Mr. Hall’s AP English
Name: _______________________________
Grammar Review
Introduction to Grammar
What is grammar?
Grammar is the study of how language is used by native speakers and
writers.
What do you think? Which column exemplifies better grammar?
He walks.
He walk.
He is walking.
He be walking.
They are the people who
turned us in.
Dems be da people dat
turned us in.
I don’t have any money
left.
Nobody can hold me
down.
My friend doesn’t have a
job.
My friend and I [were]
going to the store.
I ain't got no money left.
Can’t nobody hold me
down.
Yo, my friend ain’t got no
job.
Me and my homie be
going to the store.
It’s a trick question, because “better” implies a value judgment, and a good
grammarian refrains from making such judgments.
A good grammarian might simply point out that the sentences in the lefthand column are a “standard” way that English has been used by educated
people for centuries, while the sentences on the right are more typical of
the vernacular used by many African Americans.
In this course we will study “Standard English.”
What is “Ebonics”? Why is it so controversial?
1
What is a grammar “rule”?
There are two kinds of rules, those that come from below, and those that
are imposed from above.
1) Rules that come from below
Grammarians who study native populations inevitably find that people put
their words together in very consistent ways. We call these “rules,” and a
typical rule might be as follows:

In English, the subject of a sentence is almost always placed before
the verb.
2) Rules that are imposed from above
Occasionally, an overzealous grammarian will express a personal opinion
about which of two patterns is “better.” If that opinion gets written down in
a textbook—(grammar textbooks are called grammars)—and that textbook
is used to educate generations of class-conscious aristocrats, some
people might start to believe that the rule is actually true.
What do you think?
Which of the following sentences follows a rule that “comes from below.”?
Which of them follows a rule “imposed from above”? :

For whom did you order that pizza?

Who did you order that pizza for?
Rules that come from below can teach us a lot about how our language has
been used by countless talented speakers and writers, from Shakespeare
on down to the present. Rules imposed from above were meant to be
broken. That said, the AP English Exam might not be the best place to
experiment with breaking the rules.
Our Focus
Our primary focus throughout this review will be the rules which govern
sentence structure. This is an aspect of grammar called syntax. It is
essential that you understand how sentences are built, if you want to be a
confident writer.
2
Articles & Pronouns
What is an article?
Articles are those little words that come before nouns: a, an, the
In this class, we will basically ignore them. In other words, “the chair”
counts as one word, not two.
What is a pronoun?
The word “pronoun” comes from the Latin for “in place of.” A pronoun is a
word that you use “in place of” a noun. In short, it’s a substitute word.
Give some examples of pronouns.
he, she, they, it, etc.
How would the English Language sound without pronouns? Circle all the
pronouns in the following paragraph, then rewrite the paragraph without
using any pronouns.
Sandy came to school today. She was wearing a red dress and her hair was
bunched up in a pony tail. Before her first class, she spent a few minutes
gossiping with her best friend. Then the bell rang and she ran into class,
but her teacher said that she was late and she had to get a pass.
What do we call the word to which a pronoun refers? In other words, what
do we call the word for which the pronoun is “substituting”?
antecedent
3
A common sort of question on the AP exam goes like this:
Read the following paragraph:
The Christmas tree was delightful. It sparkled with
tinsel and shiny, dangling ornaments, and at its base
lay a heap of brightly-wrapped packages, all adorned
with curly ribbons and bows. From the top of the tree,
an angel looked down upon all, and nestled in the
bottom boughs, a baby Jesus swayed in his cradle.
The whole thing was resplendent with color and joy,
and Lily thought it was the most beautiful thing that
she had seen in her entire life.
1) In the final sentence, what is the antecedent of the pronoun “it”?
a) tinsel
b) a heap of brightly-wrapped packages
c) an angel
d) a baby Jesus
e) the Christmas tree
Why do pronouns give English learners so much trouble?
They change “case” depending on where we place them within a sentence.
For example, we say, “She is beautiful,” yet “I love her,” despite the fact
that “she” and “her” are referring to the exact same person.
We will want to keep this in mind when we talk about relative pronouns
later.
What are possessives? Give some examples.
Possessives show possession:



Michael’s car
my grandmother’s money
her shoes
4
In this class, we will treat such phrases as a single noun (as opposed to a
noun that is being modified by a possessive adjective).
The 5 Basic Patterns
It may surprise you to learn that in the English language there are only 5
ways to express a “complete thought.”
Pattern # 1:
Subject
=
Noun
or
Adjective
1.
John
a doctor.
is
Mary
sad.
In the above pattern, the = sign represents a linking verb. Make a list of
some common linking verbs.
The most common linking verb is “to be,” along with all its conjugations
(is, am, are, was, were, has been, etc.).
Other words that can function as linking verbs include:
feel, taste, look, smell, appear, become, grow, remain, seem sound,
stay.
Linking verbs equate two sides of a sentence, just like an = sign equates
two sides of an equation. The noun or adjective on the right side of the
linking verb is called the complement.
What, if anything, is noteworthy about the spelling of the word
“complement”?
A “complement” completes; a “compliment” is something that you give.
Write an example sentence for pattern 1. Do not use any superfluous
words, (words that are not absolutely necessary in order to complete the
pattern).
5
Subject
1.
=
(linking verb)
6
complement
(noun or adjective)
Now study patterns 2, 3, & 4.
Subject
Verb
2.
The moon
rose.
3.
Veronica
punched
4.
I
gave
Indirect Object
Direct Object
the baby.
Judy
flowers.
Is the subject always in the 1st slot?
Yes, 99% of the time.
How about the other elements? Are they always in the same order?
Yes, 99% of the time.
What happens if we invert the normal word order?
Three things might happen:
1) We might sound like Yoda, from Star Wars:




“The dark side are they.”
“When gone am I.”
“Luminous beings are we.”
“The shadow of greed, that is.”
2) Or we may sound poetic:


glistened the dew
sparkled the stars
7
3) Or we may sound clever and hip:

Troubles, everybody’s got.
The important thing to remember is that these are exceptions, not the rule.
By the way, what is the literary term for an inversion of the natural word
order?
anastrophe
Check your understanding: How many instances of anastrophe can you
find in the following poem?
I walked up the door,
shut the stairs,
said my shoes,
took off my prayers,
turned off my bed,
got into the light,
all because
you kissed me goodnight.
—Natalie Dorsch, "Just Because"
What feeling is the poem articulating?
8
Now let’s take another look at patterns 2, 3, & 4.
Subject
Verb
2.
The moon
rose.
3.
Veronica
punched
4.
I
gave
Indirect Object
Direct Object
the baby.
Judy
flowers.
What is the difference between a direct object and an indirect object?
The direct object is “acted upon” by the verb. (The baby got punched; the
flowers got given).
The indirect object “receives” the action. (Judy received the “giving”).
Give 3 examples of pattern 4:



I gave the monkey a banana.
George offered Greta a sandwich.
She made her grandmother a cake.
Patterns 2, 3, & 4 all use action verbs, and sometimes we say that action
verbs have a “valence.” Although valence is not a common grammatical
term, I do think that the concept is very useful.
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Valence in Chemistry
From Wikipedia . . .
In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency number, is a
measure of the number of chemical bonds formed by the atoms of a given
element. Hence, if an atom, for example, had a +1 valence, meaning it was
missing an electron, and another a -1 valence, meaning it had an extra
electron, then a bond between these two atoms would result because they
would be complementing or sharing their out of balance valence
tendencies.
In other words, valence is a measure of how badly an atom wants to bond
with other atoms. Similarly, in grammar, valence is a measure of how badly
a verb wants to act bond with other elements in the sentence.
Consider the following sentence.

He died.
The verb “die” has clearly bonded with the subject, but it has no desire to
bond with anything else. It can live perfectly happily without ever “acting
on” an object. We say that “die” has a valence of one.
Now consider this sentence:

He put.
In this sentence, the verb “put” has also bonded with the subject, but it is
crying out for something else. It wants an object to act upon, and it’s not
going to be happy until it gets it.

He put the book.
That’s a bit better, but it still sounds awkward, doesn’t it? That’s because
“put” has a valence of three: it has bonded with the subject, it has bonded
with the book, yet still it wants to bond with another element.

He put the book on the table.
Finally, our verb can rest happy; (in this case, by the addition of a
prepositional phrase).
All action verbs have a valence, that is, a propensity—more or less
strong—to “act upon” or “bond with” other elements in the sentence.
10
Carefully study the following chart.
Linking
Verbs
These verbs
behave like
an = sign.
They equate
the subject
with its
complement.
Action Verbs
Intransitive Verbs
These verbs have no desire
for anything other than a
subject. They have no need
to “act upon” an object.
is
seem
appear
etc.
Transitive Verbs
These verbs want more than a subject; they
very much want to “act upon” an object.
Try putting them into the sentence “He
______” and you’ll see why.
valence of 1
valence of 2
valence of 3
These verbs kind of
want to know who is
receiving the object. In
other words, they bond
nicely with objects and
indirect objects too.
struggle
flourish
pose
snore
laugh
sleep
complain
die
see
lift
punish
hold
break
give
send
buy
offer
sell
put
In the above chart, how many different kinds of verb are there?
4 kinds of verbs: linking verbs, intransitive verbs, transitive verbs with a
valence of 2, and transitive verbs with a valence of 3.
What do we call action verbs that only need a subject?
intransitive verbs
What do we call action verbs that want to “act upon” an object?
transitive verbs
Can a verb be both transitive and intransitive?
11
Yes!!! In fact, in the English language, many, many verbs are both
transitive and intransitive. Or, to put it more precisely, many verbs are
either transitive or intransitive, depending on how they are being used in a
particular sentence.
Consider the following sentences:
1) His son plays.
2) His son plays the guitar.
3) His son played me a song.
Which sentence is intransitive?
Which sentences are transitive?
What is the “basic pattern” of sentence #1? (look at the chart).
What is the “basic pattern” of sentence #2?
What is the “basic pattern” of sentence #3?
Now come up with your own example: 2 or 3 sentences which prove that
some verbs can be transitive or intransitive, depending on the context.
He ate.
She ran.
I baked.
He ate pizza
She ran a marathon.
I baked a pie.
I baked my mom a pie
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Now take another look at patterns 2, 3, & 4.
Subject
Verb
2.
The moon
rose.
3.
Veronica
punched
4.
I
gave
Indirect Object
Object
the baby.
Judy
What kind of verb does pattern 2 require?
intransitive verb
What kind of verb does pattern 3 require?
transitive verb with a valence of 1
What kind of verb does pattern 4 require?
transitive verb with a valence of 2
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flowers.
Now it’s your turn. Complete the following chart with your own examples.
Do not use any superfluous words. If a pattern does not include all the
elements, then leave that slot blank.
Patterns 2, 3, & 4
Subject
Verb
Indirect Object
Object
2.
3.
.
4.
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Next let’s take a look at pattern 5:
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
Real Subject
5.
There
a house.
is
It
cold.
To better understand pattern 5, consider the following questions:
Which part of an English sentence conveys the most emphasis: the
beginning, the middle, or the end? (Where would you put information that
is especially important?).
Both the beginning and final positions are strong, but the final position is
usually considered the strongest. Compare the following sentences:
“There was a gun in his hand.”
“In his hand was a gun.”
What is emphasized in each sentence? Which sentence would you
probably use if you were writing a detective novel?
In Japanese, it is perfectly natural to express a thought like this:


A house is.
Rain is.
Why do these sentences sound so awkward in English?
Because in English the final position is so strong that it sounds awkward to
our ears to hear the emphasis placed on the verb “is.” What we really want
to do is emphasis the subject of the sentence (house, rain).
How can we rewrite the above sentences in order to make them sound
more natural in English?
To make these sentences sound natural, we need to put the important
part—the subject—in the final position. This can be accomplished with the
following constructions:

There is . . . (There was, etc.)
15

It is . . .
(There was, etc.)
In these constructions, the words “there” and “it” function as empty
subjects: they are simply placeholder words which allow us to manipulate
the sentence and put the real subject in the final position.


There is a house.
It is raining.
Now take another look at pattern 5:
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
Real Subject
5.
There
a house.
is
It
cold.
Most of the time, pattern 5 is easy to recognize, because these sentences
always start with “There” or “It”. But be aware—not every instance of
“there” and “it” is an empty subject. Consider the following sentence:
 There is a house there.
What is the difference between the first “there” and the second “there”?
The first “there” is an empty subject. It has no real meaning. It is just a
placeholder which allows us to put the real subject in the final position.
Only the second “there” carries any actual meaning. In this instance, the
word “there” is a word (specifically, an adverb) which describes the place
where the house exists.
Identify the function of the word “there” in each of the following sentences:

There it is! I found it! I found it over there.

In the morning, I went to school. There, I saw my sweetheart, and my
heart skipped a beat. There is nothing quite as powerful as first love.
Now consider the following sentences and identify how the word “it” is
being used.
16


It is cold in Antarctica, and it is dark for half the year.
Did you find your hat? Yes, I found it. It was in my closet.
Did you correctly identify which of these words is functioning as an empty
subject (as opposed to an adverb or a pronoun)?
Now write your own example sentence for pattern 5:
Pattern 5:
5.
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
Real Subject
Congratulations! You now know all the basic patterns in the English
language.
Really?
Well, sort of . . .
17
Notable Exceptions
What do you notice about the following sentence?

Is he gay?
The subject and verb are inverted, and it asks a question.
What do we call sentences that as a question?
interrogative
Can you think of any words that are related to “interrogative”?
interrogate, interrogation
Now study the following sentence. What do you notice about it?

Shoot him!
It’s missing a subject and it gives a command.
What do we call sentences that give a command?
imperative
Can you think of any words that are related to “imperative?”
We sometimes use the word “imperative” to describe a very important
obligation. The word may also be related to “imperial” which means “to
have a commanding quality.”
What do you notice about the following sentence?

What a shame!
It’s missing a verb and it expresses a strong emotion.
What do we call sentences that express strong emotions and end with an
exclamation mark?
exclamatory sentences
18
Can you think of any words that are related to “exclamatory”?
exclaim, exclamation mark
Conclusion
In truth, there are more than just five patterns in the English language. But
these other patterns are for different kinds of sentences, sentences which
serve a different purpose.
And frankly—if you are a native English speaker—I don’t expect that these
other patterns will ever give you much trouble. We may never have to
mention them again.
What interests us are sentences that make an assertion or a declaration.
What do we call such sentences?
assertive sentences or declarative sentences
And there really are only 5 ways to express a complete assertion in the
English language?
Yes.
No more exceptions?
Damn few.
19
The 5 Basic Patterns
Write several example sentences for each of the 5 basic patterns. Do not
use any superfluous words.
Subject
Linking Verb
Complement
(noun or adjective)
1.
Subject
Intransitive Verb
2.
Subject
Transitive Verb
Direct Object
3.
Subject
Transitive Verb
Indirect Object
Direct Object
4.
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
5.
20
Real Subject
The 5 Basic Patterns
1.
Subject
Linking Verb
Subject
Complement
(noun or adjective)
Intransitive Verb
2.
Subject
Transitive
Verb
Direct
Object
3.
Subject
Transitive
Verb
Indirect
Object
Direct
Object
4.
5.
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
21
Real Subject
Check Your Understanding
Identify each pattern by placing a number (1 – 5) in the right-hand column.
1
Spring is beautiful.
1
2
We gave George a puppy.
4
3
She cried.
2
4
I washed the car.
3
5
John studies Chinese.
3
6
Mary offered him money.
4
7
There was a smell.
5
8
The woman ovulated.
2
9
I took the bus.
3
10 Life is a mystery.
1
11 I wrote her a letter.
4
12 My cat ran.
2
13 I wrote a letter.
3
22
14 The students seemed nervous.
1
15 Amber sold my brother a horse.
4
16 My dog has fleas.
3
17 Happiness is fleeting.
1
18 I understood her question.
3
19 I slept.
2
20 Fred is going to be a doctor.
1
21 He showed us his war medals.
4
22 I coughed.
2
23 My sister broke the window.
3
24 There is going to be a church.
5
25 Bankers are greedy.
1
27 David told the children a story.
4
27
The glass fell.
2
28 There may be gunfire.
5
23
Introducing the “–ing” form
All verbs have an “-ing” form, a form which is very versatile. But because it
is so versatile, it can also be very confusing.
Study the following sentence. What pattern is it?

She hates swimming.
If you said pattern 3, give yourself a pat on the back. In this sentence, the
“-ing” form of the verb “to swim” is functioning as a noun, and it is the
direct object of the sentence. Whenever “-ing” forms function as nouns, we
call them gerunds.
Now look at the following sentence. What pattern is it?

He is swimming.
If you said pattern 2, congratulations! In this case, swimming is NOT a
gerund. It is part of the verb phrase is swimming, which is the “present
continuous” form of the verb “to swim.” That’s the form that tells you that
this action is ongoing and taking place at this very moment.
So how can you tell when an “-ing” word functioning as a gerund, or as
part of a verb phrase that is expressing the continuous present? Well, you
could try asking it some questions.
Is it possible that “swimming” is the complement of the subject? Could
“he” really equal “swimming”? Not likely—unless, perhaps, you’re reading
a sports magazine which has just proclaimed “him” the future of the sport.
Could it be that “swimming” is the object of the verb “is”? No, because “is”
is not a transitive verb; it is a linking verb and it doesn’t take an object.
Therefore, it must be pattern 2.
How about this sentence? What pattern is it?

He is swimming the English Channel.
24
Check your understanding: Highlight any gerunds that you find, and
identify the pattern number in the right-hand column.
Fishing is fun.
1
1
She studied cooking
2
3
Angelina is watching the movie.
3
2
Martha enjoys sailing.
4
3
Hiking is difficult
5
1
Running injured my knees.
6
3
The toddler is complaining.
7
2
Running is exercising.
8
1
Cleaning is tiring.
1
The pollution harmed fishing.
3
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Predicates & Clauses
In grammar we often divide sentences into two parts. The first part is the
subject. The second part comprises “everything else” (verbs,
complements, objects, indirect objects, etc.).
What do we call the second part of a sentence?
predicate
What is a clause?
A clause is often defined as a group of words which contains a subject and
“expresses a complete thought.” Since we now know that in English there
are only 5 ways to express a complete thought, we can define a clause
thusly:
A clause is any group of words that fits into one of the 5 patterns.
What is a “main clause” (also known as an “independent clause”)?
A main clause is any group of words that fits into one of the 5 patterns—
and is NOT a subordinate clause.
If that isn’t exactly clear, don’t worry. We’ll get to subordinate clauses
eventually. In the meantime, we will ONLY be working with independent
clauses.
How can we turn an independent clause into a sentence?
Simply capitalize the first letter of the subject and put a period after the
predicate.
What do we call a sentence with one independent clause and no other
clauses?
a simple sentence
Give an example of a simple sentence. Do not use any superfluous words.
26
Compounding
What is a chemical compound?
A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more different
elements chemically bonded together. Water is an example of a compound;
it consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded with an oxygen atom.
In grammar, does “compound” have a similar meaning?
Yes, it describes a combination of two or more elements.
Give an example of a sentence with a compound subject.
Joe and Bob are stupid.
Give an example of a sentence with a compound object.
Joe kicked the table and the chair.
Give an example of a sentence with a compound indirect object.
Joe gave Sue and Ellen a present.
In the above examples, you probably used the word “and” to glue your
subjects and objects together. What part of speech is the word “and”?
“and” is a conjunction; it is a “glue word” that connects different parts of a
sentence.
Specifically, what kind of conjunction is the word “and”?
a coordinating conjunction.
What does the prefix “co-” mean?
“together” or “of equal rank”
Can you give some examples of some words with the prefix “co-”?
coworker, codependent, co-owner
27
By definition, coordinating conjunctions join things “of equal rank.”
List all of the coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, so,
Is “then” a coordinating conjunction?
It should be. Certainly it is commonly used as a conjunction in everyday
speech.

I went to the store [and] then I took a nap.
Nonetheless, it is technically an adverb and most grammar books refuse to
give it the recognition that it deserves.
Can we start a sentence with a coordinating conjunction?
Great writers do it all the time. It is often a very efficient way to connect a
sentence to the previous sentence. Nonetheless, persnickety grammarians
frown upon this practice.
By compounding subjects and objects, how have we changed the
underlying patterns?
We haven’t. The basic patterns remain unchanged.
Check your understanding: What pattern is this?

John, Betty, and Jim gave Peter and Susan a candlestick, a book,
and a CD Player.
(pattern 4)
Is it possible to compound clauses?
Certainly.

Bill ate
(pattern 2)

Fred rented the movie
(pattern 3)
and
+
Judy drank beer.
(pattern 3)
and
+
he watched it.
(pattern 3)
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What do we call two independent clauses that have been joined by a
coordinating conjunction?
a compound sentence
How about verbs? Can we compound verbs?
Sure, we do it all the time.


John ate and drank.
Shawna fed and burped the baby.
How does compounding a verb affect the underlying pattern?
That’s an interesting question, because the answer is a bit muddled.
Consider a sentence like this:

John laughed and wrote his mother a letter.
In this sentence, it appears that we have two different clauses:


John laughed. (Pattern 2)
John wrote his mother a letter. (Pattern 4)
The verbs in the sentence are merely sharing a common subject (John).
Another way to look at it is to realize that when two independent clauses
share the same subject, we are allowed to omit the explicit repetition of the
subject in the second clause. In these cases, the subject is implied.

John laughed and [John] wrote his mother a letter.
This certainly looks like two clauses. Despite this fact, most grammar
books would call the above construction a simple sentence, or, more
precisely, a simple sentence with a compound predicate. Some grammar
books, however, would call it a compound sentence with an implied
subject.
So which is it? Is it a simple sentence or a compound sentence?
Personally, I prefer to think of such constructions as compound sentences
with implied subjects. However, in this class, we are going to follow
common usage and call it a simple sentence.
29
In other words, think of it in any way you like, but on a test, if you are asked
whether such a sentence is simple or compound, call it a simple sentence
unless the subject is explicitly restated in the second clause.
Let’s not get hung up on names. After all, whether you are eating an apple
or a manzana, it tastes exactly the same. The important thing is that you
start to see how we can combine the 5 basic patterns.
Adding Information
Next we will look at some of the ways we can add information to a
sentence. The simplest way is by adding adverbs and adjectives.
Adverbs
Adverbs are usually easy to recognize because most of them end with
the suffix “-ly”.
A handful of adverbs don’t follow this pattern. Below are some common
examples:
First, I ate the coleslaw.
Then, I ate the turkey.
Later, I felt sick.
The next day, I felt better.
Expanding & Reducing Sentences
As we continue with our study of syntax, we will often be doing 2 types of
exercises:
1) Starting with a basic pattern, we will add information to it until we end up
with a very complicated-looking sentence.
Or, working this process in reverse, we may
2) start with a very complicated-looking sentence, then strip it of all its nonessential elements until we can identify the basic pattern hiding within it.
Let’s start with a very simple example:
Choose a basic pattern then add an adverb.
30


He ate quickly.
She worked the problem carefully.
Have you altered the underlying pattern?
No, the underlying pattern remains unchanged.
Now look at the following compound sentence and “reduce” it by taking
out the adverbs. What patterns are you left with?

Later that afternoon, Ken kissed Barbie sweetly but then he slyly
slipped her the tongue.
31
Adjectives
Next let’s study the common ways that we add information with adjectives.
Study the following chart:
Adjectives
“ordinary”
participles
(adjectives derived from verbs)
past
present
red
fast
tall
smelly
worn shoes
bruised face
broken arm
boiling water
crying baby
bleeding knees
On the left we have what I call the “ordinary” adjectives, because these are
the kinds of adjectives you’ve known since the first grade. On the right are
a slightly more sophisticated sort, adjectives derived from verbs. These are
called participles (or participial adjectives). Furthermore, as you can see,
participles can be subdivided into two categories, past and present.
How do you form the present participle of a verb?
Put it in its “-ing” form.
How do you form the past participle?
Put it in its “have” form.
In other words, imagine that you want to use the verb “eat” to describe an
apple. Start by saying to yourself:
I have
(eat)
an apple.
What form of “eat” goes in the blank? Obviously, “eaten” is the form we
are looking for. Hence, we might write a sentence like this:
He threw away the half-eaten apple.
32
Check your understanding:
Write a sentence in which one of the nouns is described by a present
participle.



The barking dog lunged at the fence.
We have a talking parrot.
She is an annoying person.
Now write a sentence in which one of the nouns is described by a past
participle.



Fallen trees blocked the road.
He smelled like rotten fish.
Jasper was an abused dog.
Choose any basic pattern, then add as many adjectives and adverbs as you
can.
Have you changed the underlying pattern?
No.
Now “reduce” the following sentence by “cancelling” all the adjectives and
adverbs.

Lastly, the terrible wolf greedily devoured the third little pig.

The wolf devoured the pig.
Review
Are basic patterns affected by adverbs and adjectives?
No
33
Choose a verb, put it into its “-ing” form, then use that form 3 ways: as a
noun (gerund), an adjective (present participle), and as part of a verb
phrase that expresses the “continuous present.”

Moving is a headache.

I avoided the moving car.

He is moving the furniture.
What is the basic pattern of the following sentence?

Surprisingly, the heart-broken fox and the ugly duckling cheerfully
gave the exhausted traveler a tasty doughnut, some rancid wine, and
a slightly torn magazine.
Pattern 4
Is the above sentence simple or compound?
simple; it only has one clause (pattern 4)
34
Exercise: Identify the basic pattern(s) within each of the following
sentences. The first two sentences have been done for you.
1
Fred Astaire and Ginger Rodgers danced beautifully.
2
Adam mowed the lawn and his wife trimmed the bushes.
2
3+3
3
My beautiful wife and I washed our small, inexpensive car
and our big, gas-guzzling truck.
4
There is always hope.
5
Mary reluctantly offered the creepy strangers some stolen
money and warm food.
6
The sky became a deep, frightening shade of purple.
7
I ate pizza and Jimmy ate cake.
8
I watered the house plants and fed the lazy dog.
9
I watered the house plants and I fed the lazy dog.
10
Rabbits are fast but turtles are extremely slow.
11
Trees prevent erosion and preserve the soil.
12
The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.
13
The lazy fox licked his sticky paws.
14
She laughed provocatively.
35
15
She laughed provocatively and tossed her sun-streaked
hair.
16
I will go to Princeton or I will go to Yale.
17
I will go to Princeton or Yale.
18
The waves crashed loudly.
19
Martians are green and they eat humans.
20
Martians are green and eat humans.
21
Freedom feels great.
22
I saw a ghost and fainted.
23
I saw a ghost and it was scary.
24
The ghost was pale and spooky.
25
Girls are smart but boys are stupid.
26
She is smart and sexy.
27
The freeway was crowded so I took the bus.
28
I brushed my teeth, washed my face, and brushed my hair.
36
30
I shopped and bought my mother a new scarf.
31
Chocolate tastes delicious.
32
Batman is a fictitious character.
33
Susan saw a movie but I took a nap, cooked dinner, and
wrote my mother a letter.
34
I did my homework and then I watched TV.
37
Adding Phrases
We have seen how we can add information to a sentence by adding
adverbs and adverbs. Next let’s see how we can modify sentences with
phrases.
What is a phrase?
just about any group of words that doesn’t fit the definition of a clause
How many kinds of phrases are there?
For our purposes there are only six:
1) prepositional
2) gerund
3) appositive
4) infinitive
5) participial
6 absolute
38
Prepositional Phrases
What is a preposition?
Any word that is on the list of prepositions that I gave you. (See “Glue
Words”).
Typically, prepositions are defined as words that describe a relationship
between nouns, but there are so many holes in this definition that it is
honestly just easier to memorize the list.
What? You haven’t done that yet? Then do it now!
I’m not kidding—right now!
What is the object of a preposition?
The object of a preposition is the noun (or noun phrase) that follows the
preposition. Prepositions are ALWAYS followed by a noun.
What is a prepositional phrase?
a preposition along with its object and any modifiers
Do prepositional phrases affect the basic patterns?
Happily, they don’t affect the basic patterns at all. What this means is that
we can now reduce some very complicated-looking sentences quite easily.
Simply cross out all prepositional phrases and see what’s left!
39
Check your understanding: Reduce the following sentence by cancelling out
(crossing out) all the adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Write the
underlying clause (in its simplest form) below the original sentence, and write the
corresponding pattern in the right-hand column.
1
2
3
In the morning of the second day of the month of June, in the third
year of the reign of Caesar Augustus, in the city of Rome, wicked
Prospero, in his fine silk hat, unfairly punished the seventeen
bedraggled-looking prisoners, in the courtyard between the old senate
building and the new temple with the scantily-clad statue of Venus
behind the thick iron door, beside the ornately carved fountain.
On top of the flower-covered hill, beneath a shimmering, star-strewn
sky, near the ancient ruins of the overgrown Moorish cemetery,
Miguel tenderly kissed Maria’s quivering lips, before gently caressing
her tear-streaked face, in spite of their fears and the certain objections
of her snobby, aristocratic parents.
During the long intermission of the witty play by Moliere, I, without
my hat, without my shoes, without anything except for my well-honed
sword and my injured pride and my love for my mother country,
strode purposefully into the queen’s sleeping chamber and toward the
grotesque, reclining figure of the king of France.
Now it’s your turn: Choose any basic pattern, then turn it into a complicatedlooking sentence by adding nothing but adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional
phrases. Share your sentence with a partner and see if he or she can reduce it
and identify the underlying pattern.
Can you end a sentence with a preposition?
40
Persnickety grammarians frown on this practice because it violates the
“rule” that I just mentioned: Prepositions are ALWAYS followed by a noun.
However, there are enough exceptions to this rule that it has become a bit
of a joke.
Two women are sitting next to one another on a
plane, and one asks the other:
“Where are you going to?”
The woman haughtily replies, “Don’t you know
that you’re not supposed to end sentences
with a preposition?”
The other woman says, “Where are you going
to . . . BITCH.”
As in the above example, ending a sentence with a preposition is especially
common in interrogative patterns. What would have been the “proper” way
to ask “Where are you going to?”
Another technicality that drives people crazy is the “rule” that says that the
noun following the preposition should always be in the “objective case.”
What does this mean? Think back to what we said about pronouns, and
why they give English learners so much trouble: They change case
according to where we place them in a sentence.
Subject Position
Verb
He
She
Object Position
him
love(s)
her
them
They
Who
whom
41
This rule makes perfect sense: that is, it does indeed accurately describe
the way most of us use prepositions and pronouns—most of the time. After
all, most of us say, “I gave it to him,” rather than “I gave it to he;” and most
of us say, “I bought it for her,” rather than “I bought it for she.”
But how about the word “who”?
Technically, “who” is just another pronoun, and so it too should properly
change case to “whom” whenever it is placed in the object position. And
when “who” follows a preposition, then by definition, it is the object of the
preposition and it should be in the objective case.
Check your understanding:
For each of the following pairs of sentences, circle the one that is “correct”
according to the rules of proper English. Be prepared to defend your
answer.
It was written by I.
It was written by me.
The fight was us against them.
The fight was us against they.
Between you and I, she doesn’t know what she’s doing.
Between you and me, she doesn’t know what she’s doing.
To who should I send the check?
To whom should I send the check?
Give it to whoever you like.
Give it to whomever you like.
For who did you buy the pizza?
For whom did you buy the pizza?
Granted, most of us would sound pretty silly if we always framed our
questions according to the rules of “proper” grammar. That is because the
distinction between “who” and “whom” is quickly fading. In another
hundred years, the word “whom” may sound just as archaic as the words
“thou” and “thee” sound to us now.
Nonetheless, in very formal academic writing, the proper use of “who” and
“whom” continues to be an indicator of whether or not you truly
understand the English language. And yes, there still are people who will
42
judge you negatively if you don’t use these words “correctly.” Personally,
whenever I am considering ending a sentence with a preposition, or using
“who” when I know it should be “whom,” I ask myself: How formal is the
piece I’m writing? The more formal the piece, the less likely I am to break
the rule. And if I were writing for the AP exam, I would certainly stick to
formal usage—unless I’m being intentionally witty or ironic. Otherwise, I
wouldn’t want to give my reader any excuse to grade me down.
Prepositional Phrases & Anastrophe
Do you remember the meaning of anastrophe?
an inversion of the normal word order
In prose, probably the most common form of anastrophe is an inversion of
the subject and verb following a prepositional phrase. Consider the
following examples:




Over the wall flew the flag.
Suddenly, into the room burst a tall, handsome stranger.
Across the field ran the soldiers.
Into his arms flew the child.
Challenge: Think of your own versions of anastrophe following a
prepositional phrase.
43
Gerund Phrases:
Now we will consider gerund phrases. Do you recall what a gerund is?
A gerund is the “-ing” form of a verb, when it is being used as a noun.
Can you give an example of a gerund in a sentence?
Skiing is fun.
What is a gerund phrase?
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and any accompanying objects or
modifiers. The entire phrase can be treated like one big noun.
Can you give an example of a sentence that contains a gerund phrase?
Skiing down Mt. Everest is dangerous.
Where can you put a gerund phrase?
Anywhere you might normally put a noun.
Can I remove gerunds to see the underlying pattern?
Not if the gerund is functioning as one of the vital sentence elements (the
subject or an object). If the gerund is the object of a preposition however, it
can safely be discarded. (But then, you already knew that, didn’t you?
Because you know that you can discard entire prepositional phrases).
Check your understanding: Which of the following gerund phrases can be
safely be discarded?

Running along the river bank is treacherous.

I won the race by running swiftly.
The first sentence is already in its most basic form and cannot be reduced
any further.
The second sentence can be reduced to “I won the race.” (Pattern 3).
44
Check your understanding: For each of the following sentences, highlight
the gerund or gerund phrase and identify the underlying pattern.
1
I gave swimming a chance.
4
2
Studying English is difficult.
1
3
Suzy loves watching sentimental movies.
3
4
Watching the fiery sunset gave me goose bumps.
4
5
Ethan avoided doing his Math homework.
3
6
There is music and dancing.
5
7
Washing the dishes is a chore.
1
8
Sleeping peacefully is a rare treat.
1
9
My favorite thing is drinking hot cocoa.
1
10
Roasting marshmallows was a disaster.
1
11
There is golfing and rock-climbing.
5
12
Injuring my leg ruined my career.
45
3
13
14
15
Instead of going to the quaint little chapel on the
banks of the mud-colored river, Enrique went to the
noisy cantina on the far side of the dangerous gypsy
encampment.
Crying on the shoulders of his mistress, in front of her
full-grown children, was not a very dignified thing to
do.
There is suffering in all wars, in addition to death and
dying.
Walking along the mountain trail was good exercise.
16
46
Appositive Phrases
What is an appositive?
The word appositive comes from the Latin for “to put near.” An appositive
is a noun (or noun phrase) which you “put near” another noun in order to
describe it or identify it. We say that the appositive “renames” the noun.
Here are some examples:

Mexico City, the biggest city in the world, has many interesting
archaeological sites.

Denver, the capitol of Colorado, is the home of the Denver Broncos,
the best football team in the US.
Check your understanding:
Which noun does “the biggest city in the world” rename?
Which noun does “the capitol of Colorado” rename?
Which noun does “the best football team in the U.S.” rename?
Appositives are extremely common in journalistic writing, where they are
typically used to introduce people and sources. Study the following
examples:

George Bush, the president of the United States, left Washington
today . . .

According to Tefel Hall, a teacher at the International Studies
Academy in San Francisco, California, most AP English students
are . . .
47
If the appositive is short, it can come before the noun that it renames,
without using a comma.

President George Bush said, “We must . . . ”

English teacher Tefel Hall says that . . . . .
Check your understanding: Write two example sentence using appositives
to introduce and identify a source named Geraldine Jones. In the first
sentence, place the appositive after the noun that it renames (in this case,
Geraldine Jones). In the second sentence, place the appositive first. Be
sure to punctuate your examples correctly.
Does the addition or removal of appositive phrases affect the underlying
structure of the sentence?
No.
48
Check your understanding: Highlight all the appositive phrases, and in the
right-hand column, identify the underlying pattern of the sentence.
1
My brother’s car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the
envy of my friends.
2
The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took
her nephew on a hospital tour.
3
A bold innovator, Wassily Kadinsky is known for his colorful
abstract paintings.
A beautiful Collie, Skip was my favorite dog.
4
5
The popular U.S. president John Kennedy was known for his
eloquent and inspirational speeches.
6
The neighbor boys, the twins, were excellent baseball players.
7
The girl in the red dress is Sarah, our best actress.
8
Have you read Brothers, a book by Dean Hughes?
9
There goes Grant Long, the electrical contractor.
10
My friend, Matt Matson, collects lost hubcaps.
49
Infinitives
Here are some examples of infinitives.



to smash
to cry
to jump
What is an infinitive?
An infinitive is the most basic form of a verb. It is often called the
“dictionary form” because this is the form you look for when you look up a
verb in the dictionary.
What is the “signal of the infinitive”
“to,” because “to” almost always precedes an infinitive in a sentence. It is
signaling to the reader that an infinitive is coming up.
What is an infinitive phrase?
an infinitive along with any objects or modifiers
Challenge: Analyze the following sentence. What do you make of it?

To smoke is dangerous, but I went to the store to buy a pack of
cigarettes to smoke.
The first to smoke is an infinitive phrase functioning as a noun.
The phrase to buy is an infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb. It shows
“intent,” or purpose of the action. This is a very common use of the
infinitive.
The final to smoke is an infinitive phrase functioning as adjective; it
describes the cigarettes.
The phrase to the store is a prepositional phrase; you can tell because in
this case “to” is followed by a noun, not an infinitive verb.
50
As you can see, infinitives are versatile. They also have some curious
properties, some of which can be a bit confusing. However, I don’t think it’s
necessary to learn all the rules and exceptions—you’re ear will tell you
when you are using them right. I do think it’s important to be able to spot
an infinitive phrase and recognize which infinitives are functioning as vital
nouns—since these are the ones which are part of the sentence’s
underlying structure.
51
Check your understanding: Highlight all the infinitive phrases and identify
the underlying pattern(s).
1
Lakesha hopes to win the approval of her mother by switching her
major from fine arts to pre-med.
2
Kelvin, an aspiring comic book artist, is taking Anatomy and
Physiology this semester to understand the interplay of muscle and
bone in the human body.
3
To avoid burning another bag of popcorn, Brendan pressed his
nose against the microwave door.
4
To wait seemed foolish.
5
7
8
Everyone wanted to go.
His ambition is to fly.
He lacked the strength to resist.
9
We must study to learn.
10
He tightened his belt in order to secure his trousers.
To win the championship was his only goal.
11
Write a sentence in which an infinitive phrase is functioning as the subject.
Write a sentence in which an infinitive phrase functioning as the object.
52
Write a sentence in which an infinitive phrase is expressing “intent” or
purpose. (This kind of infinitive is called an adverbial infinitive).
Write a sentence in which an infinitive phrase is placed after a noun it
describes. In other words, the infinite phrase is placed after the noun in
order to describe what the purpose of that noun is. (This kind of infinitive is
called an adjectival infinitive).
Split Infinitives
When I was growing up, one of the most popular shows on television was
the Star trek series. Each week, the show began with a dramatic voice-over
describing the starship’s mission:
to boldly go where no man has gone before . . .
“To boldly go” is an example of a split infinitive—an infinitive phrase in
which a modifying word has been placed between the infinitive and its
signal. And for some reason that I’m not quite sure of, this is considered
bad form. Students for generations have been told that they should never
“split’ their infinitives.
Granted, splitting an infinitive can often result in a very awkward phrase.
But there are also times the result can be rather pleasing—as proved, I
think, by the popularity of the show. Should you ever split an infinitive?
leave that up to you.
Check your understanding: Each of the following sentences contains a
split infinitive. Rewrite each sentence in a way that corrects this “error.”
53
Review: (Participles)
What is a participle? Review your notes if necessary.
a participle is a verb form which can be used as an adjective.
How many kinds of participles are there? What are they called? How are
they formed?
1) present participle is the “-ing” form of a verb
2) past participle is the “have” form of a verb
Give an example of a sentence using a present participle as an adjective.
Give an example of a sentence using a past participle as an adjective.
Participial Phrases
Study the following examples:

Swinging on vines, Tarzan escaped through the jungle.

The cruise ship, sinking slowly, canted to starboard.

I hung up the phone, feeling depressed.

Exhausted from the hike, I collapsed into bed.

Battered from the storm, the ship limped into port.
A participial phrase consists of a leading participle, followed by any
accompanying objects and modifiers. Participial phrases DO NOT affect the
underlying structure of a sentence.
As you can see from the above examples, participles can also function as
the leading word in a participial phrase.
(Note the different spellings of participle and participial phrase).
54
Write two example sentences, one using a present participle and the other
using a past participle.
A curious variation of the participial phrase looks like this:



The child ran screaming from the room.
The soldier lay dying in the mud.
She sat sulking on her bed.
Rewrite the above examples so that they follow the more conventional
pattern for a participial phrase.
Now try writing your own examples of this “curious” sort of participial
phrase.
55
Check your understanding: For each of these sentences, highlight any
participial phrases and identify the underlying pattern.
1
Exhausted, Elaine went to bed.
2
Working around the clock, the firefighters finally put out the last of
the California brush fires.
3
Patrick, limping badly, tried desperately to find some cover from the
ongoing gunfire.
I found my dog lying in the sun.
4
5
Thomas Edison, experimenting with different materials in his
laboratory, eventually improved the light bulb.
Working under cover, the police made several arrests
6
Coming to class this morning, I witnessed an accident.
7
Opening the box, Jocelyn gasped at the sight of the diamond ring.
8
Knocked over by the cat, the vase lay in a hundred pieces on the floor.
9
10
The mouse snatched up the larger pieces, leaving the crumbs for the
cockroaches.
Running swiftly, Albert reached the finish line in record time.
11
12
The pond, frozen over since early December, is now safe for iceskating.
Having finished my workout, I took a shower.
13
56
Absolute Phrases
Study the following sentences:

She faced the ocean, her hair blowing in the wind.

The train shuddered, its wheels grinding to a stop.

He paused for breath, his face red.

She jumped to her feet, her hand on her dagger.
Beneath each of the above examples, describe the elements which
comprise the absolute phrase.
Is there anything consistent about these examples?
How can we define an absolute phrase?
As you can see, absolute phrases come in a variety of forms. Despite this,
they are fairly easy to recognize.
They are also called by a variety of different names: absolute
constructions, phrases with subjects, reduced clauses, etc.
Do absolute phrases affect the underlying pattern?
No.
57
Check your understanding: Highlight the absolute phrases and identify the
underlying pattern(s).
1
His hand on his hat, Robert leaned into the wind.
2
The season nearly finished, Rebecca Lobo and Sophie
Witherspoon emerged as true leaders.
3
Their reputation as winners secured by victory, the New
York Liberty charged into the semifinals.
4
His subordinates, their faces sweat-streaked and smudged
with ash, leaned heavily against the fire truck.
5
Coach Nykesha strolled onto the court, her arms akimbo
and a large silver whistle clenched between her teeth.
6
The new recruits stood in one corner of the gym, their
uniforms stiff and ill fitting, their faces betraying their
anxiety.
7
The boy watched, his eyes bulging in the dark.
8
Six boys came over the hill half an hour early that
afternoon, running hard, their heads down, their forearms
working, their breath whistling.
9
10
The work having been done, we grabbed a cab.
God willing, we’ll start on Monday.
58
Review: For each of the following sentences, identify the underlined phrase
(prepositional, gerund, appositive, infinitive, participial, or absolute). Write
your answer in the right-hand column.
Complete the following chart:
Phrases which never
function as nouns.
Phrases which
sometimes function as
nouns.
Phrases which always
function as nouns.
Why should we care which phrases can function as a noun?
A phrase which functions as a noun might possibly be functioning as an
essential noun (the subject, object, or indirect object of the sentence).
Removing such phrases might undermine the structure of the sentence.’
Phrases which never function as nouns, on the other hand, can be ignored
when analyzing the underlying pattern.
59
Review
Write a simple sentence that contains a gerund phrase.
Write a simple sentence that contains an appositive phrase.
Write a simple sentence that contains a prepositional phrase.
Write a simple sentence that contains an infinitive phrase.
Write a simple sentence that contains a participial phrase.
Write a simple sentence that contains an absolute phrase.
60
The placement of phrases within a sentence
By now you have surely noticed that phrases can be placed in many
different sentence locations. The three primary locations are:
1) Before the subject (opening position)
2) Between the subject and the verb (middle position)
3) After the final object (final position)
Note: It is rare to place anything between a verb and its object(s). It is
slightly more common to insert a phrase between a linking verb and the
complement, as in the following example:

It is, in my opinion, a foolhardy scheme.
Such sentences are anomalies and should be used sparingly.
There are many factors which might influence our decision about
where to place a phrase. These include
1) Emphasis: We have already noted that the final position is the
stonges.
1) Clarity: In general, phrases should be placed near the sentence
element which they modify.
2) Sentence Variety: We wouldn’t want to bore our readers, would we?
Rhythm: Much of the joy of reading comes from the rhythm of the
words, the interplay between stressed and unstressed syllables. A
good sentence is like an African drum—its beat is steady, sometimes
wild, and always a bit unpredictable. A good writer is always aware
of the rhythm of her sentences.
Adverbs
To increase our skill with phrases, let’s practice placing them in
different positions, starting with a simple adverb.



Cautiously, he opened the door.
He cautiously opened the door.
He opened the door, cautiously.
61
As you can see, adverbs are extremely versatile, and they sound good just
about anywhere. The use of commas when inserting adverbs is very often
optional, so experiment and trust your ear.
Now it’s your turn. Choose a basic pattern then write three sentences, each
with an adverb in a different position.
1)
2)
3)
Gerund Phrases
Gerund phrases replace nouns, so it doesn’t make much sense to talk
about “inserting” them into a clause: More than likely, the gerund is part of
the clause. So if you want to change the position of a gerund, you might
well have to rewrite the entire sentence.


Skiing is hazardous.
The most hazardous sport is skiing.
The same is of course true for any infinitive phrase that is acting like a
noun (a nominal infinitive).

To win was his goal.

His goal was to win
Practice with Gerunds
Write a sentence with a gerund in the subject position.
Write a sentence with a gerund in the object position.
Write a simple sentence in which a gerund functioning as the object of a
preposition.
62
Write a sentence with a nominal infinitive in the subject position.
Write a sentence with a nominal infinitive in the object position.
Appositive phrases
An appositive phrase, by definition, is placed side by side with the noun
that it identifies or describes.
Occasionally you will see an appositive placed apart.

The house was beautiful, an old Victorian mansion.

This was a wonderful idea, having friends meet us at the airport.
In this sentence, “having friends meet us at the airport” is a gerund phrase
that is functioning as an appositive for “This”
Such sentences are rarely good writing. Avoid them unless you have a
good reason for breaking the general rule.
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Practice Placing Appositives
Write a simple sentence with an appositive that renames the subject.
Write a simple sentence with an appositive that renames the direct object.
Write a simple sentence with an appositive that renames an indirect object.
Write a simple sentence with an appositive that renames the object of a
preposition.
Write a simple sentence with an appositive that renames the object of a
participial phrase.
Other Phrases
Now let’s take a look at the remaining phrases:




Prepositional Phrases
Infinitives (Adverbial)
Participial Phrases
Absolute Constructions
Sometimes these phrases will only make sense if placed close to the
element they modify. In fact, some awfully bad or ambiguous sentences
can result if they are not. Consider the following sentences:

Walking along the beach, the sun rose majestically over the ocean.

Exhausted, starting the housework at such a late hour seemed
ridiculous.
Can you pinpoint what’s wrong with these sentences?
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Grammatically speaking, we say these sentences contain dangling
modifiers, phrases that are not clearly and logically connected to the words
that they modify.
Looking toward the west, a funnel shaped cloud kicked up desk.
Walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched Jim
Having been fixed the night before, Priscilla could use the car.
After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to
relax.
The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual.
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
In many cases, however, the modifier can be moved around without much
harm to the sentence. Study the following examples.
Prepositional Phrase

According to my atlas, Brazil is in South America.

Brazil, according to my atlas, is in South America.

Brazil is in South America, according to my Atlas.
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Infinitive Phrase (Adverbial)

To earn money for college, Bill took a part-time job.

Bill, to earn money for college, took a part time job.

Bill took a part time job to earn money for college.
Participial Phrase

Screaming hysterically, Jessie ran away.

Jessie, screaming hysterically, ran away.

Jessie ran away, screaming hysterically.
Absolute Construction

His hand moving slowly up her thigh, Trevor smiled lecherously.

Trevor, his hand moving slowly up her thigh, smiled lecherously

Trevor smiled lecherously, his hand moving slowly up her thigh.
All of the above sentences are acceptable, but clearly the middle position is
the most awkward. Why? Because we have inserted something between
the subject and the verb. So memorize the following rule and take it to
heart:
Whenever we insert something between the subject and the verb, we
make the sentence more difficult to understand.
A comparison should help make this point, so consider this:
When children are first learning how to talk they often string clauses
together into very long sentences. Have you ever asked a four-year-old
what she did today and gotten a reply like this?
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I got up, and then I put on my clothes, and then I went downstairs,
and then I ate breakfast, and then I drew a picture, and then I
watched TV, and then I played a game with Jimmy, and then
Mommy and I went grocery shopping, and then we had lunch, and
then I took a nap, and then I . . . .
That’s not exactly a prize-winning sentence, but it’s not particularly hard to
understand, either—despite the fact that it may run on for more than a
hundred words. Despite its length, the sentence is clear because each
clause is short and there’s nothing between the subjects and the verbs.
Now compare the following sentence:
Jesus, his eyes glistening sadly, his face shadowed by the dark
foreboding which had lately overcome him, a foreboding about the
trials and tribulations he knew he had yet to endure, and
struggling against the doubts and demons which haunted his
waking hours and tortured his sleepless nights—nights filled with
a disquieting loneliness that seduced his mind again and again
toward thoughts of the flesh such as those he had tried so
assiduously to avoid his entire life—yes, these were the demons
which kept him awake, in that dim, echo-filled cavern in which he
and his disciples now found themselves, the dry hollow where
they were reposing while on their way to Jerusalem for the yearly
Passover feast, put his hands together in a soulful prayer.
Huh? By the time we get to the verb of the main clause—“put his hands
together in a soulful prayer”—we may well have forgotten that the subject
of that clause is Jesus.
The point is this: It’s not necessarily the length of a sentence which may be
making it difficult to read. More often than not, it’s the structure of the
sentence and the gunk that’s been placed between the subjects of the
clauses and their verbs.
That is not to say you should never put a phrase in the middle position. A
judicially placed phrase between subject and verb can add a whole new
dimension to your writing.

Jesus, his eyes glistening sadly, put his hands together in a soulful
prayer.
When you write a sentence like that, you are announcing to the world that
you are a real writer—that your way with words is more elegant, artistic,
and sophisticated that the speech of a four-year-old.
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Pop Quiz
The sentence below is the opening line of the preamble to the U.S.
Constitution. It was written by Gouverneur Morris, a statesman from
Pennsylvania, and it is widely considered to be an elegant sentence as well
as historically significant.
We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Is this a simple sentence or a compound sentence?
For each clause that you found, rewrite it by putting it in its most basic
form.
What kinds of phrases has Morris inserted, and where has he placed them?
How could we make this sentence less difficult to understand?
Why do you think that Morris chose to leave the sentence as he did?
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Complex Sentences
Do you remember our definition of a clause?
What is a clause?
A clause is any group of words that fits into one of the 5 patterns.
Do you remember our definition of a main clause (also known as an
independent clause)?
Any group of words that fits into one of the 5 patterns—and is NOT
introduced by a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun, nor is itself
embedded into another clause.
Until now we have not had to worry about that second half of the definition,
because we have purposely avoided complex sentences. But now it’s time
to ask ourselves:
How does a clause lose it’s “independence”?
There are three ways:
1) You can introduce that clause with a subordinating conjunction
2) You can introduce that clause with a relative pronoun
3) You can embed it into another clause.
Whenever you do any of these things, what you have done is created a
subordinate clause, also known as a dependent clause because it’s not
allowed to be a sentence by itself. In other words, you can’t just capitalize
the first letter of a dependent clause, smack a period on the end, and
expect it to strand up by itself and be counted as a sentence in its own
right. You can try, but grammarians will snicker at you and make you feel
foolish. So you must always make sure that your subordinate clauses are
accompanied by a main clause, just like a minors are accompanied by
adults when they go see violent movies.
By the way, what do words “submarine,” “subterranean,” and
“substandard” have in common?
They all describe something that is “below” or “inferior” to something else.
That is because the prefix “sub-“ means “below” or “lower in rank.”
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So a subordinate clause is simply a clause that is “lower in rank” to the
main clause, just like your subordinates at the office are the people whom
you can boss around.
We are now ready to answer the question: What is a complex sentence?
A complex sentence is any sentence that has at least one subordinate
clause. (Needless to say, it must also have a main clause, or else it
wouldn’t be a sentence).
Adverb Clauses
The implication is that the information provided in the subordinate clause
is somehow not as important as the information provided by the main
clause. This is not always true, but a subordinate clause is never as
important as the main clause; this may or may not be true, but gramatically
Look at the following sentence:

Danielle cooked eggs because she was hungry.
By now you should instantly be able to recognize that the sentence
contains two groups of words that fit the definition of a clause. What are
they?
However, only one of these clauses is “introduced” (that is, preceded by) a
subordinating conjunction. Which is it?
If you didn’t immediately recognize that “because” is a subordinating
conjunction, you haven’t been doing your homework. Take out your list
and memorize it.
Yes, I mean now!
Now look at the following sentence.

Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
Did you suffer a moment of confusion? Perhaps you remembered that the
word “until” can function either as preposition or as a conjunction,
depending on the context. So which is it?
70
Well, a preposition is always followed by a noun, and a subordinating
conjunction is always followed by a clause, so it shouldn’t be too hard to
figure out.
71
In fact, the easy way to test whether a “glue word” is a preposition or a
conjunction is to put it into a 2-clause sentence like this:
I did this, ______ she did that.
Does the resulting sentence make sense? If so, the “glue word” is a
conjunction.
Of course, if that conjunction also happens to be on the (shorter) list of
coordinating conjunctions, then you haven’t subordinated anything: the
clauses are still equal in rank, still independent, and you are free to replace
the comma with a period.
Check your understanding: For each of the following sentences, determine
if the underlined “glue word” is functioning as a preposition or as a
subordinating conjunction. If a preposition then put a “P” in the right-hand
column; if a subordinating conjunction, write “SC.”
1
I went to sleep after dinner.
2
I went to the party as a clown.
3
I brushed my teeth before I went to bed.
4
I’m going to sleep until noon.
5
Since he was on television, I figured he was credible.
6
After the vampire drank her blood, he felt greatly
refreshed.
7
You can’t help but love him as he is a scoundrel with
a golden heart.
8
Let’s finish the paperwork before the reception.
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9
I won’t leave until he apologizes.
10
I haven’t slept since the fire.
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Check your understanding: For each of the following sentences, highlight
the subordinate clause, reduce that clause to its most basic form, and write
the pattern number in the right-hand column.
Note: in the following sentences, all the subordinate clauses are adverb
clauses. We have not yet discussed adjective and noun clauses, so they
are not included in this exercise.
1
Wherever there are computers, there is Microsoft
software.
I didn't call her because I'm shy.
2
3
Although Jay has a Master's degree, he works as a store
clerk.
If you save your money, you will be able to go to college.
4
You clean the bathroom while I clean the carpet.
5
Bring in the toys before they get destroyed.
6
I stood on the box so that I could see the top of the shelf.
7
Your face becomes red when you are angry.
8
9
10
Because the field was muddy, the game had to be
cancelled.
Since I can spare only a few minutes, please be brief with
your presentation.
74
Practice with Adverb Clauses
Write a complex sentences that starts with an adverb clause.
Write a complex sentence that ends with an adverb clauses.
Write a complex sentence in which a subordinate clause has been inserted
between the subject and the verb of the main clause.
Now repeat the above exercise, this time using a different set of
subordinating conjunctions.
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Adjective Clauses (Relative Clause)
Adjective Clauses are also known as Relative Clauses. Personally, I prefer
the term relative clause, simply because that is the way I first learned it. But
both names are in widespread use.
Study this sentence:

I kissed the girl who gave me a flower.
Can you see the two clauses?
If you can’t, then ponder this:
The “who” in the above sentence is nothing but a substitute word for the
word that immediately precedes it. In other words, what this sentence is
really saying is this:

I kissed the girl the girl gave me a flower.
Now can you see the two clauses? Write them separately.
Which clause was introduced by the relative pronoun?
Which clause is the subordinate clause?
Which clause is the adverb clause?
Which clause is the main clause?
Perhaps you have surmised by now that an adjective clause, by its very
nature, must always follow a noun—a noun which it describes. In the above
sentence, if there were no noun before “who,” then “who” wouldn’t be a
relative pronoun at all—it would simply revert back to being an ordinary
question word.
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
Who gave me a flower?
Relative clauses are easy to recognize once you know what they are, and
it’s no surprise that they are also called adjective clauses, since they act
just like one big adjective.
The only unusual thing about them, perhaps, is that—unlike most
adjectives—they come after the noun they modify.
Wouldn’t it be more logical to put them before the noun? After all, we
usually say “the red car” and not “the car red.”
In fact, in some languages (like Japanese, for instance), the relative clause
does come before the noun that it modifies. In Japanese, instead of saying:

The man who came yesterday gave me a book.
We would say:

The came yesterday man gave me a book.
Very logical, don’t you think?
Actually, there are several more things that can be confusing about relative
clauses. Consider the following sentence:

The house that I bought was expensive.
Can you identify the main clause?

The house was expensive.
Can you identify the subordinate clause?
If you remembered what we said about the relative pronoun (in this case,
“that”) being nothing more than a substitute word for the preceding noun,
then you may have surmised that the adjective clause is:

The house I bought.
But wait! That’s not a clause, is it? Clauses are supposed to fit into one of
the 5 patterns.
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The problem, in this case, is that the natural word order has been inverted.
“The house” is actually the object of the clause, and “I” is the subject. Put
the words back in their natural order, and see what you come up with.

I bought the house.
Now we have finally identified both clauses within this complex sentence.
Write them separately.
Which is the main clause?
Which clause was introduced by the relative pronoun?
I bought the house.
Which clause is the main clause?
The house was expensive.
Which clause is the subordinate clause?
I bought the house.
Is the subordinate clause an adverb clause, an adjective clause, or a noun
clause?
adjective clause
Now analyze this sentence:

The house that caught fire was demolished.
What is the adjective clause?
In adjective clause, did you find the words in their natural order?
To understand what’s going on, we might explain it this way.
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The relative pronoun always acts like a substitute word for the noun that
precedes it. But sometimes that noun is the subject of the relative clause,
and sometimes that noun is the object of the relative clause.
All of this comes so naturally to native English speakers; it’s hardly worth a
second thought. I mean, it’s just not necessary. There’s no need to analyze
every relative clause that you write, because if you simply follow your ear
you will get it right 99.9% of the time.
How about that remaining 1% ? I guarantee it will be when you write a
sentence something like this:

We watched a movie starring Tom Cruise, who I love.
What’s wrong with that sentence? Well, let’s analyze it. Is Tom Cruise the
subject or the object of the relative clause?
object
And long ago, some stuffy grammarian with nothing better to do decided
that when “who” is the object of a clause, it should properly change case
to “whom.”
If you find that confusing, think back to what we said about the difficulties
that English learners have when they’re learning English pronouns.
Subject Position
Verb
He
She
Object Position
him
loves
Who
her
whom
Pronouns like “he”, “she”, “they”, etc., all change “case” depending on
whether they are the subject or the object of a sentence. So why should
“who” be any different? At least that must have been the reasoning of that
stuffy old grammarian who created this “rule” in the first place. Probably
he wrote it down in some grammar primer, a book which then became the
arbiter of good grammar for generations of class-conscious aristocrats,
79
who used this rule to judge the education level of all their friends. Even
today, people will judge you according to whether you know the proper use
of “who” and “whom” in a relative clause. So it behooves you to follow this
rule too—at least when you’re writing essays for the AP English exam.
Getting it right is not that hard. Simply pause for a moment whenever
you’ve found that you’ve written “who” in the middle of a sentence (as
opposed to the beginning of a sentence), then ask yourself:

Who loves whom?
Or repeat the following mnemonic (substituting, of course, your own
favorite celebrity):


Tom Cruise, who loves me . . .
Tom Cruise, whom I love . . .
Finally, take another look at your sentence, and see if you got it right.
Check your understanding:
According to the rules of “proper” grammar, which of the following
sentences is correct?


You went with who?
You went with whom?
“With” is a preposition, and the object of a preposition is always, by
definition, in the objective case. Therefore, the second example is correct.
Check your understanding:
According to the rules of “proper” grammar, which of the following
sentences is correct?


The book is by who?
The book is by whom?
Once again, “by” is a preposition, therefore it can only be followed by
“whom,” at least in proper English.
Lastly, do take care that you don’t write sentences like this one:

I saw the man that sold us our car.
80
Although such sentences are common in everyday speech, on paper the
mistake seems more glaring.
(You did spot the mistake, didn’t you?).
81
Practice with “Who” and “Whom”
For each of the following sentences, write “who” or “whom” in the slot.
(Who, Whom) should I call in case of emergency?
1
(Who, Whom) left the dirty clothes on the washer?
2
3. The man (who, whom) came to repair the T. V. arrived very late.
3
4. The teacher (who, whom) we admired spoke at our graduation.
4
5. Each of the boys is speaking to (whoever, whomever) passes the house.
5
6. One of the men (who, whom) we met is Joe's uncle.
6
7. A girl (who, whom) Jack and I like spoke to us today.
7
8. Ask (whoever, whomever) you meet to help you look for Sam, Frank, and her.
8
9. He is a person (who, whom) is always late.
9
10. One of the boys (who, whom) we know is very tall.
10
Implied Relative Pronouns
There is one more thing that you need to know about relative pronouns:
Sometimes we leave them out altogether!
That is why we say things like:

The house [that] I bought . . .
82


The woman [whom] I love . . .
The food [which] I cooked . . .
Generally speaking, if the meaning of your sentence is perfectly clear, even
without the pronoun—then feel free to take it out, if you wish. Who knows,
leaving out the relative pronoun may well improve the rhythm of your
sentence, or make a bit of dialog sound more natural.
But when in doubt, leave it in. It’s just one word, and one extra word is a
small price to pay for clarity.
Noun Clauses
Noun clauses are similar to gerunds in that they act like one big noun.
Recognizing them is easy, despite the fact that the words which introduce
them can also introduce other types of clauses.

I know that you are lying.
Can you guess which clause is acting like one big noun?

You are lying.
What is the main clause?

I know that you are lying.
The main clause is the same as the original sentence, because there is
nothing that we can strip away. “You are lying” is the object of the main
clause, in the same way that “him” is the object of the clause “I like him.”
Now analyze the following sentence:

He said that she said that I look fat.
“I look fat” is the object of the clause “She said that I look fat,” which in
turn is the object of the main clause, “He said that she said that I look fat.”
Like Russian nested dolls, clauses can live within clauses, in as many
layers as you and your readers can keep track of.
You may have noticed that noun clauses sometimes need no introduction.
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
He said [that] she said [that] I look fat.
Other times, however, the introducing word is an important signal to your
reader that you are about to throw a subordinate clause at them.

That you are going to Brazil is breaking my heart.
Let your ear be your guide and err on the side of clarity.
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Noun Clauses
Check your understanding: Highlight the noun clause, reduce it to its most
basic form, and write its pattern number in the right-hand column.
One should profit from what he sees and learns.
1
My hope is that we may visit in Boston.
2
Why you did not hire me is hard to comprehend.
3
I do not know where he is going to stay.
4
How rich I am should concern no one except me.
5
That I should get a haircut is Mother's idea.
6
I wonder where my shoes are.
7
8
The money goes to whoever wins the race.
(Think: is the word “whoever” in the right case here?)
Jeff's plea that he might buy a car was denied.
9
Give whoever calls first the prize.
10
Noun Clauses
Write a sentence in which a noun clause is functioning as the subject of the
main clause.
Write a sentence in which a noun clause is functioning as the object of the
main clause.
85
Write a sentence in which the
http://www.dailygrammar.com/271to275.shtml
Congratulations! You are now a master of the English sentence!
86
Transitional Devices
Writing well-crafted sentences is only half the battle. The next step is to
join those sentences into neat little paragraphs which flow nicely from one
to the other.
To do this, there is no magic formula. There are, however, a handful of
transitional devices which you may find useful.
Anadiplosis
A short while ago, as I was writing, a song came on the radio. I had never
heard it before, but the lyrics immediately caught my attention:
“Summer turned to winter; the winter turned to rain,
and the rain turned to teardrops on your face.”
That’s a perfect example of anadiplosis, the technique of starting one
clause with the final word from the last. It’s a pretty fancy word, and I only
learned it recently; before, I used to use this technique the “Who kicked the
dog?” That’s because it reminds me of this story:
One morning, the boss spilled coffee on his shirt, so
he stepped out of his office and yelled at his secretary.
The secretary went home and yelled at her husband.
The husband went upstairs and yelled at the kid. Then
the kid went outside and kicked the dog.
. . . . Who kicked the dog?
The point of the story, of course, is that it was really the boss who was
responsible for the dog getting kicked, and the moral is that we shouldn’t
let other people’s bad moods affect us negatively. But I like the story
because it’s a nice illustration of anadiplosis, and how it can be used to
connect sentences.
The boss . . . employee. The employee. . .his wife. The wife . . . the kid. The
kid . . .etc.
As long as you write sentences like that, I guarantee they will always flow
together. Of course, you can’t always write like that, nor would you want to.
But it is a trick that you can keep in the back of your mind.
And it needn’t be so obvious. Consider the following transition.
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I met a girl called Lisa. She is very beautiful.
There is nothing as important as a college education. It opens up ones
mind.
Why are those transitions so smooth? Because “she” is a pronoun for
“Lisa,” and “it” is a pronoun for “college education, so they essentially use
anadiplosis.
How about repeating closely related images, as in the following example:
I spent the summer working at a restaurant. Washing dishes wasn’t
much fun, but at least I made some good money. A wallet stuffed with
cash was nice for a change.
Did you notice how the images helped bridge the gap between periods?
restaurant → washing dishes
money → a wallet with cash
How about repeating with an appositive?
I love our school’s basketball team. Tconnecting with ideas?
There is nothing as important as a college education. go to college.
Education is important to me, and not just because I want to become a
doctor. The medical profession ismy education. College is very
important to me because I want to become a doctor. The medical
profession is fascinating.
education →college
doctor → medical profession
Check your understanding: Which of the following sentences is best?
This year, the Olympics were held in Beijing.
This year, Beijing hosted the 2008 Olympics.
It’s a trick question, because the answer depends on what your next
sentence might be. Are you going to talk about the city of Beijing? Or
are you going to talk about the OlympicsYes, you may have noticed the
88
first sentence uses the passive voice, which is generally frowned upon
by
English teachers. But the answer The Olympics were held in
BeijingWhich of the following transitions is the smoothest?
Last summer, many people watched the Olymics in Beijing.
I went to see the Olymics in Beijing.
I went to Beig
George Bush visited Thailand and made a speech in which he 3
sentences is best?
George went to the market to pick up some groceries.
George picked up some groceries at the market.
That last example is so commonplace, you’re probably thinking: “I write
transitions like that all the time!” Of course you do. I’m just trying to
make you aware of why some of your transitions are better than others.
In this case, it’s because “She” is a pronoun for “Lisa,” so you’re
essentially repeating the same word. That’s anadiplosis.
Let’s say you’re writing this sentence:
The food in the cafeteria is awful and the workers are underpaid.
a piece about school’s cafeteria, and you’re making the points that the
food is unhealthy, the workers are cranky and underpaid, and the tables
need to be replaced.
How do you order
the food in the cafeteria, and you’re making the points that the food is
unhealthy, the workers are probably underpaid, and the décor in the ca
The International Studies Academy is a school in the Potrero Hill area of
san Francisco which gives students aPotrero Hill which , for example,
89
I’ve golike that all the time.” That last example is so obvious, you
probably already do such things when you’re writing. I’m just trying to
make you aware of why some of your transitions might be better than
others. Let’s say I have a sentence like this:
You probably already use this technique in you’re writing
I really love her. She is the important to me, because then I can fulfill my
dream of becoming a doctor. The medical profession is fascinating.
want to become an activist for world peace. Nations living in harmony
I really want to
go out on dates →one of my dates
Lisa → She
By repeating ideas instead of actual words, and by using a pronoun at
the end, I was able to string those sentences together and you may not
have even noticed that I was using anadiplosis—a form of it, anyway.
; it allowed me to go out on dates. One of my dates was this girl called
Lisa. She was beautiful.
able to lead you from sentence to sentence, and you may not have even
noticed that I was using anadiplosis—a form of it, anyway.
across that gap called a period.
She had a beautiful face, but I couldn’t stand her accent. Southern
drawls remind me of that show the Beverly Hillbillies.
Look at it again.
I . . . . . . restaurant. Washing dishes . . . money. A wallet with cash . . .
dates. One of my dates . . . a girl from Alabama →Washing dishes →
money. ALook at the paragraph again.just soulong hair and a beautiful
face, bulegs which
90
Southern states have been suffering from a drought lately.
Okay, it’s not a brilliant of writing, bu Pretty girls expect you to pick up
the check. pay the check. Prett. , and I was even able to save a bit of
money for college. An education is really important to me because I
want to become a doctor. Doctors can eat at the very best restaurants,
and they never have to wash dishes.
It will help me get ahead it life.

 because I want to get ahead in llife.
Here the te
I guar
Now, can you write like that all the time? No, and you wouldn’t want to. But
when you’re rearranging the elements in your sentence, keep in mind
where you want to go. Then take the reader there step by step.
You’ll also find times when you’re “stuck” in the middle of an essay. You
have no idea what to write next. Well, what was the last thing you wrote? In
other words, what was the object of your last sentence. Now take that
object and turn it into the subject of your next one. Where can you go from
here? However you decide to finish that sentence, at least you’ll have
written a pair of sentences that flow nicely from one to another.
finish that sentence, and least you’ll have connected it to the one that you
just wrote.
, and see if that can possibly take ou in a take the object of your last
sentence and make it the subject of the next one, and see if that might lead
you somewhere that you want to go.
then figure out how you can mrevising a sentence and you’re wondering
what the best arrangement of the elementsthe boss is the one one of his
emp a high
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subject of the sentence you are writing to the object of your preceding
sentence.
your sentence to the object of the preceding sentence.
3)
our sentence to the object of the always
Who kicked the dog?
The idea, of course, is that it’s really the boss who is responsible for the
dog getting kicked. But I use this story to illustrate how sentences flow one
into another. The boss . . . man. The man . . . wife. The wife . . . kid. The kid .
. . dog.
Those sentence all flow smoothly because the reader’s mind never has to
make a big jump.
1) Connect your sentences to the topic sentence.
Prep your reader for the next paragraph
Never switch pronounse within a single piece of writing
Try not to switch tenses within a single paragraph
Know how to signal flashbacks
Know how to use symbols to make transitions
Connect Your Sentence to the Topic Sentence
Study the following example.
It was a beautiful spring day. The birds were
chirping, the butterflies, flitting. Cloud castles, their
edges frayed by lofty breezes, drifted lazily across the
sky. A bunny rabbit hopped among the wildflowers.
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The sentences in that paragraph are cohesive—they stick together well—
because they are all connected to “a beautiful spring day.” We could say
that the topic sentence sets up a thesis, or makes a declaration, and
everything that follows is supporting evidence. And because the reader has
read many such paragraphs before, her mind will have no trouble at all
jumping between such seemingly disparate subjects as “clouds” and
“bunny rabbits”.
Prep your reader for the next paragraph
It was a beautiful spring day. The birds were chirping,
the butterflies, flitting. Cloud castles, their edges frayed by
lofty breezes, drifted lazily across the sky. A bunny rabbit
hopped among the wildflowers. Lying amidst the tall grasses,
Melanie’s thoughts returned to the problem of world peace.
World Peace was
this paragraph is about, the reader has no trouble going from one sentence
to another.
Granted, not all your paragraphs will be descriptive in this same way. But if
your topic sentence is strong, and every sentence in your paragraph is
somehow connected to that topic, your reader won’t have any trouble will
have no troublethe reader will have no trouble have a strong sense of the
purpose of your paragraph, then it’s far easier to make every sentence In
this case, they are giving details which support the authors contention that
Method 2)
Connect our sentence to the subject of the preceding sentence.
Consider the following sentence.
Joe was a burly man with an enormous, handlebar mustache.
How should I start my next sentence? Well, just about anything I write with
Joe as the grammatical subject is going to flow quite well, because the
reader’s mind is already thinking about Joe.
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Joe was a burly man with an enormous mustache. He never missed
Church, and he always gave 10% of his earnings to the poor. .
Those two sentences flow together because “He,” the subject of the
second sentence is the same as the subject of the first.
3) Connect the subject of the sentence you are writing to the object (or
final word) of the preceding sentence.
Joe was a burly man with an enormous mustache. The mustache stretched
nearly across his face and drooped only at the edges.
Those two sentences flow because I’ve led the reader from mustache to
mustache.
I call this method “Who kicked the dog?”
4) went to church on
the day is flow fairly smoothly, one into another. Why? Because they are
all describing wh
other fantastic shapes, distorted wispy clouds drifted across the cerulean
blue, forming dreamy shapes that fantastic shapes that on the gentle
breeze. warm breezepuffy
1)
2) trick, no magic formula which will work every time. But here are
some things that you may want to ponder as you practice your
writing.
secret that will instantly turn you into a masterful writer. But here are some
hints which may know easy way to do it. It takes practice and a willingness
to keep revising, over and over, until you are satisfied with your work.
You
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What are 3 sure-fire ways to make your sentences flow together smoothly?
1)
2)
3)
What are the three basic positions for the participial phrase?
What is the big disadvantage of the middle position?
To avoid this disadvantage, what “rule” of writing should we usually try to
follow?
Why do you think Thomas Jefferson chose to break the rule we established
earlier?
Can you list 3 reasons why we, like Thomas Jefferson, might want to
deliberately place phrases in the middle position?
What is wrong with the following sentences?
What do we call the mistake in the above sentences?
?
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Absolute Constructions
What is an absolute construction?
What are some other names for an absolute construction?
Look at the following absolute constructions. How are they different?


Pierre leaped to his feet, his hand on his sword.
Kelly stood facing the sea, her hair blowing freely in the wind.
Write your own examples of the above types of absolute constructions.
absolute constructions
Independent (Main) Clauses
Simple Sentences
Some words (after, before, since, etc.) can be used to introduce either a prepositional
phrase or an adverb clause. Would you be able to tell the difference?
Compound Sentences--coordinating conjunctions
“. . . and then . . .”
correlative conjunctions
Complex Sentences
Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses
Adverb Clauses (introduced with a subordinate conjunction)
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Adjective (Relative) Clauses (introduced with a relative pronoun)
Who or Whom?
Noun Clauses (introduced with a handful of words---see list)
Combining subordinate conjunctions with participial phrases
Transition words
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Writing Conventions
Writing conventions are “traditions” which have evolved over the years.
Following these conventions will show your teachers and your editors that
you are an experienced writer who knows what you are doing.
Here we will look at the following conventions which you should know and
use:
1) Use names properly.
2) Avoid pronouns in your topic sentences
Know how to cite sources
Use Names Properly
In formal writing, always introduce a person by using both that person’s
first name and last name (and usually an appositive). Thereafter, use only
the person’s last name.
Here is an example:
Bill Mack, an unemployed miner, was killed yesterday when . . .
blah, blah, blah. Mack had been . . . blah, blah, blah. According to
the police, Mack liked to blah, blah, blah.
Food for thought: In fiction, writers often break this convention by
continuing to refer to a female character by her first name throughout the
book. Do you think this “double-standard” is sexist?
Author ho’s got a webpage and that’s

 scholar at the Heritage leading expert in the field of defen
 Is the source is an expert in her field, this is easy:

Michael Crighton, a leading scholar in the fieldat the
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, most of them from the internet. Sometimes it’s a challenge to describe them in a way
that s tricky towriting academic papers, you’ll want to be sure to identify all your sources
with an appositive. Study the following examples.
Accoring to Jim Jones, the leader of a cult
According to it may not always be obvious what appositive you can use to describe one
of your internet sources. Is thwill frequently
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Avoid using pronouns in your topic sentences.
In any new paragraph, do not use a pronoun until after that pronoun has
been properly introduced (by explicitly naming the person or thing to which
the pronoun refers).
The theory is that this is a new paragraph and therefore a new idea and
therefore your reader will not know to whom (or what) your pronouns may
be referring. Therefore, you must explicitly state the person (or thing) to
which you are referring, and then, for the rest of that paragraph—and that
paragraph only—you can use a pronoun, if you like.
Compare the following paragraphs:
Brad Pit, . . . blah, blah,
blah. He . . . blah, blah, blah, and
blah, blah, blah. Also, he . . . . blah,
blah, blah.
Pit thinks that . . . blah, blah,
blah. He said that . . . blah, blah,
blah. Therefore, he wants to . . .
blah, blah, blah.
Brad Pit . . . blah, blah, blah.
He . . . blah, blah, blah, and blah,
blah, blah. Also, he . . . . blah, blah,
blah.
He thinks that . . . blah, blah,
blah. He said that . . . blah, blah,
blah. Therefore, he wants to . . .
blah, blah, blah.
Which paragraph is correct? Why?
Know how to express numbers.
Know how to express dates.
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Know how to cite sources
When researching an academic paper, you will typically cite dozens of different sources.
Most of the time it is easy to find an appositive to describe them, since the article you are
citing has probably already done it for you.



Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of England, claims that
Barack Obama, a leading presidential candidate, says that
Anthony Cordesman, a defense expert who is currently doing research at
the Heritage Foundations, thinks that . . .
Occasionally, you will cite some person whose credentials are not all that impressive:
they just happen to be an enthusiast of a topic and they’ve created a website devoted to it.
You could simply cite the website:
According to the website Vampires in Mythology, vampires are . .
If you really want to use the persons name, then you have to figure out what kind
of appositive you can use to describe him,
Vladimir Dracula, a big fan of vampires, says that . . .
Vladimir Dracula, the creator of a website of website devoted to vampires, claims that . . .
When all else fails, you can always call the person an author, since you’re presumably
reading something that he or she wrote.

Author Vladimir Dracula claims that many myths about vampires are untru.
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What is the proper way to express numbers in formal writing?
What is the proper way to punctuate a decade (or century): 1900’s or
1900s?
awkward shifts in pronouns
1st person, 2nd person, etc.
Are grammatical objects always nouns?
What does “valence” mean? (Hint: It’s a term that comes from Chemistry).
Do verbs have “valence”?
Different kinds of verbs
Linking Verbs
(Verbs that act like
an = sign)
Intransitive Verbs
(Verbs that live
happily by
themselves)
Transitive
Verbs
(Verbs that like
to latch on to an
object; they
have a valence
of one)
is
seem
become
struggle
flourish
pose
see
lift
punish
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Verbs that work
well with indirect
objects
(Verbs that like to
latch on to both a
direct object and an
indirect object; they
have a valence of
two).
give
send
buy
feel
appear
snore
laugh
hold
break
offer
sell
put
Note: In the above sentence, “is raining” is considered one verb (or verbal). In this
sentence, “raining” is neither an object nor a complement. Do you understand why?
Consider other conjugations of “rain,” such as “has been raining” or “will rain.”
Subject
1.
Linking Verb
Complement
(noun or adjective)
Pattern 2:
Subject
Intransitive Verb
2.
Pattern 3:
Subject
Transitive
Verb
Direct
Object
3.
Pattern 4:
Subject
Transitive
Verb
Indirect
Object
4.
Pattern 5:
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Direct
Object
5.
Empty Subject
(There, It)
is
(was, etc.)
Real Subject
Know how to slip into exposition.
The word exposition comes from the verb “to expose,” and it means reveal or explain
something.
What do the words expose, exposition, and expository have in common?
They all reveal something and explain it.
An expository essay may spend many pages giving a thorough exp
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Transitions between sentences and paragraphs
Ways to make your writing flow:
Keep your tenses consistent
Keep your pronouns consistent
Follow conventions
Know how to signal a shift back in time
Know how to write exposition.
Know how to use transition words
Signaling a Shift in Time or Place
Whenever I ask students to write a story, I’ll routinely get many papers
back which tell a long and complicated story—all in a single paragraph.
This forces me to write the following comment in the margin:
Any switch in time or place is a strong signal that you should probably
start a new paragraph!!!!!!
There are many ways to signal a shift in time or place. Let’s look at some
basic ones:
To signal a shift in time, you can use an adverbial noun.
Adverbial nouns, as their name implies, are nouns which function as
adverbs. (I call them “weird adverbs” because they don’t much look like
adverbs to me!). Study the following chart:
Adverbs
-ly Adverbs
Adverbial Nouns
“weird adverbs”
yesterday
today
tomorrow
cautiously
patiently
unfortunately
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lastly
secretly
loudly
next week
here
then
(see attached list)
Useful Adverbial Nouns
now
then
today
that day
the year before, the
previous year, the
preceding year
tomorrow
the following day, the
next day, a day later
two days later, two weeks
later
the previous day, the day
before
five days before, five
days earlier
yesterday
next month
next year
five weeks before, five
the following month, the
next month, a month later weeks earlier
last month
last year
the following year, the
next, year, a year later
here
there
five days ago
five weeks ago
the month before, the
previous month, the
preceding month
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Study the following example:
Darlene hated school so one day she . . . blah, blah,
blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah.
The next day, . . . blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.
That evening, . . blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.
Two weeks later, . . . blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah.
The following year, . . . blah, blah, blah, Blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.
Adverbial nouns can also be used to signal a shift in place, although
prepositional phrases are usually better suited for this purpose. (We’ll see
some examples of this a bit later). For now, try signaling a shift in place
thusly: At the end of a paragraph, mention that you (or your character) are
planning to go somewhere. Then, in the opening sentence of your next
paragraph, use the adverb “here” or “there” to signal that you are picking
up the action in this new location. Here is an example.
Blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah,
blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah. After reading the note, Bond
decided his next stop would be the United Nations building.
There, he presented his credentials and was
immediately escorted into the office of Eleanor Rigby, the
diplomat in charge of . . .
It’s not exactly an elegant transition, but sometimes it does the trick.
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Prepositional phrases usually do this better. Certainly they are more
versatile, as they can easily signal a shift in time or place.
Study the following example:
Darlene hated school so one day she . . . blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. blah,
blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. blah, blah, blah. Blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah.
On the way home, she thought about what she had
done. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah. blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.
After dinner, her mother asked her if . . . blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. blah,
blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. blah, blah, blah.
In the morning, . . . blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah. blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah.
blah, blah, blah. That is when she decided to skip school and
go to the park.
At the park, a crowd had already gathered to watch . . .
blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Blah,
blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Depressed, Darlene decided
to quit school and spend a year in Italy.
In Italy, everything was different. Blah, blah, blah, blah,
blah, blah, blah. Blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah, blah. Etc.
Get the idea?
The hulking cowboy swaggered toward me, obviously aching
for a fight. Grabbing me by the collar, he jerked me off my feet
and stuck his nose an inch from my face. His sour breath
stank like whiskey.
“What’s your name?” he growled.
“Ballard,” I stammered. “Jim Ballard.”
“Well, Ballard, you sure are one ugly son-of-a-bitch. I
think I’d be doing the whole town a favor by re-arranging your
face.”
“I’d be most obliged if you didn’t,” I managed to reply.
He had let go of me now, and I stumbled backward and
meekly lowered my eyes, bracing myself for the worst.
With a harsh laugh he abruptly turned and whistled at
one of the painted whores posing outside the saloon, his
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displeasure with me apparently forgotten. As he walked away,
I noticed that I had wet my trousers.
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