3
Diterpenes
4
20
4
Sesterpenes
5
25
5
Triterpenes
6
30
6
Carotenoids
8
40
7
Rubber
> 100
> 500
Mono-, sesqui-, di-, and sesterpenes contain the isoprene units linked in a head
to tail fashion.
The triterpenes and carotenoids (tetraterpenes) contain two C15 and C20 units
respectively linked head to head.
Many terpenes are hydrocarbons, but oxygen-containing compounds such as
alcohols, aldehydes or ketones are also found. These derivatives are frequently
named terpenoids [meaning terpene likes].
While the Mono- and sesquiterpenes are the chief constituents of the essential
oils the other terpenes are constituents of balsams, resins, waxes, and rubber.
Isoprenoid units are also found within the framework of other natural molecules.
Thus, indole alkaloids, several quinones (vitamin K, E) vitamin formed
carotene, phenols, isoprenoid alcohol also known as terpenols or polyprenols)
also contain terpenoid fragments. The origin of the ubiquitous isoprene unit and
its conversion into various compound has been extensively studied.
HISTORY
Terpenes history spans various civilizations
Ravan [Treta Yug]
11th century
Arkprakash satak
The Arabs introduced
camphor in Europe from
the East.
Arnaud de Villanosa
[12th century]
Nuremberg [1592]
JJ Houston de la
Billardière[1818]
Dumas [1866]
Wallach [1887]
Bredt in 1893
Wagner [1894]
Tiemann [1895]
Wackenrodder [1837]
Willstätter [1907]
described distillation of
oils from rosemary and
sage. "oleum mirabile".
Edited "Dispensatorium
valerii cordi"
Analysis of oils of
turpentine
Determined & proposed
the name terpene
“Isoprene rule” proposed
to distinguish the
monoterpenes and the
sesquiterpenes
Structure of camphor
established
pinene
citral
-carotene was isolated
from carrots
Correct molecular form ßcarotene determined
The period since 1945 has seen an extensive explosion in natural product
chemistry due to the advent of chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques.
Mevalonic acid was shown in 1956 to be a biosynthetic precursor of cholesterol
and later, its incorporation into a number of terpenoids has been demonstrated.
Actually, an increasing number of terpenoids are described in the plant
kingdom and many of them were shown to have important biological activities.
Thus, several sesquiterpenes and diterpenes have antibiotic properties; some
sesquiterpenes and diterpenes are insect and plant hormones, respectively.
Componds like Car-3-ene, is present in turpentine oil from pinus, Sabinene is
present in Dhupi the Juniper, α- Thujone is presnt in Thuja occidentalis .
Similarly camphor is present in Kapur [Cinnamomum camphora], umbelol in
coriander, α-pinene in pine.
SESQUITERPENES
Sesquiterpenoids are defined as the group of 15 carbon compounds derived by
the assembly of 3 isoprenoid units and they are found mainly in higher plants.
Sesquiterpene structures present several acyclic, mono-, bi-, tri-, and tetracyclic
systems. Some of natural sesquiterpenoids are shown below.
The farnesol is present in large quantity in chamomile distilled in Nepal and
east Indian sandal oil of Australia. Nerolidol is present on Neroli oil a ctrus type
oil.
Similarirly curcumene is yellow pigment in turmeric, Bergamotene is present in
“kalo Jyamir” ctrus bergamia
Gossypol is present in cotton seed and Thujopsene in thuja, Cedrol is principle
phenol in cedrus deodara [deodar]
DITERPENES
They have 20 carbon atoms and are derived from geranylgraniol
pyrophosphate.
They are of fungal or plant origin and include the resin acids and the gibberellin
plant growth hormones.
The diterpenes have exceptionally open chain, as found in geranylgeraniol or
phytol, which forms a part of chlorophyll and the side chain of vitamin E and K.
Examples of diterpene substances are given below:
Lecture 13
November 19,2004
Carotenes: Yellow or orange-red fat soluble pigments in plants.
Distribution in nature: They are widely distributed in nature some common
sources of carotenes are Capsicum annum [Chilly], Lycopersicum esculentum
[Tomato],Cucurbita maxima [Sweet guard] Carica papaya, Citrus fruits like
orange, lemon, mandarins , etc
Tomatoes and tomato-based food products are the major source of lycopene
and a number of other carotenoids, such as phytoene, phytofluene, carotene, -carotene, ß-carotene, and neurosporene Other commonly
consumed fruits that contain lycopene are pink grapefruit and papaya.
Apricots (fresh, canned, dried) also contain low concentrations of lycopene
and related carotenoids. Among these foods that are the major source of
hydrocarbon carotenoids, only ß-carotene, -carotene, and -carotene are
precursors of vitamin A (Fig.). Because the reduced risk of prostate cancer
has been specifically correlated with the high consumption of tomato-based
food products, this protective effect has been largely attributed to lycopene.
Although lycopene is the major carotenoid in these foods, the presence of a
wide range of other carotenoids in tomato-based food products cannot be
overlooked.
Uses: It is quite likely that lycopene in combination with other related tomato
carotenoids mentioned above might be responsible for the observed biological
activity. In 1995, Tonucci et al. reported on the qualitative and quantitative
distribution of carotenoids in name-brand and store-brand tomato-based food
products purchased in three major U.S. cities.
Analysis: These foods were extracted and analyzed by high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) according to the methodology developed by
Khachik et al.
other lycopene-containing foods (pink grapefruit, papaya, apricot) as well as
those with similar carotenoid profiles (oranges, mandarin oranges, squash).
The carotenoids in these foods have been recently analyzed and quantified by
HPLC by the author (F.K.). Although lycopene has, to some extent, been
investigated for its biological properties in the prevention of carcinogenesis,
Other major hydrocarbon carotenoids have not received much attention.
Therefore, the contribution of other related tomato carotenoids besides
lycopene to the chemoprevention of cancer remains unclear.
Lutein
You can see how these and many other carotenes are made up of repetition of isoprene
structures.
Question first term November 21,2004
Long question 3x10 -2
1.
How many different types of climate are available in Nepal and explain the reason for
variation of climate.
2.
Validate the statement “Climate has strong effect on vegetation of a location” enlist at
list [scientific names] of three plants from growing in each climate zone.
3.
Explain, “Knowledge and skill are primary barriers in commercialization of medicinal
plants”.
Short questions
1.
What do you mean by CBD? Explain articles 15 of CBD.
2.
What do you mean by CITES? Explain with example The ban list of Ministry of Forest
and soil conservation do not truly reflect CITES spirits!
3.
What are alkaloids? Draw the structure of one monocyclic and one bicyclic alkaloid.
4.
What are terpenes? Draw the structure α and β pinene
5.
What are carotenes? Draw the structures of β carotene.
Very short questions 8 X 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Flora
CBD
CITES
Secondary metabolites
Species level diversity
Terpenes
Alkaloids
Carotenes
=========50 marks
Lecture 14
December 3, 2004
Anthocyanins, Flavonoids
Definition,Chemical structure,Distribution in Plants of Nepal, major link with trade
Anthocyanins are naturally occurring compounds that impart color to fruit,
vegetables, and plants. Derived from two Greek words meaning plant and blue,
Anthocyanins are the pigments that make Vaccinium [ blueberries] blue,
raspberries red, Rubus [Aiselu] yellow and are thought to play a major role in the
high antioxidant activity levels observed in red and blue fruits and vegetables.
Anthocyanins are also largely responsible for the red coloring of buds and young
shoots and the purple and purple-red colors of autumn leaves. Close to 300
Anthocyanins have been discovered.
Each fruit and vegetable has its own anthocyanin profile, providing a distinct
"fingerprint." Red wine, for example, contains over 15 anthocyanin monomers (type
of chemical compound), the varying proportions of which, depending on the type of
grape, establish the various shades of the wine's color.
Chemically, they are water soluble flavonoid derivatives, which can be glycosylated
and acylated.structures responsible are pelargonidin [scarlet color],cyanidin[
crimson],delphinidin [mauve] color
Numbering in anthocyanins
The aglycone is referred to as an anthocyanidin. There are 6 commonly occurring
anthocyanidin structures. However, anthocyanidins are rarely found in plants -
rather they are almost always found as the more stable glycosylated derivatives,
referred to as anthocyanins.
Pelargonidin
Cyanidin
Delphinidin
Peonidin
Petunidin
Malvidin
These colors and their combination imparts various color to vegetables and fruits
These colors are PH sensitive
Recently, there has been interest in anthocyanins, not only for their colour properties,
but due to their activity as antioxidants.
Flavones are a group of multi-ring, hydroxyl-containing compounds that are being
studied widely for their nutritional value and their use in preventive health care
measures. These compounds are found in products as diverse as Ginkgo Biloba,
orange juice, and in garden herbs such as dill, oregano and parsley.
Figure shows the structures of some common flavones. Note the large number of OH
groups on the rings.
Q: What are anthocyanins? Draw the structure of pelargonidin, cyanidin, Delphinidin,
Peonidin, Petunidin, and malvidin .Why anthocyanins have become commercially
important these days?
Q: What are anthocyanins? Draw the basic structure of anthcyanins and number the
carbon in ring A and ring B.
1. Swertia chirata
2. Nardostachys jatamansi
3. Zanthoxylum alatum
4. Taxus wallichiana
5. Asparagus racemosus
6. Picrorhiza scrophulariflora
7. Lichen sps
8. Accacia sps
9. Daphne bholua
10. Shilajit
11. Terminalia sps
12. Emblica officinalis
13. Mentha sps
Lecture 15
December 5, 2004
Xanthones, and Steroids
Xanthone are ketone with a molecular formula C13H8O2 that is the parent of several
natural yellow pigments.
xanthone skelton & numbering
The molecules as stated above are present in several medicinal plants and are
medicinally much important.
These 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 carbons can be substituted by hydroxyl and methoxy function,
which give various compounds.
Xanthone derivatives are present in several plants traded from Nepal one such plant is
Swertia chirata :
Which contains
1,8-DIHYDROXY-3,7-DIMETHOXYXANTHONE antitubercular
Swerchirin: 1,8-dihydroxy-3,5-dimethoxyxanthone . Hypoglycemic
xanthones are present in several other members of gentian family like Picrorhiza kurroa
Andrographis paniculata is yet another plant with xanthone.It has following four
xanthones
(i) 1,8-di-hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxy-xanthone, (ii) 4,8-dihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxy-xanthone,
(iii)1,2-dihydroxy-6,8-dimethoxy-xanthone and (iv) 3,7,8-trimethoxy-1-hydroxy xanthone
Garcinia cambogia, rheediaxanthone A ,garbogiol, was isolated from the root;
Mangostein is another fruit with high xanthones, which are commercially important.
Like anthocyanins, which we discussed earlier, they also have free radical scavenging
property and have become extremely important in recent years.
Steroids
Steroids are fat-soluble hormones with a tetracyclic base structure. The base structure
consists of four fused rings: three cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentane. The basic
structural backbone can be seen below:
As you can see, each of the rings is designated by a letter. Rings A and D are the most
commonly modified rings. The following diagram shows the numbering of the carbons in
steroids, which will be useful later in this article. The two methyl groups on C10 and C13
are also designated with numbers, as they are present in most steroids.
Steroids are synthesized in the body from squalene, a complex linear aromatic Molecule.
Steroids have a variety of uses in the human body, including, but not limited to:
controlling meiosis, carbohydrate metabolism, fat storage, muscle growth, immune
function and nerve cell membrane chemistry. Steroids can be separated into three main
groups: gonadal compounds, glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids. This distinction
depends on the site of synthesis of the steroid. The gonadal variety are mainly
synthesized in the gonads, as is suggested by the name, while the glucocorticoids (eg
cortisol, cortisone) and mineralcorticoids (eg aldosterone) are synthesized in the adrenal
cortex.
Steroids can also be divided into groups by function: androgens, estrogens,
progestogens, anabolics, and catabolics. The two main types of steroids that we will
consider are anabolics and androgens. Androgens exert some kind of masculinizing
physical effect on the body, while anabolics promote growth. However, these
distinctions are not completely exclusive. For example, testosterone is synthesized by
the adrenal cortex as well as the testes, and has both anabolic and androgenic
properties.
Cholesterol well known molecule supposed to be responsible for cardiac troubles.
Molecules like Pregnenolone is a hormone secreted in the uterus controlling ovum
implantation, and is the precursor for the androgens, estrogens, and
glucocorticoids.;Testosterone are synthesized in testes
Steroidal skeletons are present in several plants of Nepal:
Several plant traded from Nepal are primarily traded because one or the other
steroid is present in it.
Dioscorea genera is source of Diosgenin which can be converted Pregnane
and several hormonal drugs
Asparagus spp phytoecdysteroids
Cordyceps sinessis antitumor compounds 5 ,8 -epidioxy-24(R)methylcholesta-6,22-dien-3 - -glucopyranoside and 5,6-epoxy-24(R)methylcholesta-7,22-dien-3 -ol
Dactylorhiza latagirea ecdysteroids
Dioscoria spp. diosgenin
Panax ginsenoside-Rh1, a component of ginseng saponin, activates estrogen
receptor in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells
Sapindus mukorossi mukorossides industrial saponin for production
shampoos and fiber softening agent.
Saussurea costus : Four steroids were isolated from the Saussurea
gossypiphora for the fist time. They were determined as 3-stigmastanol, betasitosterol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol and ergostan-3,24-diol by spectral and chemical
methods.
Paris polyphylla : phytoecdysteroids
Lecture 16
December 12, 2004
Name
Chiaraito
Jatamanshi
Jhyau
Kurilo
Kutaki
Lautha
Salla
Lokta
Ritha
Sila jit
Timmur
TOTAL
kg
169361.8
83590
232677.5
86459
56905
177896
214518
363738
47565.5
361292
CHIRATA
Scientific Name: Swertia chirata Buch.-Ham.ex Wall.
Cat. n. 4372.
Original Data
Notes: Reg. Himal
English: Chirata
Local name : Tite,Tikto,Chirayito,Chirayata ,Chirata
Family : Gentianaceae
Genus swertia is represented by over 21 species in Nepal out of which about 9
species appear in trade.
S.alata,
S.anguistifolia,S.bimaculata,S.Chirata,S.multicaulis,S.nervosa,S.paniculata,S.purp
urascens,S.racemosa among those in trade.
Trade:
055/056
166451
056/057
169361
057/058
337497.5
058/059
Missing
059/060
119315.5
Average flow per year 224436 kg per year
Royalty Rate NRs 3 per kg
The price trend
NRs 20/- per kg in 2040 NRs 120/- per kg in 2051; NRs 500 per kg in 2058;
Chemistry
Gentianine
Pharmacology
UNIQUE CHEMICALS OF SWERTIA CHIRATA
Amarogentin
1,8-DIHYDROXY-3,7-DIMETHOXYXANTHONE Plant:
Antitubercular; Pesticide
BETA-AMYRIN Plant:
Antiedemic IC27=40 mg/kg ipr rat; Antiinflammatory; Antinociceptive
GENTIANINE Plant:
Analgesic; Antianaphylactic; Antiarthritic; Antibacterial; Antiedemic; Antihistaminic;
Antiinflammatory; Antimeningitic ivn man; Antipsychotic; Antirheumatic; Antishigellic;
Antistaphylococcic; Antistreptococcic; Ataractic; CNS-Paralytic; CNS-Stimulant;
Corticosterogenic; Emetic; Hypoglycemic; Hypotensive; Myorelaxant; Neurotoxic;
Pesticide; Sedative
GENTIOPICRIN Plant:
Antimalarial; Fungicide; Larvicide 1,300-2,00 mg/man; Pesticide
LUPEOL Plant:
Antiedemic; Antiflu; Antihyperglycemic; Antiinflammatory 1/3 Indomethacin; Antilithic
25 mg/kg/day; Antimalarial IC50=46.8 ug/ml; Antioxalate 25 mg/kg/day; Antioxidant;
Antiperoxidant; Antirheumatic; Antitumor; Antiurethrotic; Antiviral; Cytotoxic 50-500
ppm; FPTase-Inhibitor IC50=65 ug/ml; Hypotensive; Pesticide; TOPO-2-Inhibitor
IC50=10.4 uM
OLEANOLIC ACID: plant
SWERCHIRIN Plant:
Antihepatotoxic; Hypoglycemic; MAO-Inhibitor
SWERTIANIN Plant:
Antitubercular; Mutagenic; Pesticide
CHEMICALS COMMON TO OTHER PLANT GENERA
MANGIFERIN Plant:
Antidermatitic; Antidiabetic; Antifibrotic; Antihepatotic; Antihepatotoxic; Antiherpetic;
Antiinflammatory; Antioxidant; Antispasmodic; Antiviral; Cardiotonic; Choleretic 20
mg/kg; CNS-Stimulant 50-100 mg/kg; Diuretic; Immunostimulant; MAO-Inhibitor;
Pesticide; T-Cell-Stimulant
TANNIN Plant:
Anthelmintic; Antibacterial; Anticancer; Anticariogenic; Antidiarrheic; Antidysenteric;
Antihepatotoxic; AntiHIV; Antihypertensive; Antilipolytic; Antimutagenic; Antinephritic;
Antiophidic; Antioxidant 1/3 quercetin IC50=1.44 ug/ml; Antiradicular 1/3 quercetin 500
mg/kg/day orl mus; Antirenitic; Antitumor; Antitumor-Promoter; Antiulcer; Antiviral;
Cancer-Preventive; Carcinogenic; Chelator; Cyclooxygenase-Inhibitor; Glucosyl-
Transferase-Inhibitor; Hepatoprotective; Immunosuppressant; Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor;
MAO-Inhibitor; Ornithine-Decarboxylase-Inhibitor; Pesticide; Psychotropic; XanthineOxidase-Inhibitor
OLEIC-ACID Plant:
5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Allergenic; Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Anemiagenic;
Antialopecic; Antiandrogenic; Antiinflammatory IC50=21 uM; Antileukotriene-D4;
Cancer-Preventive; Choleretic 5 ml/man; Dermatitigenic; FLavor FEMA 1-30;
Hypocholesterolemic; Insectifuge; Irritant; Percutaneostimulant; Perfumery; Propecic
PALMITIC-ACID Plant:
5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Antialopecic; Antiandrogenic; Antifibrinolytic; Antioxidant
IC40=60; FLavor FEMA 1; Hemolytic; Hypercholesterolemic; Lubricant; Nematicide;
Pesticide; Propecic; Soap
STEARIC-ACID Plant:
5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor; Cosmetic; FLavor FEMA 2-4,000; Hypocholesterolemic;
Lubricant; Perfumery; Propecic; Suppository
NO ACTIVITY REPORTED
SWERTININ, OPHELIC-ACID CHIRATIN Plant:
ppm = parts per million
tr = trace
Lecture 17
December 17, 2004
Essential oils
EXPORT
Nepal exports under HS code 3301[3301 Essential oils; resinoids; terpenic by-products
etc]; 55 ton worth 335000 US$, representing 2% of global trade positioning the country 72 in
the list of exporters of the category:
Other major players are ranked below
[HS code 3301] Year 2003
World estimation
United States
France
Brazil
United kingdom
US $ thousand
1,606,725
282,010
191,905
114,385
108,575
Quantity in Ton
196,492
27,944
6,056
69,521
6,856
% share
100
17
11
7
6
India
China
Argentina
101,987
62,873
56,019
8,778
10454
4,977
6
3
3
These five-countries account for 53 % of total essential oil traded in the world.
Nepal’s export of essential oil under HS code 330129 [essential oils, whether or not
terpeneless, incl. concretes and absolutes (excl. those of citrus fruit, geranium, jasmine,
lavender, lavandine, mint and vetiver)]
Nepal exported about 34 ton of essential oil under HS code worth 389000 US$ of which 29
ton (60%) of essential oils were exported to India. Other countries to which essential oil under
HS code 330129 were exported are Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Spain, and Germany t. This
comprised mainly of grass oils.
Nepal exported mainly
1.
Acorus calamus oil. [ ]
2.
Artemisia vulagaris oil.[ ]
3.
Cinnamomum glausecens oil [  ]
4.
Curcuma zeodaria oil
[]
5.
Cymbopogon flexuosus oil [
6.
Cymbopogon martini [].
7.
]
8.
Gaultheria fragarantissima oil[ ]
9.
Juniperous recurva oil [
10.
Matricaria chamomilla oil.[
11.
Mentha arvensis oil.[]
12.
Nardostachys grandiflora oil[].
13.
Ocimum basilicum oil[ 
14.

15. Zanthoxylum armatum oil[  ]
16.
Turpentine oil.*[ ]
IMPORT
HS Code
Essential Oil imported
3301
Essential oils; resinoids; terpenic
by-products etc
Mentha piperita oil
Mentha arvensis oil
Essential oils, whether or not
terpeneless, incl. concretes and
absolutes (excl. those of citrus
fruit, geranium, jasmine, lavender,
330124
330125
330129
Quantity
ton
23
4
1
Cost
US$
515000
Supplier
145000
23000
13000
India
India
India
Ind,Sing,Uk
lavandine, mint and vetiver)
Total import in US $
696000
JATAMANSI
[updated on December 17, 2004]
Family : Valerianaceae
All the classical information are recorded by the name
Valerianaceae Nardostachys DC.
Coll. Mem. vii. 4. tt. 1, 2 (1830).
Original Data
Notes: Benth. & Hook. f. Gen. Pl. ii. 153. {Corrected when editing for database}
The original plant of CIS-Himalayas perhaps was
1.
Nardostachys jatamansi DC.
Coll. Mem. vii. 4. t. 2 (1830).
Original Data
Notes: Reg. Himal
2.
Nardostachys grandiflora DC.
Coll. Mem. vii. 4. t. 2 (1830).
A Collector with N. grandiflora
Original Data
Notes: =Nardostachys Jatamansi
The species was also recorded by earlier Botanist at nearly similar altitude but with bigger leaf
and prominent flower
3.
Nardostachys gracilis Kitamura
in Acta Phytotax. & Geobot., Kyoto, xv. 134 (1954).
This species is recorded from Manang /Nepal
Nardostachys chinensis Batalin
in Act. Hort. Petrop. xiii. (1894) 376.
The species may occur in trans Himalayas may be the plant recorded by Kitamura from
Manamg is N.chinenesis
All 3 species N.jatamansi, N.grandiflora and N.gracilis are treated as synonym by current
botanist.
Perhaps the confusion came after 1960 when the taxonomist using the morphology as key for
classification found similar morphology.
Distribution: commercially the “Jatamansi” is collected from Taplejung and Terhathum in
eastern Nepal.Dolkha,Rasuwa in central Nepal Manang and Gorkha in western Nepal
Humla,Jumla,Dolpa,Mugub and Bajhang in mid western Nepal and Darchula in far western
Nepal. Though the plant species is present in all mountain districts.
HISTORY OF USE
The plant is in human use since vedic era / Charak samhita also describes the use of
jatamansi.
“The plant is in religious, and cultural use and is also mentioned in “Durga Saptasati” where is
said to used “Hawan”.
The plant is in found to used by ethnic groups of Jordan, turkey and Israel and mentioned in
Bibilical citation where the medicinal property has been attributed.
TRADE
Perhaps this wide application has resulted the trade of the plant since olden days and appears
in trade by various name
English : Spikenard
Nepali : Jatamansi,Jatamasi,
Humli and people in western Nepal call it Bhulte
In Indian market it is called “Jatamansi & Balchar”
LEGAL STATUS
Nardostachys was added to the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species (CITES) in 18.09.1997 at the request of India. Only the bulk herb
materials (whole and sliced roots) are currently restricted from trade; manufactured
preparations, such as powders, pills, extracts, and teas are still permitted in trade.
Neighboring Nepal also recognized the declining supplies of the herb, stating:
The HMG Nepal (1991) formally recognizes the need to preserve the threaten species
restricts trade except in unprocessed form . Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora) is banned
trade in crude form.
However large quantity of crude drug is still collected and traded both in processed and un
processed form.
TRADE VOLUME:
055/056
29068
056/057
83210
057/058
51936
058/059
059/060
46734
In average 54738 kg per year Jatamanshi has collected and traded in past three years.
The royalty rate per kg is NRs 25 and NRs 13,686,50/- has been collected per year
The average price per kg of jatamanshi rate was found to be above 120 /- and thus
NRs 65,68,560/- worth of Jatamanshi appeared in trade in these years.
The price hike in last decade is NRs 65/- per kg NRs 165/- per kg.
Olsen (1999) estimated that Nepal’s annual export of dried unprocessed rhizomes of
Nardostachys grandiflora is approximately 1000 ton per year.Bhattarai(2000) “marc”
of N.grandiflora exported from Nepal to India was 3202 kg throough
CHEMISTRY :
EO Root 19,000 - 20,000 ppm
1(10)-ARISTOLEN-2-ONE Root 18 - 120 ppm
18,9,10-DEHYDROARISTOLAN0NE-(2) Root 6 - 40 ppm
ALPHA-PATCHOULENE Root:
BETA-IONONE Root 25 - 180 ppm
BETA-PATCHOULENE Root:
ISOVALERIC-ACID Root:
JATAMANSIC-ACID Root:
JATAMANSIN Root:
JATAMANSINOL Root:
JATAMANSONE Root:
MYRISTIC-ACID Plant:
N-HEXACOSANE Root:
N-HEXACOSANOL Root:
N-HEXACOSANYL-ISOVALERATE Root:
NARDOL Root:
NARDOSTECHONE Root:
NORSEYCHELANONE Root:
PATCHOULI-ALCOHOL Root:
VALERANONE Root:
Two guaiane- and two aristolane-type sesquiterpenoids (1–4) were isolated from
Nardostachys chinensis roots, and none exhibited antimalarial properties.
PHARMACOLOGY
Salim S et al (2003) have shown the protective effect of Nardostachys jatamansi (NJ) on
neurobehavioral activities, cerebral ischemia in rats. The study provides first evidence of
effectiveness of NJ in focal ischemia most probably by virtue of its antioxidant property.
The known sesquiterpene valeranone (= Yatamanson) was isolated from the subterranian
parts of Nardostachys yatamansi (DC). It was pharmacologically investigated in animal
experiments of sedative, tranquilizing and antihypertensive properties
A weak activity hypotensive was demonstrated on ratsand mice . The toxicological studies on
rats and mice showed an oral LD50 of greater than 3160 mg/kg was found, which suggests
the possibility of a therapeutically useful dose ratio.
In three other pharmacological models an anti-ulcer action was detected
Ali S et al (2002) has shown that 50% ethanolic extract of the rhizomes of N. jatamansi is
shown to possess hepatoprotective activity in rats at (800 mg/kg body wt, orally).
Lecture 18
December 19, 2004
Family : Rutaceae
1.


2.
Zanthoxylum armatum DC
Syn :Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb
Syn: Zanthoxylum acanthopodium DC
Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew
Trade name Eng: Indian Prickly Ash; Hindi : Tomer beej ; Nepali : Timmur, Bale timur;
Tejmal ; Yerma
Plant habitat: Forest undergrowth and hot valleys. 600 to 2100 metres in the
Himalayas.
Plant Distribution
The plant is found as an under growth in eastern to western mountains. In the east
it is distributed from 600m to 1800 m .Mid western mountain region is the principal
region of collection though small amount is collected from eastern and far westernmid hill also. It is found up to 2100m in the western Nepal.
It is also found in trans Himalayan Districts and southern china.
Plant description
Zanthoxylum is an armed,scandent or esrect shrub or a small tree up to 6m high with
dense foliage. The branches are armed with flattened prickles up to 2 cm long. Bark is
pale brown ,deep furrowed imparipinate or tri foliate. The leaves are 5 to 25 cm in
length often with lanceolate shape, entire to grandular crenate margin ; acute or
obtusely acuminate ;Flwoers white to greeninsh in dense terminal or axillary panicles
;Fruit sub globose ,glabrous with shining black seed
The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and requires
well-drained soil. The plant can grow all type soil [acid, neutral and basic
Use
Older references are found in Charak (  ;
)
Part used: ripe fruit, steam bark, wood.
 Used as spice
 The fruit contains 1.5% essential oil.
The fruit is used to purify water.
Toothbrushes are made from the branches.
Wood - heavy, hard, close-grained. Used for walking sticks.
Trade:
055/056 056/057
355403 361292
057/058
553792
058/059
NA
058/059
650193.8
700000
600000
500000
400000
Series1
300000
200000
100000
0
055/056 056/057 057/058 059/060
Export of Zanthoxylum alatum fruit [timur] from Nepal
The of Price of Zanthoxylum alatum fruit [timur] in 1991 was NRS 20/- per kg and in
2001 the price NRs 85/- per kg the current year price is about 120/- per kg
All most entire of timur produced in the country goes to India. Dabur is the principal
buyer which now pulverizes in Nepal and exports to Dabur India as “Dantasakti”
In the year 2003 Zanthoxylum alatum worth NRs 78,023160/= was traded and NRs
1,968964.30 revenue was generated.
Tigeri is the principal aultrant besides fruits of other z.species.
Chemistry:
Plant part
Fruit /pericarp
Chemicals
α -Phellandrene
Linalol
Linalyl actate
Sabinene
Citral
Geraniol
Limonene
Concentration
10,000 to 20,000 ppm
14,745 ppm
α –Phellandrene
Linalol
Linalyl actate
Isoquinoline alkaloids present in the Zanthoxylum alatum bark and roots;
Magnoflorine 1700 ppm
Berberine
Leaf contains linalool and linalyl acetate
Seed of zanthoxylum alatum contains fixed oil
Pharmacology
Das et al (1999) have noticed mosquito repellent property zanthoxylum armatum oil.
At 0.57 mg/cm2 concentration timur oil in brassica oil gave significantly higher
protection up to 445 min.It was found to be better than dimethyl phthalate.
Kumar S and Muller K have noticed antiproliferative activity against the growth of
human keratinocytes.
Manandhar N.P. (1995) has documented traditional application of fruit of Zanthoxyllum
in abdominal pain.
Joshi K and Joshi A.R.(2000) have recorded the traditional use of this zanthoxylum
armatum fruit in gandaki valley.
D.Eigner and D.Scholz (1996) have recorded 05 to 1.5 g of zanthoxylum armatum
fruits are used in Nepali cuisine.
Nath DR have compared leech repellent action in volatile oil of Zanthoxylum armatum
DC. syn. Z. alatum Roxb (Timur) .According to Nath et al to Timur oil was at par with
Citronyl and exhibited better results than dimethyl phthalate (DMP) and N-benzoyl
piperidine (NBP).
Xiong QB and Shi DW have recorded its traditional use of pericarp of zanthoxylum
fruit “Hua Jiao” in epigastric pain accompanied by cold sensation, vomiting, diarrhea
and abdominal pain due to intestinal parasitosis, ascariasis and used externally for
eczema in China.
References:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
J Commun Dis. 1999 Dec; 31(4): 241-5.
Phytother Res. 1999 May; 13(3): 214-7.
A
B
Indian J Med Res. 1993 May; 97:128-31.
Yao Xue Xue Bao. 1991; 26(12): 938-47.
Class test question
What are anthocyanins ? draw the structure of pelargonidin and cyanidin.
What are xanthones ? How many species of swertia are traded from Nepal Name the unique compounds of Swertia chirata.
What are HS codes for essential oil exported from Nepal? Write the pharmacological effect of any one Nardostacys jatamansi or
Zanthoxylum alatum
Draw the basic skelton of anthocyanins, Flavones, and Xanthones showing numbering as per IUPAC system.
Write short notes on Pahrmacological activity of any one of the followings
anthocynin, (b) flavone,(c) xanthone, (d) terpenoids (e) alkaloids