Міністерство освіти і науки, молоді та спорту України
Сумський державний університет
3219
МЕТОДИЧНІ ВКАЗІВКИ
до практичних занять
на тему «Медична термінологія»
з дисципліни «Англійська мова»
для студентів спеціальності 7.110101 «Лікувальна справа»
денної форми навчання
Суми
Сумський державний університет
2012
Методичні вказівки до практичних занять на тему «Медична
термінологія» з дисципліни «Англійська мова» / укладачі
І. М. Терлецька, Н. Г.
Горобченко. – Суми: Сумський
державний університет, 2012. – 87 с.
Кафедра іноземних мов
2
Зміст
1 Unit 1. Immunity ............................................................................. 4
2 Unit 2. Organs of the Immune System ............................................ 8
3 Unit 3. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome .......................... 13
4 Unit 4. Myths about HIV and AIDS .............................................. 16
5 Unit 5. HIV Treatment................................................................... 20
6 Unit 6. Allergy ............................................................................... 24
7 Unit 7. Endocrine System .............................................................. 28
8 Unit 8. Endocrine System Disorders ............................................. 34
9 Unit 9. Respiratory System ............................................................ 38
10 Unit 10. Respiration ..................................................................... 43
11 Unit 11. Respiratory System Disorders ....................................... 47
12 Unit 12. Asthma ........................................................................... 50
13 Unit 13. Nervous System ............................................................. 54
14 Unit 14. Nervous System Disorders ............................................ 57
15 Unit 15. The Brain ....................................................................... 61
16 Unit 16. Human Sense Organs .................................................... 64
17 Unit 17. The Human Eye ............................................................. 69
18 Unit 18. The Human Ear.............................................................. 73
19 Unit 19. The Human Skin ............................................................ 77
20 Unit 20. Dermatitis ...................................................................... 82
21 Список літератури ..................................................................... 86
3
Unit 1
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
disease, causing agent, vaccination, antibodies, antigen,
immunoglobulin, immunosuppressive disease, naturally acquired,
artificially acquired immunity.
Immunity
Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having
sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other
unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves us both specific
and non-specific components. The non-specific components act
either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens
irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the
immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered
and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.
Adaptive immunity is often subdivided into two major types
depending on how the immunity was introduced. Naturally
acquired immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing
agent, when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificially
acquired immunity develops only through deliberate actions such as
vaccination. Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be
further subdivided depending on whether immunity is induced in the
host or passively transferred from an immune host. Passive
immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or activated Tcells from an immune host, and is short lived - usually lasting only a
few months - whereas active immunity is induced in the host itself
by antigen, and lasts much longer, sometimes life-long.
Passive immunity
Passive immunity is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of
readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive
immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are
transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can also be induced
artificially, when high levels of human (or horse) antibodies specific
for a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-immune individuals.
Passive immunization is used when there is a high risk of infection
4
and insufficient time for the body to develop its own immune
response, or to reduce the symptoms of ongoing or
immunosuppressive diseases. Passive immunity provides immediate
protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the
patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later.
Naturally acquired passive immunity
Maternal passive immunity is a type of naturally acquired passive
immunity, and refers to antibody-mediated immunity conveyed to a
fetus by its mother during pregnancy. Maternal antibodies (MatAb)
are passed through the placenta to the fetus by an FcRn receptor on
placental cells. This occurs around the third month of gestation. IgG
is the only antibody isotope that can pass through the placenta.
Passive immunity is also provided through the transfer of IgA
antibodies found in breast milk that are transferred to the gut of the
infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can
synthesize its own antibodies.
Artificially acquired passive immunity
Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term
immunization induced by the transfer of antibodies, which can be
administered in several forms; as human or animal blood plasma, as
pooled human immunoglobulin for intravenous (IVIG) or
intramuscular (IG) use, and in the form of monoclonal antibodies
(MAb). Passive transfer is used prophylactically in the case of
immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypogammaglobulinemia. It is
also used in the treatment of several types of acute infection, and to
treat poisoning. Immunity derived from passive immunization lasts
for only a short period of time, and there is also a potential risk for
hypersensitivity reactions, and serum sickness, especially from
gamma globulin of non-human origin.
The artificial induction of passive immunity has been used for
over a century to treat infectious disease, and prior to the advent of
antibiotics, was often the only specific treatment for certain
infections. Immunoglobulin therapy continued to be a first line
therapy in the treatment of severe respiratory diseases until the
1930’s, even after sulfonamide antibiotics were introduced.
5
Passive transfer of cell-mediated immunity
Passive or «adoptive transfer» of cell-mediated immunity, is
conferred by the transfer of «sensitized» or activated T-cells from
one individual into another. It is rarely used in humans because it
requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often difficult
to find. In unmatched donors this type of transfer carries severe risks
of graft versus host disease. It has, however, been used to treat
certain diseases including some types of cancer and
immunodeficiency. This type of transfer differs from a bone marrow
transplant, in which (undifferentiated) hematopoietic stem cells are
transferred.
Active immunity
The time course of an immune response. Due to the formation of
immunological memory, reinfection at later time points leads to a
rapid increase in antibody production and effector T cell activity.
These later infections can be mild or even unapparent.
When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory
B-cells and T- cells develop. Throughout the lifetime of an animal
these memory cells will «remember» each specific pathogen
encountered, and are able to mount a strong response if the pathogen
is detected again.
This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the
body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active
immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects
of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system. The
innate system is present from birth and protects an individual from
pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity
arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is
«acquired» during life.
Naturally acquired active immunity
Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is
exposed to a live pathogen, and develops a primary immune
response, w hich leads to immunological memory. This type of
immunity is «natural» because it is not induced by deliberate
exposure. Many disorders of immune system function can affect the
formation of active immunity such as immunodeficiency (both
6
acquired and congenital forms) and immunosuppression.
Artificially acquired active immunity
Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a
vaccine, a substance that contains antigen. A vaccine stimulates a
primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of
the disease. The term vaccination was coined by Edward Jenner and
adapted by Louis Pasteur for his pioneering work in vaccination. The
method Pasteur used entailed treating the infectious agents for those
diseases so they lost the ability to cause serious disease. Pasteur
adopted the name vaccine as a generic term in honor of Jenner's
discovery, which Pasteur's work built upon.
Post-text assignments
1 Give the explanation of following terms:
passive immunity; adaptive immunity; naturally, artificially acquired
active immunity; toxoids, subunit.
2 Say what type of immunity is spoken about:
1 This type of immunity is acquired through transfer of antibodies or
activated T-cells from an immune host, and is short lived - usually
lasting only a few months. It can occur naturally, when maternal
antibodies are transferred to the fetus through the placenta, and can
also be induced artificially, when high levels of human (or horse)
antibodies specific for a pathogen or toxin are transferred to nonimmune individuals.
2 This type of immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live
pathogen, and develops a primary immune response, which leads to
immunological memory. This type of immunity is «natural» because
it is not induced by deliberate exposure.
3 Complete the following sentences with research information
concerning the immune system. Use the construction «to be +
infinitive». The verbs to be used are given in brackets.
Example: «The aim of my report is to show that natural immunity is
present when a person is immune to a disease despite not having
either the disease itself or any vaccination against it».
7
1 The purpose of my study … (to investigate).
2 The aim of my present research … (to study).
3 The aim of our work … (to understand).
4 The purpose of this paper … (to describe).
5 The aim of my report … (to show).
Unit 2
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
tonsils, adenoids, lymphocytes, lymph fluid, complement proteins,
antigen-specific
recognition,
gram-negative
(gram-positive)
organisms.
Organs of the Immune System
The immune system contains the following organs and cells:
tonsils and adenoids, the thymus gland, lymph nodes, bone marrow,
and white blood cells that leave blood vessels and migrate through
tissues and lymphatic circulation. The spleen, appendix, and patches
of lymphoid tissue in the intestinal tract are also parts of the immune
system.
The essential job of this system is to distinguish self-cells from
foreign substances and to recognize and take protective action
against any materials that ought not to be in the body, including
abnormal and damaged cells. The immune system can seek out and
destroy disease germs, infected cells, and tumor cells. The immune
system includes the following cells:
- T lymphocytes (T cells);
- B lymphocytes (B cells);
- natural killer cells (NK cells);
- dendritic cells;
- phagocytic cells;
- complement proteins.
These cells develop from «pluripotential hematopoietic stem
cells» starting from a gestational age of about five weeks. They
circulate through various organs in the lymphatic system as the fetus
develops. T and B lymphocytes are the only units of the immune
8
system that have antigen-specific recognition powers; they are
responsible for adaptive immunity. In other words, the T and B cells
are important in the immunity that vaccination promotes.
Lymphoid organs
Lymphoid organs are called lymphoid because they are home to
lymphocytes – the white blood cells that are key operatives of the
immune system. Within these organs, the lymphocytes grow, develop,
and are deployed.
Bone marrow, the soft tissue in the hollow center of bones, is the
ultimate source of all blood cells, including the immune cells.
The thymus is an organ that lies behind the breastbone;
lymphocytes known as T lymphocytes, or just T cells, mature there.
The spleen is a flattened organ at the upper left of the abdomen.
Like the lymph nodes, the spleen contains specialized compartments
where immune cells gather and confront antigens.
In addition to these organs, clumps of lymphoid tissue are found
in many parts of the body, especially in the linings of the digestive
tract and the airways and lungs – gateways to the body. These tissues
include the tonsils, adenoids, and appendix.
Small, bean-shaped lymph nodes sit along the lymphatic vessels,
with clusters in the neck, armpits, abdomen, and groin. Each lymph
node contains specialized compartments where immune cells
congregate and encounter antigens.
Immune cells and foreign particles enter the lymph nodes via
incoming lymphatic vessels or the lymph nodes' tiny blood vessels.
All lymphocytes exit lymph nodes through outgoing lymphatic
vessels. Once in the bloodstream, they are transported to tissues
throughout the body. They patrol everywhere for foreign antigens,
then gradually drift back into the lymphatic system to begin the cycle
all over again.
How immunity works
The lymphatic system is a key participant in the body's immune
actions. It is a network of vessels and nodes unified by the
circulatory system. Lymph nodes occur along the course of the
lymphatic vessels and filter lymph fluid before it returns to the
9
bloodstream. The system removes tissue fluids from intercellular
spaces and protects the body from bacterial invasions.
Types of immunity
Immunity is the ability of the body to resist the infecting agent.
When an infectious agent enters the body, the immune system
develops antibodies which can weaken or destroy the diseaseproducing agent or neutralize its toxins. If the body is re-introduced
to the same agent at a later time, it is capable of developing
antibodies at a much faster pace. As a result, the individual would
likely not become sick, and immunity has developed.
Natural immunity is present when a person is immune to a disease
despite not having either the disease itself or any vaccination against
it. Acquired immunity may be either active or passive. Active
immunity comes from having the disease or by inoculation with
antigens, such as dead organisms, weakened organisms, or toxins of
organisms. The antigens introduced during vaccination produce
antibodies that protect the body against the infecting agent, despite
the fact that the person does not become sick. Passive immunity is
relatively short lived and is acquired by transferring antibodies from
mother to child in the uterus or by inoculation with serum that
contains antibodies from immune persons or animals. Passive
immunization is used to help a person who has been exposed or is
already infected to fight off disease. Although various types of
serums may be used to produce passive immunization, gamma
globulin is the most frequently used source of human antibodies.
Development of the immune response
Normal infants have the capability to develop responses to
antigens at birth. Infants also start life with some immunoglobulin
antibodies acquired from the mother. These antibodies cross the
placental barrier, but not all types are transmitted equally. In
particular, infants start with antibodies to viruses and gram-positive
organisms, but not to gram-negative organisms. Gram is the name of
a stain that distinguishes broad classes of bacteria. Gram-negative
organisms are responsible for many diseases, including gonorrhea,
pertussis (whooping cough), salmonella poisoning, and cholera.
10
Figure 1 – Organs of the Immune System
Escherichia coli (E. coli) is another common gram-negative
organism.
Immunoglobulin antibodies are divided into five classes. The
capacity of the body to produce each immunoglobulin varies with
age. Newborn babies (premature and full-term) begin to synthesize
antibodies at an increased rate soon after birth in response to
antigenic stimulation of their new environment. At about six days
after birth the serum concentration of specific antibodies rises
sharply, and this rise continues until adult levels are achieved by
approximately the end of the first year. Maternal immunity gradually
disappears during the first six to eight months of life. A concentrated
level of antibodies is reached and maintained by seven to eight years
of age.
11
Post-text assignments
1 Find in the text English equivalents for the following sentences:
1 Усі лімфоцити виходять із лімфатичних вузлів через вихідні
лімфатичні судини.
2 Як і лімфатичні вузли, селезінка містить спеціалізовані
відділення, де клітини імунної системи збираються та
протистоять антигенам.
3 Система видаляє тканинні рідини з міжклітинного простору і
захищає організм від бактеріальної інвазії.
4 Імунна система може знайти і знищити хвороботворні бактерії,
інфіковані клітини та пухлинні клітини.
5 Приблизно через шість днів після народження концентрація в
сироватці специфічних антитіл різко зростає, і це зростання
триває до дорослого рівня, досягнення якого відбувається
приблизно на кінець першого року.
6 Т- і В-лімфоцити – це єдині одиниці імунної системи, які
здатні до антиген-специфічного впізнавання; вони відповідальні
за адаптивний імунітет.
2 Make up a dialogue.
Ask what and where questions using the picture in the text. Use
these words and phrases: near, round, inside, above, under, below, in
the center of, on the right/left of, lateral, medial, etc.
3 Give the explanation of following terms:
bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes.
4 Discuss the picture given in the text.
Example:
One student names organs and shows them in the picture.
1st student: This is an appendix, these are lymph nodes.
Another student describes the same picture as follows:
2nd student: This is a bone marrow, these are not Peyer’s patches.
This is not a thymus, this is a spleen.
12
Unit 3
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
dormant, host cell, impaired, contaminated, blood-born virus, illicit
drugs, promiscuous sexual practices.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was first
recognized in 1981 and its incidence is roughly doubling each year.
It is caused by a retrovirus – a virus that contains RNA, instead of
DNA, as its genetic material. The virus is called human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), and it is widespread throughout the
world. (A related virus, called HIV-2, which can also cause AIDS,
occurs mainly in West Africa.) The HIV viruses infect T-helper cells
– the cells required to activate B lymphocytes and induce the
production of antibodies – as well as some macrophages, B cells,
endothelial cells, and neuroglial cells.
When an AIDS virus infects a T-helper cell, its viral RNA is used
to make viral DNA (viral genes), which in turn may be incorporated
into the host cell’s DNA. Then, the virus may become dominant,
failing to produce any noticeable effects for some time. During this
latency period, which may last for several years, the infected person
may show no symptoms of AIDS, but can probably transmit viruses
to uninfected persons.
For example, if the viral genes in the infected T-helper cell are
activated by some unknown factor, the genes induce the production
of new AIDS viruses that can leave the host cell, infect other Thelper cells, and kill them. As a consequence of widespread T-helper
cell destruction, the person’s immune system is greatly impaired, and
the group of symptoms (syndrome) that characterize AIDS develops.
These symptoms include enlargement of lymph nodes, weight loss,
and fever, as well as severe, opportunistic infections caused by a
variety of bacteria, protozoa (such as Pneumocystis carinii), fungi,
and viruses, and the appearance of certain forms of cancer (Kaposi’s
sarcoma, carcinoma of the skin and rectum, and B cell lymphoma).
The AIDS virus may also appear in the nervous system, where it
13
infects the neuroglial cells, causing a loss of white matter and a
variety of neurological dysfunctions. Some AIDS patients develop
serious neurological problems without impairment of their immune
responses.
The transmission of this disease seems to require the direct
introduction of the AIDS virus into the blood, as may occur during
certain sexual activities, such as anal intercourse, in which the skin or
mucous membranes are damaged. The virus can also be transmitted
by contaminated hypodermic needles or by the transfusion of viruscontaining blood or blood products.
AIDS is apparently not spread by casual contact with AIDS
patients. In fact, a study involving several hundred family members
with AIDS patients living at home revealed that the AIDS virus had
not been transmitted to any of the household members, except by
sexual contact.
The persons who are at greatest risk of containing AIDS are
homosexual and bisexual males (who have comprised about 70% of
the AIDS patients in recent years), heterosexual intravenous drug
abusers (19%), and heterosexuals (male or female) whose sexual
partners are infected (4%). The remaining 7% of AIDS patients do
not belong to one of these high-risk groups and have acquired the
disease from some other source, such as a transfusion of, or skin
exposure to, contaminated blood or blood products. The unborn
fetuses of infected mothers, for example, acquire the disease in about
50% of the cases. As a result, one of the more rapidly growing
groups of AIDS patients is comprised of children born to the infected
mothers who are intravenous drug users or whose sexual partners are
intravenous drug users. In about 3% of AIDS patients, the source of
the virus remains undetermined.
Antibodies appear in the blood of persons infected by the AIDS
virus, and these antibodies can usually be detected by means of a
simple blood test performed between two weeks and three months
following exposure to the virus. If antibodies do not develop within
several months following exposure to the virus, it is assumed that the
person has not become infected.
14
At present, no vaccine is available to prevent AIDS infections,
and there is no cure for the disease. To prevent contact with the
AIDS virus (as well as other blood-borne viruses, such as the
hepatitis B virus), healthcare workers are advised to avoid puncturing
their skin with needles contaminated with blood or blood products.
They should also take special precautions to prevent skin and
mucous membrane contact with body fluids of all patients, including
vaginal secretions, seminal fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid,
serous fluids from the pleural, peritoneal, or pericardial cavities, and
any other body fluids that contain visible blood.
According to the Surgeon General of the U.S. Public Health
Service, the most certain way for members of the general population
to avoid becoming infected with the AIDS virus (and to control the
AIDS epidemic in the United States) is for individuals to avoid
promiscuous sexual practices, to maintain mutually faithful
monogamous sexual relationships, and to avoid injecting illicit drugs.
Post-text assignments
1 Answer the questions:
1 What is AIDS?
2 When were the first diagnoses of AIDS made?
3 Who was the first to find out the cause of AIDS?
4 What strains of HIV do you know? What are they?
5 What strain of HIV is called a plague of 20-th century?
6 How many periods are there in AIDS flow?
7 What are the ways of getting AIDS virus into human body?
8 How long can the hidden period of AIDS last?
9 What rules should one follow to reduce the risk of being infected
with AIDS?
2 Respond to the following tasks:
1 Describe the effects of retrovirus using HIV as an example.
2 Explain what virus is called dormant. Characterize the latency
period.
3 Describe the diseases that accompany AIDS.
4 Describe the ways of spreading HIV.
15
5 Describe the basic precautions to be followed to prevent the
infection of HIV.
3 Complete the following sentences with research information
concerning the AIDS. Use the construction «to be + infinitive».
The verbs to be used are given in brackets:
1 The purpose of my study … (to investigate).
2 The aim of my present research … (to study).
3 The aim of our work … (to understand).
4 The purpose of this paper … (to describe).
5 The aim of my report … (to show).
Unit 4
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
myth, solid scientific proof, antiretroviral, viral load, the combined
accuracy, monogamous relationship.
Myths about HIV and AIDS
There are many myths about HIV. A myth is a story or an idea
that is not true. In dealing with HIV, it's important to know reality
from myth. Believing myths can result in fear, in denial, and even in
damage to your health.
Myths about HIV and HIV treatment
The myth: «HIV doesn't cause AIDS».
The reality: If you don't have HIV, you don't get AIDS. If you
have AIDS, you have HIV. Over 20 years of solid scientific proof
have verified this. AIDS is not caused by party drugs, government
conspiracies, or anything else but the HIV virus.
The myth: «It's not AIDS that kills people; it's the medicines they
take!»
The reality: HIV medications, known as antiretrovirals, don't cure
HIV, but they can help keep people healthy for many years. People
died from AIDS before antiretrovirals became available. Since
combination drug therapy for HIV was begun in 1996, the average
life expectancy for HIV-positive people has increased. In addition,
16
death rates for HIV-positive people who receive combination
antiretroviral treatment have dropped. Unfortunately, the HIV drugs
do have side effects and toxicity (for some people) that can be lifethreatening in very rare cases. The good news is that many of the
newer HIV medications have fewer side effects and are easier to take.
Myths about HIV tests
The myth: «The 'AIDS test' can't be trusted.»
The reality: The 'AIDS test' measures HIV antibodies. If you are
infected, your immune system will make antibodies against HIV. The
HIV antibody test (called ELISA or EIA) is one of the most reliable
medical tests. Before you get the results, the test has usually been
done two or more times. Before a positive antibody test result is
reported, it is confirmed by another test called a Western Blot.
According to the CDC, the combined accuracy of the antibody test
plus the Western Blot is greater than 99 percent.
The myth: «Viral load tests don't really tell anything about a
person's health»
The reality: Viral load measures the amount of HIV in a person's
blood. Many studies have shown that people with high viral loads are
much more likely to become ill or die than those with low viral loads.
Myths about HIV transmission
The meth: «Straight people don't get HIV».
The reality: The majority of HIV-positive people worldwide are
straight (heterosexual). Men infect women, and women infect men.
Risk is not about labels, it is about behavior. Any person who has
unprotected sex with someone whose HIV status is not definitely
known is at risk for HIV.
The myth: «I'm safe because I'm in a monogamous relationship
(or married) ».
The reality: Were you tested for HIV before you got into the
relationship? Was your partner? Were both tests negative? And do
you spend 24 hours a day together? If you're faithful, but he or she is
not, or he or she was already HIV positive before you met, you can
still get HIV.
The myth: «HIV can be spread through tears, sweat, mosquitoes,
pools, or casual contact».
17
The reality: HIV can only be transmitted through infected blood,
semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most common ways for
HIV to be transmitted are through unprotected sexual contact and/or
sharing needles with an HIV-positive person. HIV can also be passed
from mother to baby during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding.
The following «bodily fluids» are NOT infectious:
- tears;
- sweat;
- saliva;
- urine;
- feces.
Casual contact is not considered risky because it does not include
contact with blood or other infectious body fluids. Examples of
casual contact include: social kissing, public venues (pools, theaters,
and bathrooms), sharing drinks or eating utensils, etc. Insect bites do
not transmit HIV.
Myths about HIV are very dangerous. They can cause you to be
afraid of something that is not dangerous. And they can make you
feel like something is not dangerous when it really is!
Post-text assignments
1 Explain with your own words why myths about HIV are
dangerous.
2 Say what group of myths is spoken about:
1) Casual contact is not considered risky because it does not
include contact with blood or other infectious body fluids.
2) HIV medications, known as antiretrovirals, don't cure HIV, but
they can help keep people healthy for many years
3) The HIV antibody test (called ELISA or EIA) is one of the
most reliable medical tests.
3 Look at the statements and say whether they are true or false. But
don’t answer only «It’s true», or «It’s false», try to give your own
explanation to the given statement.
1 AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. T/F
18
2 Infection with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) can T/F
lead to AIDS.
3 Blood, semen, and vaginal secretions from persons with
T/F
HIV infection contain the virus.
4 People most often become infected with HIV by having
T/F
sexual intercourse or sharing hypodermic needles with a
person who already has the virus.
5 You can’t get HIV from shaking hands, hugging, eating
T/F
in restaurants, sharing dishes, or going swimming with
someone who has AIDS.
6 A few people have gotten HIV from touching
T/F
the tears or saliva of a person with AIDS.
7 You can tell someone has HIV by how they look.
T/F
8 Someone can be infected with HIV and not
T/F
know it.
9 The HIV antibody test tells you whether or not
T/F
you have AIDS.
10 Everyone who has HIV will get AIDS
T/F
within two years.
11 Only IV drug users and gay men get AIDS.
T/F
12 Women can become infected with HIV if
T/F
they have vaginal intercourse with a man who
has HIV.
13 A woman with HIV can pass the virus to
T/F
her baby before it is born.
14 Many children and teenagers could get HIV
T/F
because they have sexual intercourse or shoot drugs.
15 Young people share needles for other purposes
T/F
than shooting IV drugs, and this may be risky.
16 People can learn to keep from getting HIV.
T/F
19
Unit 5
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
current guidelines, confirm, prompt, extra precautions, tailor
treatment, viral load.
HIV Treatment
HIV is most commonly diagnosed by testing your blood or saliva
for the presence of antibodies to the virus. Unfortunately, these types
of HIV tests aren't accurate immediately after infection because it
takes time for your body to develop these antibodies — usually up to
12 weeks. In rare cases, it can take up to six months for an HIV
antibody test to become positive.
A newer type of test checks for HIV antigen, a protein produced
by the virus immediately after infection. This test can confirm a
diagnosis within days of infection. An earlier diagnosis may prompt
people to take extra precautions to prevent transmission of the virus
to others.
Tests to tailor treatment
If you receive a diagnosis of HIV/AIDS, several types of tests can
help your doctor determine what stage of the disease you have. These
tests include:
CD4 count. CD4 cells are a type of white blood cell that's
specifically targeted and destroyed by HIV. A healthy person's CD4
count can vary from 500 to more than 1,000. Even if a person has no
symptoms, HIV infection progresses to AIDS when his or her CD4
count becomes less than 200.
Viral load. This test measures the amount of virus in your blood.
Studies have shown that people with higher viral loads generally fare
more poorly than do those with a lower viral load.
Drug resistance. This type of test determines if your strain of HIV is
resistant to any anti-HIV medications.
Tests for complications
Your doctor might also order lab tests to check for other
infections or complications, including:
- tuberculosis;
20
-
hepatitis;
toxoplasmosis;
sexually transmitted diseases;
liver or kidney damage;
urinary tract infections.
There is no cure for HIV/AIDS, but a variety of drugs can be used
in combination to control the virus. Each of the classes of anti-HIV
drugs blocks the virus in different ways. It's best to combine at least
three drugs from two different classes to avoid creating strains of
HIV that are immune to single drugs. The classes of anti-HIV drugs
include:
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs).
NNRTIs disable a protein needed by HIV to make copies of itself.
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). NRTIs are
faulty versions of building blocks that HIV needs to make copies of
itself.
Protease inhibitors (PIs). PIs disable protease, another protein that
HIV needs to make copies of itself.
Entry or fusion inhibitors. These drugs block HIV's entry into CD4
cells.
Integrate inhibitors. These drugs work by disabling integrate, a
protein that HIV uses to insert its genetic material into CD4 cells.
When to start treatment
Current guidelines indicate that treatment should begin if:
- you have severe symptoms;
- your CD4 count is under 500;
- you're pregnant;
- you have HIV-related kidney disease;
- you're being treated for hepatitis B.
Treatment can be difficult
HIV treatment regimens may involve taking multiple pills at
specific times every day for the rest of your life. Side effects can
include:
- nausea, vomiting or diarrhea;
- abnormal heartbeats;
- shortness of breath;
21
-
skin rash;
weakened bones;
bone death, particularly in the hip joints.
Treatment response
Your response to any treatment is measured by your viral load
and CD4 counts. Viral load should be tested at the start of treatment
and then every three to four months while you're undergoing therapy.
CD4 counts should be checked every three to six months.
HIV treatment should reduce your viral load to the point that it's
undetectable. That doesn't mean your HIV is gone. It just means that
the test is not sensitive enough to detect it. You can still transmit
HIV to others when your viral load is undetectable.
Post-text assignments
1 Give full answer to given survey questions:
1 Do people get HIV infection from being bitten by mosquitoes or
other insects?
2 Do people get HIV infection from donating blood at a blood drive,
medical clinic, doctor’s office, or hospital?
3 Do people get HIV infection from having a blood test at a medical
clinic, doctor’s office, or hospital?
4 Do people get HIV infection from using public toilets?
5 Do people get HIV infection from being in the same class with a
student who has HIV infection?
6 Is there a cure for HIV infection?
7 Is it true that only homosexuals can get HIV infection?
8 Can a person get HIV infection from sharing tattoo needles?
9 Can a person have HIV infection many years without knowing it?
10 Can HIV be passed in the air, like a cold?
11 Is it safe to pick up or touch utilized needle or syringe?
12 Are teenage girls more at risk of HIV infection than adult
women?
13 Can a mother pass HIV to her baby through her breast milk?
14 Are people likely to get HIV infection from kissing an infected
person?
22
15 Can you get HIV from washing your clothes with the clothes of
someone who is HIV positive?
16 Can a person get HIV infection from oral sex?
17 Will everyone who has HIV get AIDS within two years?
18 Is HIV easier to catch than the viruses and bacteria that cause
most other sexually transmitted diseases?
19 Are there any treatments for HIV infected pregnant women which
can reduce the chance of their giving HIV to their babies?
20 Is it easier for an HIV infected person to catch a cold from you or
give a cold to you?
2 Respond to the following tasks:
1 Describe what tests should be done to diagnose AIDS.
2 Describe the mechanisms of anti-HIV drugs.
3 List the most common side effects of anti-HIV drugs.
4 Explain what the consequences of the therapy are.
3 Answer the following:
1 What is the CD4 count?
2 What is the viral load?
3 What is the drug resistance?
4 When the person should start the treatment?
4 Find in the text English equivalents for following sentences:
1 Засоби лікування ВІЛ можуть вимагати приймання декількох
таблеток у певний час кожного дня до кінця життя хворого.
2 Вірусне навантаження повинне бути перевірене на початку
лікування і потім кожні три-чотири місяці, поки хворий
проходить терапію.
3 Кожен із класів анти-ВІЛ препаратів блокує вірус по-різному.
4 Рання діагностика може спонукати людей вживати додаткових
запобіжних заходів, щоб запобігти передачу вірусу іншим
людям.
5 Хворий усе ще може передати ВІЛ іншим, якщо вірусне
навантаження не виявляється.
23
6 На жаль, ці типи тестів на ВІЛ не є точними відразу після
зараження, оскільки тілу людини потрібен час, щоб розвивати ці
антитіла, як правило, до 12 тижнів.
Unit 6
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
allergy, allergen, hypersensitivity, mast cells, hay fever, allergic
rhinitis, shortness of breath, environmental factors, host factors.
Allergy
Allergy is a hypersensitive disorder of the immune system.
Allergic reactions occur to normally harmless environmental
substances known as allergens; these reactions are acquired,
predictable, and rapid. Strictly, allergy is one of four forms of
hypersensitivity and called type I (or immediate) hypersensitivity. It
is characterized by excessive activation of certain white blood cells
called mast cells and basophile by a type of antibody known as IgE,
resulting in an extreme inflammatory response. Common allergic
reactions include eczema, hives, hay fever, asthma attacks, food
allergies, and reactions to the venom of stinging insects such as
wasps and bees.
Mild allergies like hay fever are highly prevalent in the human
population and cause symptoms such as allergic conjunctivitis,
itchiness, and runny nose. Allergies can play a major role in
conditions such as asthma. In some people, severe allergies to
environmental or dietary allergens or to medication may result in
life-threatening anaphylactic reactions.
A variety of tests now exist to diagnose allergic conditions; these
include testing the skin for responses to known allergens or
analyzing the blood for the presence and levels of allergen-specific
IgE. Treatments for allergies include allergen avoidance, use of antihistamines, steroids or other oral medications, immunotherapy to
desensitize the response to allergen, and targeted therapy.
24
Signs and symptoms
Many allergens such as dust or pollen are airborne particles. In
these cases, symptoms arise in areas in contact with air, such as eyes,
nose and lungs. For instance, allergic rhinitis, also known as hay
fever, causes irritation of the nose, sneezing, and itching and redness
of the eyes. Inhaled allergens can also lead to asthmatic symptoms,
caused by narrowing of the airways (bronchoconstriction) and
increased production of mucus in the lungs, shortness of breath
(dyspnea), coughing and wheezing. Aside from these ambient
allergens, allergic reactions can result from foods, insect stings, and
reactions to medications like aspirin and antibiotics such as penicillin.
Symptoms of food allergy include abdominal pain, bloating,
vomiting, diarrhea, itchy skin, and swelling of the skin during hives.
Food allergies rarely cause respiratory (asthmatic) reactions, or
rhinitis. Insect stings antibiotics, and certain medicines produce a
systemic allergic response that is also called anaphylaxis; multiple
organ systems can be affected, including the digestive system, the
respiratory system, and the circulatory system. Depending of the rate
of severity, it can cause cutaneous reactions, bronchoconstriction,
edema, hypotension, coma, and even death. This type of reaction can
be triggered suddenly, or the onset can be delayed. The severity of
this type of allergic response often requires injections of epinephrine,
sometimes through a device known as the EpiPen or Twinject autoinjector. The nature of anaphylaxis is such that the reaction can seem
to be subsiding, but may recur throughout a prolonged period of time.
Substances that come into contact with the skin, such as latex, are
also common causes of allergic reactions, known as contact
dermatitis or eczema. Skin allergies frequently cause rashes, or
swelling and inflammation within the skin, in what is known as a
«wheal and flare» reaction characteristic of hives and angioedema.
Cause
Risk factors for allergy can be placed into two general categories,
namely host and environmental factors. Host factors include heredity,
gender, race, and age, with heredity being by far the most significant.
However, there have been recent increases in the incidence of
allergic disorders that cannot be explained by genetic factors alone.
25
Four major environmental candidates are alterations in exposure to
infectious diseases during early childhood, environmental pollution,
allergen levels, and dietary changes.
Food allergens
One of the most common food allergies is sensitivity to peanuts.
Peanut allergies may be extremely severe, but can sometimes be
outgrown by children school-age. Tree nuts, including pecans,
pistachios, pine nuts, and walnuts are another common allergen.
Sufferers may be sensitive to one, or many, tree nuts. Also seeds,
including sesame seeds and poppy seeds, contain oils where protein
is present, which may elicit an allergic reaction.
Egg allergies affect about one in fifty children but are frequently
outgrown by children when they reach age five. Typically the
sensitivity is to proteins in the white, rather than the yolk.
Milk, from cows, goats or sheep, is another common allergycausing food, and many sufferers are also unable to tolerate dairy
products such as cheese. A small portion of children with a milk
allergy, roughly ten percent, will have a reaction to beef. Beef
contains a small amount of protein that is present in cow’s milk.
Other foods containing allergenic proteins include soy, wheat, fish,
shellfish, fruits, vegetables, spices, synthetic and natural colors, and
chemical additives.
Non-food protein allergens
Latex can trigger an IgE-mediated cutaneous, respiratory, and
systemic reaction. The prevalence of latex allergy in the general
population is believed to be less than one percent. In a hospital study,
one in 800 surgical patients (0.125 percent) report latex sensitivity,
although the sensitivity among health care workers is higher,
between seven and ten percent. Researchers attribute this higher level
to the exposure of health care workers to areas with significant
airborne latex allergens, such as operating rooms, intensive care units,
and dental suites. These latex-rich environments may sensitize health
care workers who regularly inhale allergenic proteins.
The most prevalent response to latex is an allergic contact
dermatitis, a delayed hypersensitive reaction appearing as dry,
crusted lesions. This reaction usually lasts 48 to 96 hours. Sweating
26
or rubbing the area under the glove aggravates the lesions, possibly
leading to ulcerations. Anaphylactic reactions occur most often in
sensitive patients, who have been exposed to the surgeon’s latex
gloves during abdominal surgery, but other mucosal exposures, such
as dental procedures, can also produce systemic reactions. Latex and
banana sensitivity may cross-react; furthermore, patients with latex
allergy may also have sensitivities to avocado, kiwi, and chestnut.
Clinically, these patients often have perioral itching and local
urticaria. Only occasionally have these food-induced allergies
induced systemic responses. Researchers suspect that the crossreactivity of latex with banana, avocado, kiwi, and chestnut probably
occurs because latex proteins are structurally homologous with some
plant proteins.
Post-text assignments
1 Translate the following terms and use them in making sentences
of your own:
blood allergy testing, enormous improvements in the medical
practices, avoiding the allergen, reduce symptoms, avoid lifethreatening anaphylaxis, useful treatment.
2 Translate the following:
1 The concept of «allergy»was originally introduced in 1906 by the
Viennese pediatrician Clemes von Pirquet, after he noted that some
of his patients were hypersensitive to normally innocuous entities
such as dust, pollen, or certain foods.
2 Pirquet called this phenomenon «аllergy» from the Ancient Greek
words άλλος allos meaning «other» and έργον ergon meaning
«work».
3 Historically, all forms of hypersensitivity were classified as
allergies, and all were thought to be caused by an improper activation
of the immune system.
4 Later, it became clear that several different disease mechanisms
were implicated, with common link to a disordered activation of the
immune system.
27
5 In 1963, a new classification scheme was designed by Philip Gell
and Robin Coombs that described four types of hypersensitivity
reactions, known as Type I to Type IV hypersensitivity.
6 With this new classification, the word «allergy» was restricted to
type I hypersensitivities (also called immediate hypersensitivity),
which are characterized as rapidly developing reactions.
3 Respond to the given assignments:
1 In what ways in an allergy reaction related to an immune reaction?
2 Explain the difference between active and passive immunities.
3 In what way is a tissue rejection reaction related to an immune
response?
Unit 7
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
gland, hormone, exocrine gland, endocrine gland, endorphin, adrenal
cortex, adrenal medulla, gonads, feedback system
Endocrine System
Although we rarely think about them, the glands of the endocrine
system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell,
organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue
function, and metabolism, as well as sexual function and
reproductive processes.
In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes
that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like
breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous system.
But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are
separate systems, they often work together to help the body function
properly.
About the Endocrine System
The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and
glands. As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer
information and instructions from one set of cells to another.
28
Although many different hormones circulate throughout the
bloodstream, each one affects only the cells that are genetically
programmed to receive and respond to its message. Hormone levels
can be influenced by factors such as stress, infection, and changes in
the balance of fluid and minerals in blood.
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives
off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the
blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for
use somewhere in the body. Some types of glands release their
secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine glands, such as the
sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of
the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20
major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be
transported to cells in other parts of the body.
Parts of the Endocrine System
The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are
the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal
body, and the reproductive glands, which include the ovaries and
testes. The pancreas is also part of this hormone-secreting system,
even though it is also associated with the digestive system because it
also produces and secretes digestive enzymes.
Although the endocrine glands are the body's main hormone
producers, some non-endocrine organs – such as the brain, heart,
lungs, kidneys, liver, thymus, skin, and placenta – also produce and
release hormones.
The Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located
in the lower central part of the brain, is the primary link between the
endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus
control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either
stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary.
Although it is no bigger than a pea, the pituitary gland, located at
the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus, is considered the
most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the
«master gland» because it makes hormones that control several other
endocrine glands. The production and secretion of pituitary
29
hormones can be influenced by factors such as emotions and
seasonal changes. To accomplish this, the hypothalamus relays
information sensed by the brain (such as environmental temperature,
light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the pituitary.
The Pituitary Gland
The tiny pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe
and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe regulates the activity of the
thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands. Among the hormones it
produces are:
- growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other
body tissues and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and
minerals;
- prolactin, which activates milk production in women who are
breastfeeding;
- thyrotropin, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones;
- corticotropin, which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce
certain hormones.
The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the
nervous system to reduce sensitivity to pain. In addition, the
pituitary secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make
sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the
menstrual cycle in women.
The posterior lobe of the pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone,
which helps control body water balance through its effect on the
kidneys and urine output; and oxytocin, which triggers the
contractions of the uterus that occur during labor.
The Thyroid and Parathyroids
The thyroid, located in the front part of the lower neck, is shaped
like a bow tie or butterfly and produces the thyroid hormones
thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones control the rate at
which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy. As the level of
thyroid hormones increases in the bloodstream, so does the speed at
which chemical reactions occur in the body.
Thyroid hormones also play a key role in bone growth and the
development of the brain and nervous system in children. The
30
production and release of thyroid hormones is controlled by
thyrotropin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland.
Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that function together
called the parathyroids. They release parathyroid hormone, which
regulates the level of calcium in the blood with the help of
calcitonin, which is produced in the thyroid.
The Adrenal Glands
The body has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each
kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which produces a
set of hormones and has a different function. The outer part, the
adrenal cortex, produces hormones called corticosteroids that
influence or regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's
response to stress, metabolism, the immune system, and sexual
development and function.
The inner part, the adrenal medulla, produces catecholamines,
such as epinephrine. Also called adrenaline, epinephrine increases
blood pressure and heart rate when the body experiences stress.
(Epinephrine injections are often used to counteract a severe allergic
reaction.)
What the Endocrine System Does
Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland
through the bloodstream to target cells designed to receive its
message. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to
some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers that
control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and
affect the target cells.
Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific
hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each
hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that
possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its
target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these
hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the
inner workings of the cell.
When hormone levels reach a certain normal or necessary
amount, further secretion is controlled by important body
mechanisms to maintain that level of hormone in the blood. This
31
regulation of hormone secretion may involve the hormone itself or
another substance in the blood related to the hormone.
For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted adequate amounts
of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the
normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream and adjusts its
release of thyrotropin, the pituitary hormone that stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
Another example is parathyroid hormone, which increases the
level of calcium in the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the
parathyroid glands sense the change and decrease their secretion of
parathyroid hormone. This turn off process is called a negative
feedback system.
Figure 2 – The Endocrine System
32
Post-text assignments
1 Give the meaning of the following:
1) glands
a) near the kidney
2) hormone
c) a ductless, glandlike body
situated near the throat
3) cell
d) a small cone-shaped structure
in the brain
4) thymus
g) any organ that separated
certain elements from the blood
and secrets
5) pituitary
b) a chemical substance formed
in some organ of the body and
carried to another organ or tissue,
here it has a specific effect
6) adrenal
f) a small unit of protoplasm,
usually with a nucleus and an
enclosing membrane
7) pineal
e) a small, oval endocrine gland
attached to the base of the brain
2 Choose the proper continuation:
1) The foundations of the a) the hypothalamus, pituitary,
endocrine system are
thyroid, parathyroids, adrenal,
pineal body, the reproductive
glands.
2) The major gland that make up b) the brain, heart, lungs,
the human endocrine system are
kidneys, liver, thymus, skin,
placenta.
3) Some non-endocrine organs c) the hormones and glands
also produce and release
hormones, they are
3 Translate the following:
1 The adrenal glands are shaped like the French Emperor Napoleon’s
hat and, just as Napoleon’s three-cornered hat sat on his head, so
each gland is perched on each of the kidneys.
33
2 These glands are about one to two inches in length and weight only
a fraction of an ounce each while secreting more than three dozen
hormones.
3 The pancreas is a long tapered gland which lies across and behind
the stomach.
4 Most of the pancreas consists of tissues which are embedded in
«nested» cells.
5 The Greek name «pancreas» meaning «all flesh» or «all meat», is
descriptive of the protein composition of this powerful organ which
resembles a fish with a large head and a long tail.
6 The pituitary gland, which is located in the center of the skull, just
behind the bridge of the nose, is about the size of a pea.
7 The pituitary gland has two distinct parts, the anterior and the
posterior lobes, each of which releases different hormones which
affect bone growth and regulate activity in other glands.
8 The «hypothalamus» is a tiny cluster of brain cells just above the
pituitary gland, which transmits messages from the body to the brain.
4 Give the explanation of following terms:
Hyperthyroidism, growth hormone, epinephrine, corticotrophin.
Unit 8
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
vital, disruption, insulin, acromegaly, hirsutism, fragile, fatigue,
“orphan” disease, Cushing’s syndrome, exogenous, endogenous.
Endocrine System Disorders
The endocrine system is composed of a network of organs and
glands responsible for producing, storing, and secreting hormones
that help to maintain and control vital functions such as growth,
reproduction, and energy levels. There are several endocrine system
diseases that result from disruptions in this complex system:
Diabetes – оne of the more prevalent endocrine system diseases,
diabetes is a condition in which the pancreas does not produce
enough of the hormone insulin or the body does not effectively use
34
the insulin it does produce. Because insulin is instrumental in helping
the body convert sugars and starches into necessary energy, there can
be serious consequences if diabetes is left undiagnosed and/or
untreated.
Growth disorders – given that the endocrine system regulates
growth processes, endocrine system diseases often result in growth
disorders. If the body produces too much growth hormone (GH),
gigantism or acromegaly (gigantism in adults) can occur; too little
growth hormone results a condition called growth hormone
deficiency, or GHD, which can cause children to grow more slowly
than normal.
Osteoporosis – osteoporosis, which occurs in both women and
men (although the former are four times more likely to develop the
disease), is a condition in which bones become fragile and more
likely to break. This can be the result of many factors including a
decrease in the hormone estrogen occurring during menopause in
women, or a decrease in testosterone occurring in men as they age.
Because osteoporosis often has no obvious symptoms, it is often left
undiagnosed until the person affected suffers a broken or fractured
bone during a minor fall.
Polycystic ovary syndrome – also referred to as PCOS,
polycystic ovary syndrome is one of the more common endocrine
system diseases, affecting between 7% and 10% of women aged 15
to 45. PCOS is a condition associated with symptoms of infrequent
or irregular menstruation, male hormone excess symptoms like
hirsutism (increased and unwanted hair growth), acne and difficulties
with conceiving. Patients with PCOS can also have multiple eggcontaining cysts in the ovaries. They have a higher chance of
developing various metabolic complications like diabetes and
hypertension.
Thyroid disorders – thyroid hormones, hormones produced by
the thyroid gland, influence nearly all of the body's symptoms.
Thyroid problems include hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid
hormone), hypothyroidism (too little thyroid hormone), thyroid
nodules, thyroid cancer, and more.
35
In addition to the endocrine system diseases listed above, there
are a number of hormone disorders that are far rarer. Cushing's
syndrome and Addison's disease are two of these less common
diseases.
Cushing's Syndrome
Cushing's syndrome, less common than the endocrine system
diseases discussed above, occurs as the result of too much cortisol in
the blood for an extended period of time. Cortisol is a hormone that,
in normal amounts, helps the body perform a number of important
functions including converting fat into energy, maintaining immune
system function, and responding to stress.
The two types of Cushing's syndrome, exogenous (from an
outside source) and endogenous (from a source within the body),
share a common list of symptoms but different causes. Exogenous
Cushing's syndrome occurs in patients taking cortisol-like
medications, and is temporary, ceasing when the patient has finished
the course of medication. The endogenous form of this endocrine
system disease is far rarer, and results from a tumor or tumors either
on the adrenal glands or the pituitary gland.
Cushing's syndrome symptoms include the following:
 weight gain;
 muscle loss and weakness;
 easily-bruised, fragile skin;
 reduced sex drive;
 depression/inability to think clearly.
Addison's Disease
Addison's disease, also among the rare endocrine system diseases,
occurs in fewer than 150 people in a million. Also referred to as
primary adrenal insufficiency, Addison's disease occurs when the
adrenal glands, which are located at the top of each kidney, produce
an insufficient amount of steroid hormones despite the presence of an
adequate amount of ACTH, the hormone that triggers the adrenal
glands to release steroids.
The steroid hormones produced by the adrenal glands, and
deficient during Addison's disease, hold many important functions
including the regulation of blood sugar levels, helping the body fight
36
infection and stress, and maintaining normal sexual drive. Addison's
disease symptoms include the following:
 fatigue, weakness, loss of appetite;
 muscle and joint pain;
 gastrointestinal problems (nausea, vomiting, etc.);
 darkening of the skin on the face, neck, and back of hands;
 low blood pressure;
 a craving for salt.
There is a great variety of other endocrine system diseases not
mentioned here that can affect people throughout all stages of life.
Indeed, besides the more common conditions, which include diabetes
and polycystic ovary syndrome, there are more than 6,000 rare or
«orphan» diseases.
Post-text assignments
1 Respond to the following tasks:
1 List the most common endocrine system diseases.
2 Describe the effects of one of these diseases.
3 Describe the mechanism of developing a disease known as
Cushing’s Syndrome.
4 Distinguish between exogenous an endogenous variations of
Cushing’s Syndrome.
5 Describe the symptoms of Addison’s Disease.
2 Find in the text English equivalents for the following sentences:
1 Кортизол – це гормон, який у нормальних кількостях
допомагає організму виконувати ряд важливих функцій,
включаючи перетворення жирів в енергію, підтримання функції
імунної системи і реагування на стрес.
2 Існує велика кількість інших хвороб ендокринної системи, що
не зазначені тут, які можуть вплинути на людей на всіх етапах
життя.
3 Вони мають більш високий ризик розвитку різних
метаболічних ускладнень, таких, як діабет і гіпертонія.
4 Це може бути результатом дії багатьох чинників, включаючи
зниження гормону естрогену, що відбуваються під час
37
менопаузи у жінок, або зниження рівня тестостерону, що
відбуваються у чоловіків, коли вони старіють.
5 Однією з найбільш поширених хвороб ендокринної системи є
цукровий діабет – стан, в якому або підшлункова залоза не
виробляє достатню кількість гормону інсуліну, або організм не
використовує той інсулін, який дійсно виробляється.
6 Хвороба Аддісона – також рідкісна хвороба ендокринної
системи, спостерігається менш ніж у 150 осіб на один мільйон.
3 Describe the symptoms of one of the endocrine system disorders
for other students to guess.
4 Render the text Endocrine System Disorders.
Use some of the following expressions:
The main idea of the text is...
The text is about...
The text is devoted to...
The text deals with...
The purpose of the text is to give the reader some information on...
The aim of the text is to provide the reader with some material
(data) on...
Much attention is given to...
It should be stressed that...
Special attention is paid to...
(Your opinion on the text)
I found the text interesting (important, of no value, informative,
useful).
It gives the reader some information on...
We have come to know and understand a lot of things.
Unit 9
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
inhale/exhale, coarse hair, sound box, multi-lobed air sacs,
surfactant, tidal volume.
38
Respiratory System
Each cell in an animal’s body must receive O2 and give off CO2.
This is easier for smaller organisms. In the vertebrates, the blood
carries O2 and CO2 to and from the cells, but these gases must also be
exchanged with the outside air or water. In insects, the tracheal
system takes air directly to the organs and O2 is usually not carried in
the blood. Mammals and some other vertebrates have lungs to
exchange air. However, the lungs are ventilated differently in
different groups of vertebrates. For example, a frog opens its nostrils
and expands the floor of its mouth to draw air into its mouth. Then it
closes its nostrils and uses the floor of its mouth to push O2 into its
lungs. Mammals are unique in possessing a diaphragm to pull O2
into the lungs. As the diaphragm contracts and the rib cage rises, a
negative pressure is created in the chest cavity causing the lungs to
expand and air to be drawn in.
Organs of the Respiratory System
Nose. It is the organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled.
The nostrils facilitate the process of inhalation and exhalation.
Vestibule is a part inside the nostrils which is lined by coarse hair.
The cavity of the nose is divided into two parts by the nasal septum.
The superior and lateral walls of the nasal cavity are formed of the
nasal, maxillary, ethmoid, frontal and sphenoid bones. The floor of
the nasal cavity is composed of the hard and soft palates. Cartilage
which is the external part of nose forms its tip and the bridge. The
bony shelves which project from the lateral walls of the nose are
known as inferior, middle and superior nasal conchae. Meatuses are
the spaces present between these conchae.
Larynx. It is the part of the respiratory system which connects the
trachea with the laryngopharynx. The larynx which is formed of
cartilages is also known as sound box. Epiglottis, throid and cricoid
are the three important cartilages of the larynx. The other cartilages
present in the larynx are the corniculate, aryteoid and cuneiform
cartilages. The epiglottis, an important part of the larynx is actually a
cartilage which prevents the food from entering the respiratory tract.
The flap-like action of the epiglottis is facilitated by the corniculate
cartilage.
39
Trachea. The trachea, which lies to the anterior side of the
esophagus, is a tubular structure with 1 inch diameter and a length of
4.25 inches. Length of the trachea spans between the 6th cervical and
5th thoracic vertebrae. The trachea is composed of around
15 – 20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage. These pieces are held
together by the tracheal muscles.
Bronchi. The tracheal tube when divided into two at the caudal
end, gives rise to the left and right bronchi. The bronchus is a
passage that allows air flow into the lungs. The left bronchus which
is shorter than the right one, further divides into 2 lobar bronchi
while the right bronchus is divided into 3 lobar bronchi.
The bronchi divide in the lungs into smaller branches called
bronchioles. In humans, the lungs are not symmetrical because the
heart, while located in the center of the chest (thorax), leans slightly
to the left. Thus the right lung has three lobes (sections) and the left
lung has two.
The tiniest bronchioles branch to the alveoli (sing. = alveolus)
which are tiny, multi-lobed air sacs made of simple squamous cells.
Having this thin wall enables air exchange with the equally-thinwalled capillaries of the circulatory system. In order to function
properly, the alveoli must always stay moist. Special cells in the
alveoli secrete a substance called a surfactant which reduces the
surface tension of water, thereby enabling it to better coat the cells of
the alveoli to keep them moist and keep them from sticking to each
other when the person exhales. The ability to secrete this chemical
doesn’t develop until around the eighth or ninth month of pregnancy,
so there frequently is a problem in premature babies with the lack of
surfactant causing the alveoli to stick together when the baby exhales.
Then, when the baby inhales again, the stuck alveolar cells tear away
from their neighbors. Scar tissue forms at these sites, thus the
damage is permanent, and the person’s lungs lose some of their
elasticity and ability to expand fully.
A current «hot» area of research is searching for a suitable
replacement surfactant that could be placed into the lungs of
premature babies to prevent this damage.
40
Figure 3 – Respiratory System
Lungs. Human body has two lungs, with the left being divided
into two lobes and the right into three lobes. Together, the lungs
contain approximately 1500 miles (2,400 km) of airways and 300 to
500 million alveoli, having a total surface area of about 75 m2 in
adults – roughly the same area as a tennis court. Furthermore, if all of
the capillaries that surround the alveoli were unwound and laid end
to end, they would extend for about 620 miles.
The lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, sex,
and normally ranges between 4,000 and 6,000 cm3 (4 to 6 L).
For example, females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than
males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity than
shorter people. Smokers have a lower capacity than non-smokers.
41
The usual volume of air inhaled/exhaled in one breath is called
the tidal volume. The average tidal volume for an adult human is
around 500 mL of air. The maximum volume that can be exhaled
during forced breathing (as in the «breathing machines» people are
given after surgery) is called the vital capacity.
The diaphragm is unique in that control of its operation can be
either voluntary or involuntary. Normally, control is involuntary, and
we don’t have to think about breathing. The breathing center in the
medulla of the brainstem responds to O2 and CO2 content in the
blood when adjusting the breathing rate. We also have the ability,
somewhat, to control breathing voluntarily, and a classic example of
this is holding one’s breath while swimming.
Post-text assignments
1 Answer the questions:
1 Through what organs and in what order does the air get into the
lungs?
2 Lungs of humans are symmetrical. Is this statement correct?
3 What is surfactant? What is it necessary for?
4 Is there any difference between lung capacities of smokers and
non-smokers (male and female, tall and short people)?
5 What is the tidal volume?
6 What quality makes the diaphragm unique?
2 Say what organ is spoken about:
1 Tiny, multi-lobed air sacs made of simple squamous cells.
They have very thin walls, which enables air exchange with the
equally thin-walled capillaries of the circulatory system.
2 A tubular structure with 1 inch diameter and a length of
4.25 inches, composed of around 15 – 20 C-shaped pieces of
hyaline cartilage.
3 An organ through which air is inhaled and exhaled.
42
Unit 10
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
energy expenditure, ambient air, pulmonary capillaries, oxygen
absorption, apnea, respiratory acidosis.
Respiration
In human physiology, respiration is the transport of oxygen from
the clean air to the tissue cells and the transport of carbon dioxide in
the opposite direction. This is only part of the processes of delivering
oxygen to where it is needed in the human body and removing
carbon dioxide waste.
Not all of the oxygen breathed in is replaced by carbon dioxide;
around 15% to 18% of what we breathe out is still oxygen. The exact
amount of exhaled oxygen and carbon dioxide varies according to
the fitness, energy expenditure and diet of that particular person.
Air-breathing of humans, respiration of oxygen includes four
stages:
1 Ventilation from the ambient air into the alveoli of the lung.
2 Pulmonary gas exchange from the alveoli into the pulmonary
capillaries.
3 Gas transport from the pulmonary capillaries through the
circulation to the peripheral capillaries in the organs.
4 Peripheral gas exchange from the tissue capillaries into the cells
and mitochondria.
Note that ventilation and gas transport require energy to power
mechanical pumps (the diaphragm and heart respectively), in contrast
to the passive diffusion taking place in the gas exchange steps.
Nasal breathing of respiration process refers to the state of
inhaling and exhaling through the nose.
It is considered superior to mouth breathing for several reasons.
Breathing through the nose has numerous health benefits due to the
fact that the air travels to and from the external environment and the
lungs through the sinuses as opposed to the mouth. The sinuses do a
better job of filtering the air as it enters the lungs.
43
In addition, the smaller diameter of the sinuses creates pressure in
the lungs during exhalation, allowing the lungs to have more time to
extract oxygen from them. When there is proper oxygen-carbon
dioxide exchange, the blood will maintain a balanced pH. If carbon
dioxide is lost too quickly, as in mouth breathing, oxygen absorption
is decreased.
Nasal breathing is especially important in certain situations such
as dehydration, cold weather, laryngitis, and when the throat is sore
or dry because it does not dry the throat as much.
Nasal breathing in public is considered to be more socially
acceptable
and
attractive
than
mouth
breathing.
Mechanism of respiration
There are two types of physical movements associated with the
respiration. They are:
- inspiration or inhalation;
- expiration or exhalation;
During inspiration, the outer intercostal muscles contract, which
raises the chest cavity or the ribs. This is accompanied by the
lowering of the diaphragm. Together these movements serve to
increase the area of the thoracic cavity, which reduces the pressure.
The air from outside rushes into the lungs.
After the internal respiration in the lungs, the impure air is
expelled in the following manner:
The inner intercostal muscles contract bringing the ribs back to
the original position and the diaphragm is also raised back by the
action of the abdominal muscles. This reduces the space in the chest
cavity and increases the pressure. This expels the air out of the
lungs.
Under normal conditions, humans cannot store much oxygen in
the body. Apnea of more than approximately one minute's duration
therefore leads to severe lack of oxygen in the blood circulation.
Permanent brain damage can occur after as little as three minutes and
death will inevitably ensue after a few more minutes unless
ventilation is restored. However, under special circumstances such as
hypothermia, hyperbaric oxygenation, apneic respiration, or
44
extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, much longer periods of apnea
may be tolerated without severe consequences.
Apnea, is a technical term that means suspension of external
breathing. During apnea there is no movement of the muscles of
respiration and the volume of the lungs initially remains unchanged.
Depending on the patency (openness) of the airways there may or
may not be a flow of gas between the lungs and the environment; gas
exchange within the lungs and cellular respiration is not affected.
Apnea can be voluntarily achieved (e.g., «holding one's breath»),
drug-induced (e.g., opiate toxicity), mechanically induced (e.g.,
strangulation), or it can occur as a consequence of neurological
disease or trauma.
Apneic respiration and oxygen uptake
Because the exchange of gases between the blood and airspace of
the lungs is independent of the movement of gas to and from the
lungs, enough oxygen can be delivered to the circulation even if a
person is apneic. This phenomenon (apneic oxygenation) is
explained as follows:
With the onset of apnea, an under pressure develops in the
airspace of the lungs, because more oxygen is absorbed than CO2 is
released. With the airways closed or obstructed, this will lead to a
gradual collapse of the lungs. However, if the airways are patent
(open), any gas supplied to the upper airways will follow the
pressure gradient and flow into the lungs to replace the oxygen
consumed.
If pure oxygen is supplied, this process will serve to replenish the
oxygen stores in the lungs. The uptake of oxygen into the blood will
then remain at the usual level and the normal functioning of the
organs will not be affected.
However, no CO2 is removed during apnea. The partial pressure
of CO2 in the airspace of the lungs will quickly equilibrate with that
of the blood. As the blood is loaded with CO2 from the metabolism,
more and more CO2 will accumulate and eventually displace oxygen
and other gases from the airspace. CO2 will also accumulate in the
tissues of the body, resulting in respiratory acidosis.
45
Under ideal conditions (i.e., if pure oxygen is breathed before
onset of apnea to remove all nitrogen from the lungs, and pure
oxygen is insufflated), apneic oxygenation could theoretically be
sufficient to provide enough oxygen for survival of more than one
hour's duration in a healthy adult. However, accumulation of carbon
dioxide (described above) would remain the limiting factor.
Figure 4 – Respiration
Post-text assignments
1 Explain the mechanisms of inhalation and exhalation using the
picture given in the text.
2 Respond to the following tasks:
1 What is the nasal breathing? What are the benefits of nasal
breathing compared to the mouth breathing?
2 Think about the advantages of mouth breathing. Name at least
three advantages.
3 What is an apnea? Can it be voluntary achieved?
46
Unit 11
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
hoarseness, acute inflammation, purulent tonsils, crackles, wheezes,
sufficient nutrients, life expectancy.
Respiratory System Disorders
There are various disorders that can affect the respiratory system.
This guide is a breakdown of some of the most common disorders.
Cancer of the larynx is mostly seen in people that are older than
60 years of age. There is a correlation between heavy alcohol use and
tobacco use in patients diagnosed with cancer of the larynx. The
signs and symptoms of larynx cancer include increased hoarseness,
hoarseness that lasts more than 2 weeks, dyspnea and dysphasia.
Tonsillitis is the acute inflammation of the tonsils, usually strep.
The signs and symptoms of tonsillitis are sore throat, fever, malaise,
anorexia, enlarged purulent tonsils and the lymph glands of the neck
are either enlarged or tender.
Acute bronchitis is usually caused by an upper respiratory
infection. The inflammation of the bronchial tree and the trachea
cause the congestion of secretions that are very thick are retained in
the bronchi. The signs and symptoms of acute bronchitis are
coughing, malaise, headache and wheezes or basilar crackles.
Legionnaire's disease is caused by the legionella pneumophila.
The legionella pneumophila thrive in moist reservoirs and can take
on two forms, either influenza or legionnaire's disease. The later is
life threatening pneumonia with alveoli necrosis. Legionnaire's
disease progresses rapidly and results in respiratory failure,
bacteremic shock and even death. The signs and symptoms include
dyspnea, headache, chest pain upon inspiration, temperature over 102
F, nonproductive cough with difficulty, rapid breathing, crackles or
wheezes, possible hematuria if includes renal impairment.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is caused by
coronavirus, it is spread by close contact via air droplets it may also
spread by indirect contact. The signs and symptoms of SARS include
headache, fever greater then 100.4 F, generalized discomfort, mild
47
respiratory symptoms, muscle aches, may experience a dry cough,
dyspnea and hypoxia.
Tuberculosis is the chronic infection most commonly affecting
the lungs, but it may also affect other bodily organs. Tuberculosis is
caused by the tubercle bacillus and is usually inhaled by coughing or
sneezing of a virulent person. Tuberculosis destroys alveoli and is
most commonly seen in HIV patients. The signs and symptoms
include night sweats, muscle fatigue, hemoptysis, cough, malaise,
and daily recurring fever with chills.
Pneumonia is the infection of the respiratory tract and alveoli; it's
a communicable disease and can occur anytime but is more
commonly seen during fall and winter months. Some patients with
respiratory problems, COPD, trachs, and recent anesthesia are more
susceptible.
Pneumonia is caused by bacteria, fungus, virus or chemicals.
Pneumonia develops from foreign particles or chemicals that
become trapped in the lungs. Signs and symptoms of pneumonia
include productive cough, fever, chest pain, painful cough, chills,
and sputum characteristics.
Lung cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer for men
and women. It can be particularly aggressive and is a common cause
of death. Smoking is the major cause of lung cancer and risk
increases by the amount of cigarettes a person has per day and the
length of time the person has been smoking (i.e., how many years).
Non-smokers are also at risk and pollution, radiation and exposure to
asbestos increases this risk.
Lung cancers usually develop in the epithelium of airways, and
the first signs of it are usually secondary growths in bones, liver or
the brain. Treatment for lung cancer may be surgery to remove the
cancer, chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Treatment is available
for sufferers who have been diagnosed early, and are at stage 1 or
stage 2.
If diagnosed when the cancer is at stage 3 or stage 4, treatments
will be used for pain relief and quality of life rather than cure.
Cystic fibrosis is an inherited disorder caused by a defective gene.
The disease causes mucous secretions to become thick, which
48
interferes with the normal function of the airways. Pancreas and liver
secretions can also be affected, causing ducts leading to the digestive
tract to become blocked, thus not able to absorb sufficient nutrients.
Cystic fibrosis is usually evident in infancy or childhood and there
is no cure. Symptoms can be treated with breathing and dietary
treatments, but life expectancy is short for sufferers. Due to variables,
such as the severity of the disease and the person’s overall health, it
is not possible to determine a person’s life expectancy accurately,
however, in the United States, more than 45 % of suffers live until
over 18 years, and in 2008 the median predicted age of survival was
raised from 32 years to 37.4 years. With advancements in treatments,
this expected life span could rise further.
Post-text assignments
1 Give the explanation of following terms:
Pneumonia, acute bronchitis, tonsillitis, tuberculosis.
2 Match the definition of the disease in column I with the name of
the disease in column II:
I
II
1 Smoking is the major cause of this a) Legionnaire’s disease
disease.
3 The disease is mostly seen in people c) cystic fibrosis
that are older than 60 years of age.
4 The signs and symptoms of this disease d) lung cancer
include night sweats, muscle fatigue,
hemoptysis, cough, malaise, and daily
recurring fever with chills.
5 The disease progresses rapidly and e) cancer of the larynx
results in respiratory failure, bacterium
shock and even death.
7 The signs and symptoms of this disease g)
severe
acute
are sore throat, fever, malaise, anorexia, respiratory syndrome
enlarged purulent tonsils and the lymph
glands of the neck are either enlarged or
tender.
49
8 The disease is usually caused by an h) tuberculosis
upper respiratory infection.
9 This is the infection of the respiratory j) tonsillitis
tract and alveoli; it's a communicable
disease and can occur anytime.
3 Translate the following:
1 The signs and symptoms of larynx cancer include increased
hoarseness, hoarseness that lasts more than 2 weeks, dyspnea and
dysphasia.
2 Lung cancers usually develop in the epithelium of airways, and the
first signs of it are usually secondary growths in bones, liver or the
brain.
3 Cystic fibrosis is usually evident in infancy or childhood and there
is no cure.
4 The signs and symptoms of SARS include headache, fever greater
then 100.4 F, generalized discomfort, mild respiratory symptoms,
muscle aches, may experience a dry cough, dyspnea and hypoxia.
5 The inflammation of the bronchial tree and the trachea cause the
congestion of secretions that are very thick are retained in the
bronchi.
6 Smoking is the major cause of lung cancer and risk increases by the
amount of cigarettes a person has per day and the length of time the
person has been smoking.
Unit 12
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
inflammatory disease, wheezing, trigger, factory fumes, pet dander,
dye, inhaled medication.
Asthma
Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the lungs that often makes
breathing difficult and causes attacks of coughing, wheezing,
tightness in the chest, and shortness of breath. Asthma symptoms
occur when the lining of the air passages swell and the muscles
50
surrounding the airways tighten. Mucus fills the airways, further
reducing the amount of air that can pass through them and causing an
asthma attack.
Asthma attacks can be brought on by triggers, such as air
pollution, tobacco smoke, and factory fumes, cleaning solvents,
infections, pollens, foods, cold air, exercise, chemicals and
medications. Triggers are highly individual and may not be related to
allergens. Many asthmatics are not allergic to common allergens
such as mold, ragweed, dust or pollens.
However, many individuals are both allergic and asthmatic,
making control and management crucial. It is imperative that people
who find they are debilitated by either allergies or asthma seek
medical assistance immediately. Both respiratory conditions are
treatable and manageable.
Asthma is becoming more prevalent in industrialized countries
and is generally more common in children than adults. Children often
outgrow asthma by the time they reach adulthood, but this is not
always the case.
Asthma is sometimes referred to as bronchial asthma because it
involves the narrowing of the bronchial airways. The distinction is
often made between childhood asthma and adult-onset asthma, when
symptoms don’t appear until at least the age of 20. Other types of
asthma include:
Allergic Asthma (Extrinsic Asthma)
Allergic asthma is triggered by allergens, such as pet dander, food
preservatives, mold, or pollen. Allergic asthma is more likely to be
seasonal because it often goes hand-in-hand with allergies that are
also seasonal.
Non-Allergic Asthma (Intrinsic Asthma)
This type of asthma is triggered by irritants in the air that are not
related to allergies – including wood or cigarette smoke, air
pollution, room deodorants, household cleaning products, and
perfumes.
Cough-Variant Asthma (CVA)
Cough-variant asthma does not have the classic symptoms of
asthma – such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Instead, CVA is
51
characterized by one symptom, a persistent dry cough. Cough-variant
asthma can lead to full-blown asthma that shows other asthma
symptoms.
Exercise-Induced Asthma (EIA)
Exercise-induced asthma affects people during or after physical
activity. EIA can occur in people who are not sensitive to classic
asthma triggers such as dust, pollen, or pet dander.
Nocturnal Asthma
This type of asthma is characterized by asthma symptoms that
worsen at night. Those who suffer from nocturnal asthma can also
experience symptoms anytime of the day. However, certain triggers –
such as heartburn, pet dander, and dust mites – can cause those
symptoms to worsen at night while sleeping.
Occupational Asthma
Occupational asthma is induced by triggers that exist in a person’s
workplace. Irritants and allergens include dusts, dyes, gases, fumes,
animal proteins, and rubber latex that are common in a wide range of
industries – including manufacturing, textiles, farming, and
woodworking.
Asthma Myths & Facts
Myth: Asthma is caused by emotions or psychological conditions.
Fact: Emotions may exacerbate asthma, but the hypersensitive
respiratory airways were present before emotions were introduced.
Myth: A child's asthma is not caused by lack of a strong bond with
the mother.
Fact: No scientific evidence has ever existed to support this.
Myth: Asthma is psychosomatic and should be treated by
psychiatrists or psychologists.
Fact: Asthma and allergies are physical conditions of physical
hypersensitivity of the respiratory system. Asthmatics do not cause
their own asthma attacks.
Myth: Regular use of inhalers are habit-forming and addictive.
Fact: No, inhalers are not habit-forming. Just because you have to
take your inhaler medicine daily does not mean that it is addictive.
Myth: Asthma can be cured.
52
Fact: Much as medical science may have progressed, unfortunately
there is no cure for asthma. Not even homeopathy or ayurveda or fish
therapy or yoga can cure asthma.
Myth: You cannot lead a normal life if you have asthma
Fact: You can lead an active and healthy life despite your asthma. If
you have asthma or your child does, you can rest assured that you
will be able to lead as normal a life as possible.
Myth: A pregnant woman should not take asthma inhalers
Fact: If a child can take an asthma inhaler, a pregnant woman can
too. In fact, it is important that a pregnant woman continue with
regular asthma inhalers as it will give her the best chance of having a
healthy baby.
Myth: One cannot die of asthma
Fact: Unfortunately, yes, one can die of asthma. According to a
WHO update, the annual worldwide deaths from asthma have been
estimated at 250,000.
While asthma can’t be cured, mild symptoms can be controlled
by use of prescribed inhaled medication. Serious or severe asthma
attacks require professional medical attention, but with ongoing
treatment, most asthmatics manage the disease and live normal, long
lives.
Post-text assignments
1 Match the definition of the disease in column I with the name of
the disease in column II:
I
II
1 Disease affects people during
a) nocturnal Asthma
or after physical activity.
2 Disease is induced by triggers
b) cough-variant asthma
that exist in a person’s
workplace.
3 Disease is triggered by
c) Exersice Indused asthma
allergens, such as pet dander,
food preservatives, mold, or
pollen.
53
4 The symptoms of this disease
worsen at night
5 Disease is triggered by irritants
in the air that are not related to
allergies.
6 Disease is characterized by one
symptom, a persistent dry cough
d) non-allergic asthma
e) occupational asthma
f) allergic asthma
2 What myths about asthma do you know? Try to disprove them.
Unit 13
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
stimuli, spinal cord, central nervous system, peripheral nervous
system, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system,
sympathetic system, parasympathetic system, acetylcholine,
norephinephrine,
serotonin,
motor
nerves,
involuntary,
neurotransmitter.
Nervous System
The nervous system is composed of all nerve tissues in the body.
The functions of nerve tissue are to receive stimuli, transmit stimuli
to nervous centers, and to initiate response. The central nervous
system consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the
collection point of nerve impulses.
The peripheral nervous system includes all nerves not in the
brain or spinal cord and connects all parts of the body to the central
nervous system. The peripheral (sensory) nervous system receives
stimuli, the central nervous system interprets them, and then the
peripheral (motor) nervous system initiates responses.
The somatic nervous system controls functions that are under
conscious voluntary control such as skeletal muscles and sensory
neurons of the skin.
The autonomic nervous system, mostly motor nerves, controls
functions of involuntary smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and
glands. The autonomic nervous system provides almost every organ
54
Figure 5 – Neurotransmitter (NT) in Synapse
with a double set of nerves - the sympathetic and parasympathetic.
These systems generally but not always work in opposition to each
other.
The sympathetic system activates and prepares the body for
vigorous muscular activity, stress, and emergencies. While the
parasympathetic system lowers activity, operates during normal
situations, permits digestion, and conservation of energy.
The two systems generally act in opposition to each other. For
example, a stimulation by the sympathetic system on the heart would
increase contractions, while a stimulation by the parasympathetic
system would decrease heart contractions. Where dual control of an
organ exists, both systems operate simultaneously although one may
be operating at a higher level of activity than the other. The operation
is similar to the operation of a car with both the accelerator and brake
pedals depressed.
In the peripheral nervous system, a chemical neurotransmitter
carries the nerve impulses from neuron to neuron across a synapse
(space between neurons). The neurotransmitters are acetylcholine,
55
norephinephrine, serotonin, and others.
Neurotransmitters
The events in a neurotransmission in the synapse are summarized
in the graphic in the text.
1 Release of Neurotransmitter: Transmission of nerve impulses is
accomplished when a nerve impulse causes the rupture of vesicles
containing the chemical transmitter from the nerve ending.
2 Interaction with Receptor: The neurotransmitter crosses the
synapse and interacts with receptors located on the membrane of the
next neuron. This interaction may produce membrane permeability
changes which result in an excitatory response.
3 Degradation of Neurotransmitter: After each impulse it is
necessary to inactivate or terminate the neurotransmitter's action.
This may be accomplished by degradation as in the hydrolysis of
acetylcholine. OR
4 Diffusion from the Receptor: The NT may simply diffuse from
the receptor site after a short period of time.
5 Resynthesize or restore NT: The neurotransmitter may be retaken
back into the storage site or new NT is synthesized.
And so on and so on and so on.
Remind you of anything?
How about a relay of dominoes in which one standing domino falls
and trips the next and the next and the next.
Post-text assignments
1 Answer the questions:
1 What is the nervous system?
2 What are the functions of nervous system?
3 What elements of nervous system do you know?
4 What are the functions of sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems?
5 What is a neurotransmitter? What is it needed for?
2 Retell the stages of neurotransmittion using the picture given in
the text.
56
Unit 14
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
crippled, deep tendon reflexes, muscle contraction, newer born
babies, seizure, mental impairment, muscle rigidity, dementia,
juvenile.
Nervous System Disorders
The Nervous System is the most important system in the human
body. If the nervous system doesn't work properly then the entire
body fails. Unfortunately, there are many diseases that affect the
neurologic system. Here're a brief list and descriptions of some of the
more common neurologic disorders that affect the majority of people
in our modern day world.
Cerebral palsy – this disease is the most common cause of
children becoming crippled. Cerebral palsy is defined as a group of
neuromuscular disorders the will result in CNS damage. One of the
most common signs and symptoms for cerebral palsy are having
hyperactive deep tendon reflexes, increased stretch reflexes, general
muscle weakness, underdevelopment of limbs, and rapid muscle
contractions and relaxation.
Hydrocephalus – this disorder is the result of excessive
accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricular spaces of
the brain. This disorder also affects newer born babies, but it can
affect adults as well. The most important signs and symptoms for this
disorder, is the rapidly increasing width of the head circumference
which will be very disproportionate to the infant's or adult's body.
Epilepsy – this disorder is also called a seizure disorder, which is
the condition of the brain that is marked by a person having the
susceptibility to have recurrent seizure episodes.
CVA – cerebrovascular accident (also known as brain attack or
stroke) is defined as the sudden impairment of the cerebral
circulation in one or more of the blood vessels supplying the brain.
This can cause a diminish oxygen supply to the brain and will often
result in necrosis (tissue death) of the brain tissues and will cause
physical impairment the will affect the person the result of their life.
57
Some of the signs and symptoms for this disorder are sudden
drowsiness, dizziness, headache, and mental confusion. Other signs
like mental impairment, seizures, coma, nuchal rigidity,
disorientation, and fever are also common.
Parkinson's disease is a disorder that affects nerve cells, or
neurons, in a part of the brain that controls muscle movement. In
Parkinson's, neurons that make a chemical called dopamine die or do
not work properly. Dopamine normally sends signals that help
coordinate your movements. No one knows what damages these cells.
Symptoms of Parkinson's disease may include:
- trembling of hands, arms, legs, jaw and face;
- stiffness of the arms, legs and trunk;
- slowness of movement;
- poor balance and coordination.
As symptoms get worse, people with the disease may have trouble
walking, talking or doing simple tasks. They may also have problems
such as depression, sleep problems or trouble chewing, swallowing
or speaking.
Alzheimer's disease was first described in 1907 by German
neuropathologist Alois Alzheimer. It is one of the most common
causes resulting in dementia. Under the term «dementia» various
progressive degenerative brain syndromes which affect memory,
thinking, behavior and emotions, are incorporated. Characteristics for
dementia go as follows:
- loss of memory;
- difficulties in word correct usage or in understanding what other
people say;
- difficulties in daily work performance;
- changes in mood and personal qualities.
Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previouslyunimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal
aging. It does not know either social, or economic, ethnic,
geographic borders. Usually it manifests itself after 40-50 years, but
earlier manifestation of disease has been registered in 28. Although
each affected person experiences dementia in his own way, however,
not everyone is able to take care of him/herself and is in constant
58
need of daily care.
Alzheimer's disease is intensively studied all over the world;
however, the final treatment of the disease won’t emerge in the
nearest future.
Huntington's disease is an inherited disease that causes the
progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain.
Early symptoms of HD may include uncontrolled movements,
clumsiness or balance problems. Later, HD can take away the ability
to walk, talk or swallow. Some people stop recognizing family
members. Others are aware of their environment and are able to
express emotions.
Most people with Huntington's disease develop signs and
symptoms in their 40s or 50s, but the onset of disease may be earlier
or later in life. When disease onset begins before age 20, the
condition is called juvenile Huntington's disease. Earlier onset often
results in a somewhat different presentation of symptoms and faster
disease progression.
Medications are available to help manage the symptoms of
Huntington's disease, but treatments can't prevent the physical,
mental and behavioral decline associated with the condition.
In conclusion, there are many different types of neurologic
disorders that can affect a person. Therefore, it is important for
anyone that wants to avoid these diseases to take good care of
themselves. However, some neurologic disorders may not be
prevented because they are depended on family genetics.
Nonetheless, if a person can recognize these common signs and
symptoms of these diseases, then they can be better prepared in
understanding this condition.
Post-text assignments
1 Match the definition of the disease in column I with the name of
the disease in column II:
I
II
1 This disease is the reason why a) cerebral palsy
neurons that make chemical called
dopamine die or do not work properly.
59
2 An inherited disease that causes the
progressive degeneration of nerve
cells in the brain
3 A disease which is defined as the
sudden impairment of the cerebral
circulation in one or more of the blood
vessels supplying the brain.
4 This disease is also called a seizure
disorder.
5 This disease is the result of
excessive
accumulation
of
cerebrospinal fluid within the
ventricular spaces of the brain.
6 This disease is defined as a group of
neuromuscular disorders the will
result in CNS damage.
7) This disease is one of the most
common causes resulting in dementia.
b) hydrocephalus
c) Alzheimer's disease
d) Parkinson's disease
e) Huntington's disease
f) epilepsy
g) CVA
2 Translate the following:
1 One of the most common signs and symptoms for cerebral palsy
are having hyperactive deep tendon reflexes, increased stretch
reflexes, general muscle weakness, underdevelopment of limbs, and
rapid muscle contractions and relaxation.
2 The most important signs and symptoms for this disorder, is the
rapidly increasing width of the head circumference which will be
very disproportionate to the infant's or adult's body.
3 This can cause a diminish oxygen supply to the brain and will
often result in necrosis (tissue death) of the brain tissues and will
cause physical impairment the will affect the person the result of
their life.
4 People with Parkinson’s disease may also have problems such as
depression, sleep problems or trouble chewing, swallowing or
speaking.
5 Alzheimer's disease is intensively studied all over the world;
however, the final treatment of the disease won’t emerge in the
60
nearest future.
6 Medications are available to help manage the symptoms of
Huntington's disease, but treatments can't prevent the physical,
mental and behavioral decline associated with the condition.
Unit 15
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
gray matter, white matter, cerebral cortex, frontal (parietal, occipital,
temporal) lobe, cerebellum, brain stem.
The Brain
Making sense of the brain's mind-boggling complexity isn't easy.
What we do know is that it's the organ that makes us human, giving
people the capacity for art, language, moral judgments, and rational
thought. It's also responsible for each individual's personality,
memories, movements, and how we sense the world.
All this comes from a jellylike mass of fat and protein weighing
about 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms). It is, nevertheless, one of the body's
biggest organs, consisting of some 100 billion nerve cells that not
only put together thoughts and highly coordinated physical actions
but regulate our unconscious body processes, such as digestion and
breathing.
The brain's nerve cells are known as neurons, which make up the
organ's so-called «gray matter». The neurons transmit and gather
electrochemical signals that are communicated via a network of
millions of nerve fibers called dendrites and axons. These are the
brain's «white matter».
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, accounting for 85
percent of the organ's weight. The distinctive, deeply wrinkled outer
surface is the cerebral cortex, which consists of gray matter.
Beneath this lies the white matter. It's the cerebrum that makes the
human brain – and therefore humans – so formidable. Whereas
animals such as elephants, dolphins, and whales have larger brains,
humans have the most developed cerebrum. It's packed to capacity
inside our skulls, enveloping the rest of the brain, with the deep folds
61
Figure 6 – The Brain
cleverly maximizing the cortex area.
The cerebrum has two halves, or hemispheres. It is further divided
into four regions, or lobes, in each hemisphere. The frontal lobes,
located behind the forehead, are involved with speech, thought,
learning, emotion, and movement. Behind them are the parietal
lobes, which process sensory information such as touch, temperature,
and pain. At the rear of the brain are the occipital lobes, dealing with
vision. Lastly, there are the temporal lobes, near the temples, which
are involved with hearing and memory.
Movement and Balance
The second largest part of the brain is the cerebellum, which sits
beneath the back of the cerebrum. It is responsible for coordinating
muscle movement and controlling our balance. Consisting of both
grey and white matter, the cerebellum transmits information to the
spinal cord and other parts of the brain.
The diencephalon is located in the core of the brain. A complex
of structures roughly the size of an apricot, the two major sections
62
are the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a relay
station for incoming nerve impulses from around the body that are
then forwarded to the appropriate brain region for processing. The
hypothalamus controls hormone secretions from the nearby pituitary
gland. These hormones govern growth and instinctual behavior such
as eating, drinking, anger, and reproduction. The hypothalamus, for
instance, controls when a new mother starts to lactate.
The brain stem, at the organ's base, controls reflexes and crucial,
basic life functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
It also regulates when you feel sleepy or awake.
The brain is extremely sensitive and delicate, and so requires
maximum protection. This is provided by the surrounding skull and
three tough membranes called meninges. The spaces between these
membranes are filled with fluid that cushions the brain and keeps it
from being damaged by contact with the inside of the skull.
Post-text assignments
1 Say what part of brain is spoken about:
1 This part of brain controls reflexes and crucial, basic life functions
2 This part of brain acts as a relay station for incoming nerve
impulses from around the body.
3 This part of brain is responsible for coordinating muscle movement
and controlling our balance.
4 This part of brain controls hormone secretions from the nearby
pituitary gland.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What are the «gray matter» and the «white matter»?
2 Where are the frontal lobes located? What are they responsible
for?
3 Where are the occipital lobes located? What are they responsible
for?
4 Where are the parietal lobes located? What are they responsible
for?
5 Where are the temporal lobes located? What are they responsible
for?
63
6 What structures are protecting our brain?
3 Translate the following:
1 Brain is a jellylike mass of fat and protein weighing about
1.4 kilograms.
2 The neurons transmit and gather electrochemical signals that are
communicated via a network of millions of nerve fibers called
dendrites and axons.
3 The cerebrum has two halves, or hemispheres, which is further
divided into four regions, or lobes.
4 The diencephalon is located in the core of the brain and consists
of structures roughly the size of an apricot, the two major sections
are the thalamus and hypothalamus.
5 The brain stem, at the organ's base, controls reflexes and crucial,
basic life functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
6 The brain is extremely sensitive and delicate, and so requires
maximum protection.
Unit 16
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
cone (rod) cells, blind spot, aperture, polarization of light, malleus,
incus, stapes, nerve fibers, perfect pitch, umami, vomeronasal organ.
Human Sense Organs
Traditionally, there are five senses: sight, smell, taste, touch, and
hearing. As far back as the 1760's, the famous philosopher Immanuel
Kant proposed that our knowledge of the outside world depends on
our modes of perception. In order to define what is "extrasensory" we
need to define what is "sensory". Each of the 5 senses consists of
organs with specialized cells that have receptors for specific stimuli.
These cells have links to the nervous system and thus to the brain.
Sensing is done at primitive levels in the cells and integrated into
sensations in the nervous system. Sight is probably the most
developed sense in humans, followed closely by hearing.
64
Sight
The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure
consisting of a transparent lens that focuses light on the retina. The
retina is covered with two basic types of light-sensitive cells-rods
and cones. The cone cells are sensitive to color and are located in the
part of the retina called the fovea, where the light is focused by the
lens.
The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater
sensitivity to light than the cone cells. These cells are located around
the fovea and are responsible for peripheral vision and night vision.
The eye is connected to the brain through the optic nerve. The point
of this connection is called the «blind spot» because it is insensitive
to light. Experiments have shown that the back of the brain maps the
visual input from the eyes.
The brain combines the input of our two eyes into a single threedimensional image. In addition, even though the image on the retina
is upside-down because of the focusing action of the lens, the brain
compensates and provides the right-side-up perception. Experiments
have been done with subjects fitted with prisms that invert the
images. The subjects go through an initial period of great confusion,
but subsequently they perceive the images as right side up.
The range of perception of the eye is phenomenal. In the dark, a
substance produced by the rod cells increases the sensitivity of the
eye so that it is possible to detect very dim light. In strong light, the
iris contracts reducing the size of the aperture that admits light into
the eye and a protective obscure substance reduces the exposure of
the light-sensitive cells. The spectrum of light to which the eye is
sensitive varies from the red to the violet. Lower electromagnetic
frequencies in the infrared are sensed as heat, but cannot be seen.
Higher frequencies in the ultraviolet and beyond cannot be seen
either, but can be sensed as tingling of the skin or eyes depending on
the frequency. The human eye is not sensitive to the polarization of
light, i.e., light that oscillates on a specific plane. Bees, on the other
hand, are sensitive to polarized light, and have a visual range that
extends into the ultraviolet. Some kinds of snakes have special
infrared sensors that enable them to hunt in absolute darkness using
65
only the heat emitted by their prey. Birds have a higher density of
light-sensing cells than humans do in their retinas, and therefore,
higher visual acuity.
Hearing
The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes away
from the head and is shaped like a cup to direct sounds toward the
tympanic membrane, which transmits vibrations to the inner ear
through a series of small bones in the middle ear called the malleus,
incus and stapes. The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-shaped
chamber covered internally by nerve fibers that react to the vibrations
and transmit impulses to the brain via the auditory nerve. The brain
combines the input of our two ears to determine the direction and
distance of sounds.
The inner ear has a vestibular system formed by three
semicircular canals that are approximately at right angles to each
other and which are responsible for the sense of balance and spatial
orientation. The inner ear has chambers filled with a viscous fluid
and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium carbonate. The
movement of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear
sends signals to the brain that are interpreted as motion and
acceleration.
The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles per
second, which is a very deep bass, to 28,000 cycles per second,
which is a very high pitch. Bats and dolphins can detect frequencies
higher than 100,000 cycles per second. The human ear can detect
pitch changes as small as 3 hundredths of one percent of the original
frequency in some frequency ranges. Some people have «perfect
pitch», which is the ability to map a tone precisely on the musical
scale without reference to an external standard. It is estimated that
less than one in ten thousand people have perfect pitch, but speakers
of tonal languages like Vietnamese and Mandarin show remarkably
precise absolute pitch in reading out lists of words because pitch is
an essential feature in conveying the meaning of words in tone
languages. The Eguchi Method teaches perfect pitch to children
starting before they are 4 years old. After age 7, the ability to
recognize notes does not improve much.
66
Taste
The receptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated chiefly in
the tongue, but they are also located in the roof of the mouth and near
the pharynx. They are able to detect four basic tastes: salty, sweet,
bitter, and sour. The tongue also can detect a sensation called
«umami» from taste receptors sensitive to amino acids. Generally,
the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to sweet
tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are sensitive to bitter
tastes. The taste buds on top and on the side of the tongue are
sensitive to salty and sour tastes.
At the base of each taste bud there is a nerve that sends the
sensations to the brain. The sense of taste functions in coordination
with the sense of smell. The number of taste buds varies substantially
from individual to individual, but greater numbers increase
sensitivity. Women, in general, have a greater number of taste buds
than men. As in the case of color blindness, some people are
insensitive to some tastes.
Smell
The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell. The
cavity of the nose is lined with mucous membranes that have smell
receptors connected to the olfactory nerve. The smells themselves
consist of vapors of various substances. The smell receptors interact
with the molecules of these vapors and transmit the sensations to the
brain. The nose also has a structure called the vomeronasal organ
whose function has not been determined, but which is suspected of
being sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle.
The smell receptors are sensitive to seven types of sensations that
can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint, ether, acrid, or
putrid. The sense of smell is sometimes temporarily lost when a
person has a cold. Dogs have a sense of smell that is many times
more sensitive than man's.
Touch
The sense of touch is distributed throughout the body. Nerve
endings in the skin and other parts of the body transmit sensations to
the brain. Some parts of the body have a larger number of nerve
endings and, therefore, are more sensitive. Four kinds of touch
67
sensations can be identified: cold, heat, contact, and pain. Hairs on
the skin magnify the sensitivity and act as an early warning system
for the body. The fingertips and the sexual organs have the greatest
concentration of nerve endings. The sexual organs have «erogenous
zones» that when stimulated start a series of endocrine reactions and
motor responses.
Post-text assignments
1 Translate the following:
1 Each of the 5 senses consists of organs with specialized cells that
have receptors for specific stimuli.
2 The subjects go through an initial period of great confusion, but
subsequently they perceive the images as right side up.
3 In the dark, a substance produced by the rod cells increases the
sensitivity of the eye so that it is possible to detect very dim light.
4 The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles per second,
which is a very deep bass, to 28,000 cycles per second, which is a
very high pitch.
5 Generally, the taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive
to sweet tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are sensitive
to bitter tastes.
6 The nose also has a structure called the vomeronasal organ whose
function has not been determined, but which is suspected of being
sensitive to pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle.
7 Hairs on the skin magnify the sensitivity and act as an early
warning system for the body.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What is called the «blind spot» of the eye?
2 Why do birds have a higher visual acuity compared to humans?
3 What is the function of otoliths?
4 What is called a «perfect pitch»?
5 What sensations taste buds are able to detect?
6 Who have a greater number of taste buds – men or women?
7 What sensations the smell receptors are sensitive to?
8 What four kinds of touch sensations can be identified?
68
Unit 17
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
ciliary body, conjuctiva, aqueous humor, iris, lens, pupil, rhodopsin.
The Human Eye
Cornea and sclera
The eye is made of three coats, or tunics. The outermost coat
consists of the cornea and the sclera; the middle coat contains the
main blood supply to the eye and consists of the choroid, the ciliary
body, and the iris. The innermost layer is the retina. The sclera, or the
white of the eye, is composed of tough fibrous tissue. On the exposed
area of the eye the scleral surface is covered with a mucous
membrane called the conjunctiva. This protects the eye from
becoming dry. The cornea, a part of the sclera, is the transparent
window of the eye through which light passes. The focusing of light
begins in the cornea. Behind the cornea is a watery fluid called the
aqueous humor. This fluid fills a curved, crescent-shaped space,
thick in the center and thinner toward the edges. The cornea and the
aqueous humor together make an outer lens that refracts, or bends,
light and directs it toward the center of the eye.
Iris
Behind the aqueous humor is a colored ring called the iris. The
color of the iris is inherited and does not affect vision. The iris is like
a muscular curtain that opens and closes. It controls the amount of
light entering the eye through the pupil, an opening in the iris. The
pupil looks like a black spot. Light from everything a person sees
must go through the pupil. When more or less light is needed to see
better, the pupil becomes larger or smaller through the movement of
the muscle in the iris. The aqueous humor flows through the pupil
into a small space between the iris and the lens. A simple way to see
how the pupils respond to light is to stand in front of a mirror with
the eyes closed, covered by the hands for about ten seconds. When
the hands are removed and the eyes opened, the pupils begin to get
smaller, or contract, in response to the light. When light is reduced,
pupils expand; when it is increased, they contract. The choroid is a
69
layer of blood vessels and connective tissue squeezed between the
sclera and the retina. It supplies nutrients to the eye. The ciliary body
is a muscular structure that changes the shape of the lens.
Lens
Behind the pupil and iris are the crystalline lens and the ciliary
muscle. The muscle holds the lens in place and changes its shape.
The lens is a colorless, nearly transparent double convex structure,
similar to an ordinary magnifying glass. Its only function is to focus
light rays onto the retina. The lens is made of elongated cells that
have no blood supply. These cells obtain nutrients from the
surrounding fluids the aqueous humor in front and the vitreous body,
a clear jelly, behind. The shape of the lens essentially that of a
flattened globe can be changed by the movement of the ciliary
muscles surrounding it. Hence, the eye can focus clearly on objects at
widely varying distances. The ability of the lens to adjust from a
distant to a near focus is called accommodation.
By contracting, the ciliary muscle pushes the lens to make it
thicker in the middle. By relaxing, the muscle pulls the lens and
flattens it. To see objects clearly when they are close to the eyes the
lens is squeezed together and thickened. To see distant objects
clearly it is flattened. For people with normal vision, the relaxed
ciliary muscle flattens the lens enough to bring objects into sharp
focus if they are 6 meters or more from the eye. To see closer objects
clearly, the ciliary muscle must contract in order to thicken the lens.
Young children can see objects clearly at distances as close as 6.4
centimeters. After about age 45 most people must have objects
farther and farther away in order to see them clearly. The lens
becomes less elastic as a person grows older.
Retina
The retina is a soft, transparent layer of nervous tissue made up of
millions of light receptors. The retina is connected to the brain by the
optic nerve. All of the structures needed to focus light onto the retina
and to nourish it are housed in the eye, which is primarily a
supporting shell for the retina. When light enters the eye it passes
through the lens and focuses an image onto the retina. The retina has
several layers, one of which contains special cells named for their
70
Figure 7 – The Eye
shapes rods and cones. Light-sensitive chemicals in the rods and
cones react to specific wavelengths of light and trigger nerve
impulses. These impulses are carried through the optic nerve to the
visual center in the brain. Here they are interpreted, and sight occurs.
Light must pass through the covering layers of the retina to reach the
layer of rods and cones. There are about 75 to 150 million rods and
about 7 million cones in the human retina. Rods do not detect lines,
points, or color. They perceive only light and dark tones in an image.
The sensitive rods can distinguish outlines or silhouettes of objects in
almost complete darkness. They make it possible for people to see in
darkness or at night. Cones are the keenest of the retina's receptor
cells. They detect the fine lines and points of an image. The cones,
for example, make it possible to read these words. There are three
types of cones that receive color sensations. One type absorbs light
best in wavelengths of blue-violet and another in wavelengths of
green; a third is sensitive to wavelengths of yellow and red.
Visual purple
Rods detect images in the dark because the cells contain a rosered pigment called visual purple, or rhodopsin. When exposed to
bright light, visual purple undergoes a chemical change in which it
71
loses its color. This causes the rods to lose their sensitivity to light,
thus enabling the eye to endure glaring light. Before the eye can see
in the dark, visual purple must be re-formed in the retina. As more
visual purple is produced, the eye's sensitivity to light increases.
Thus when a person enters a darkened motion-picture theater his eyes
do not contain much visual purple. As the visual purple is re-formed,
the person can see better. In a short time his eyes' sensitivity to light
is multiplied about 2,000 times. Visual purple can be produced only
if the body has a sufficient quantity of vitamin A. Lack of vitamin A
in the diet may lead to night blindness, or nyctalopia.
Post-text assignments
1 Describe the structure of the human eye using the picture in the
text.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What is the funtion of conjuctiva?
2 Is there a way to see how the pupils respond to light?
3 What is the lens?
4 What does the ciliary muscle do?
5 What is the retina?
6 What special cells does retina have?
7 What rods/cones can detect?
8 What is a visual purple? What is the function of visual purple?
9 What is the nyctalopia? What is the cause of this disorder?
3 Translate the following:
1 The outermost coat consists of the cornea and the sclera; the
middle coat contains the main blood supply to the eye and consists of
the choroid, the ciliary body, and the iris.
2 The cornea and the aqueous humor together make an outer lens that
refracts, or bends, light and directs it toward the center of the eye.
3 When more or less light is needed to see better, the pupil becomes
larger or smaller through the movement of the muscle in the iris.
4 The choroid is a layer of blood vessels and connective tissue
squeezed between the sclera and the retina.
72
5 The lens is made of elongated cells that have no blood supply.
These cells obtain nutrients from the surrounding fluids the aqueous
humor in front and the vitreous body, a clear jelly, behind.
6 All of the structures needed to focus light onto the retina and to
nourish it are housed in the eye, which is primarily a supporting shell
for the retina.
7 There are three types of cones that receive color sensations. One
type absorbs light best in wavelengths of blue-violet and another in
wavelengths of green; a third is sensitive to wavelengths of yellow
and red.
8 When exposed to bright light, visual purple undergoes a chemical
change in which it loses its color. This causes the rods to lose their
sensitivity to light, thus enabling the eye to endure glaring light.
Unit 18
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
pinna, cerumen, tympanic membrane, ossicle, Eustachian tube,
acoustic nerve.
The Human Ear
The human ear is the most complex sensory system in the human
body. Vision and smell are extraordinary senses, but they do not
match in complexity the ear’s process of turning minute waves of
sound pressure from air molecules banging against the eardrum into
the neural signals that get sent to the brain and interpreted as sound.
With our sense of hearing we can hear the exquisite sounds of
nature, enjoy all kinds of music, and understand the complexities of
one or more spoken languages.
The ear is divided into four parts: the external or outer ear, the
middle ear, the inner ear, and the neural ear. Each part serves an
important and unique function in the process of hearing.
The external ear consists of the most visible ear structure, called
the pinna or auricle, and the ear canal. This part of the ear acts as a
sound collector to guide sound waves down the ear canal so that they
impinge against the eardrum or tympanic membrane causing it to
73
vibrate. The shape and features of the pinna help us in identifying
where sounds are coming from. In locating the direction of sounds,
we also depend on the fact that we have two ears so the brain can
compare the sound arriving at one ear versus the other.
The pinna, of course, is useful to keep eyeglasses from sliding
down our face and is often used to attach decorative jewelry.
Lying beneath the outermost part of the ear canal are glands that
produce earwax or cerumen. The skin covering the ear canal is very
thin, especially farther down the canal, near the tympanic membrane.
Because of this, one should avoid pushing cotton swabs or anything
else down the ear canal since abrasion of the skin can cause bleeding
and increase the risk of injury or infection.
The middle ear lies between the tympanic membrane and the
inner ear. The middle ear space is filled with air and within it are the
three smallest bones in our body, called the ossicles. These are
known as the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup).
The ossicles serve to mechanically amplify the pressure waves
from the vibrating tympanic membrane to provide an efficient
transfer of the sound energy into the fluid filled spaces of the inner
ear.
In addition, the relative difference in the area of the tympanic
membrane and the much smaller oval window lying beneath the
stapes footplate allows for a concentration of the pressure wave much
the way a spiked heel on a shoe concentrates force compared to a flat
heel. These two mechanisms multiply the pressure wave at the
tympanic membrane about 22 times.
Also in the middle ear is the opening of the Eustachian tube that
allows for the equalization of air pressure on both side of the
tympanic membrane. We all experience the opening and closing of
the Eustachian tube when our ears pop going up or down in an
elevator or airplane.
The inner ear consists of two functional systems, both encased in
the temporal bone of the skull. One, called the vestibular system is
responsible for our sense of balance and equilibrium. The three semicircular canals, set at right angles to each other, respond to motion
and the forces of gravity. The other system, the coiled tube called the
74
Figure 8 – The Ear
cochlea, is the most extraordinary structure of the ear. It is here that
sound waves, now propagating as waves in the fluid-filled spaces of
the cochlea, get converted to the neural impulses that are sent to the
brain.
In the cochlea, thousands of tiny structures called hair cells are set
into motion by the moving fluid wave. The hair cells trigger the
attached nerve fibers into activity. It is within the cochlea that the
most common type of hearing loss, sensory hearing loss, occurs
when exposure to loud noise or diseases cause the destruction of
many hundreds of these delicate hair cells.
Once the sound waves, balance and equilibrium information is
encoded into neural signals by the inner ear, the neural impulses are
sent to the brain along a nerve fiber bundle called the vestibulocochlear nerve, sometimes called the acoustic nerve. This nerve is
numbered eight of the twelve cranial nerves that enter the brainstem.
Other cranial nerves include the optic nerve, the olfactory nerve, the
facial nerve and more.
In the brain’s central auditory cortex, the neural impulses are
interpreted as sound based on our learning and cognitive processes
75
associated with our auditory experiences.
Post-text assignments
1 Describe the structure of the human ear using the picture in the
text.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What is called the pinna?
2 What are the ossicles? What is the function of the ossicles?
3 What is the function of the Eustachian tube?
4 What are the systems of inner ear?
5 What is the purpose of the vetibular system?
6 What is the cochlea?
3 Translate the following:
1 Vision and smell are extraordinary senses, but they do not match in
complexity the ear’s process of turning minute waves of sound
pressure from air molecules banging against the eardrum into the
neural signals that get sent to the brain and interpreted as sound.
2 Lying beneath the outermost part of the ear canal are glands that
produce earwax or cerumen.
3 The relative difference in the area of the tympanic membrane and
the much smaller oval window lying beneath the stapes footplate
allows for a concentration of the pressure wave much the way a
spiked heel on a shoe concentrates force compared to a flat heel.
4 It is within the cochlea that the most common type of hearing loss,
sensory hearing loss, occurs when exposure to loud noise or diseases
cause the destruction of many hundreds of these delicate hair cells.
5 Once the sound waves, balance and equilibrium information is
encoded into neural signals by the inner ear, the neural impulses are
sent to the brain along a nerve fiber bundle called the vestibulocochlear nerve, sometimes called the acoustic nerve
6 In the brain’s central auditory cortex, the neural impulses are
interpreted as sound based on our learning and cognitive processes
associated with our auditory experiences.
76
Unit 19
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
epidermis, melanin, UV rays,dermis, sweat gland, collagen, elastin,
sebaceous gland, follicle, pilomotor reflex.
The Human Skin
What's the body's biggest organ?
You might be surprised to find out it's the skin, which you might
not think of as an organ. No matter how you think of it, your skin is
very important. It covers and protects everything inside your body.
Without skin, people's muscles, bones, and organs would be hanging
out all over the place. Skin holds everything together. It also:
- protects our bodies;
- helps keep our bodies at just the right temperature;
- allows us to have the sense of touch.
The skin is made up of three layers, each with its own important
parts. The layer on the outside is called the epidermis. The epidermis
is the part of your skin you can see.
Look down at your hands for a minute. Even though you can't see
anything happening, your epidermis is hard at work. At the bottom of
the epidermis, new skin cells are forming.
When the cells are ready, they start moving toward the top of your
epidermis. This trip takes about 2 weeks to a month. As newer cells
continue to move up, older cells near the top die and rise to the
surface of your skin. What you see on your hands (and everywhere
else on your body) are really dead skin cells.
These old cells are tough and strong, just right for covering your
body and protecting it. But they only stick around for a little while.
Soon, they'll flake off. Though you can't see it happening, every
minute of the day we lose about 30,000 to 40,000 dead skin cells off
the surface of our skin.
So just in the time it took you to read this far, you've probably lost
about 40,000 cells. That's almost 4 kilograms of cells every year! But
don't think your skin might wear out someday. Your epidermis is
always making new skin cells that rise to the top to replace the old
77
ones. Most of the cells in your epidermis (95%) work to make new
skin cells.
And what about the other 5%? They make a substance called
melanin. Melanin gives skin its color. The darker your skin is, the
more melanin you have. When you go out into the sun, these cells
make extra melanin to protect you from getting burned by the sun's
ultraviolet, or UV, rays.
That's why your skin gets tan if you spend a lot of time in the sun.
But even though melanin is mighty, it can't shield you all by itself.
You'll want to wear sunscreen and protective clothing, such as a hat,
to prevent painful sunburns. Protecting your skin now also can help
prevent skin cancer when you get older.
The next layer down is the dermis. You can't see your dermis
because it's hidden under your epidermis. The dermis contains nerve
endings, blood vessels, oil glands, and sweat glands. It also contains
collagen and elastin, which are tough and stretchy.
The nerve endings in your dermis tell you how things feel when
you touch them. They work with your brain and nervous system, so
that your brain gets the message about what you're touching. Is it the
soft fur of a cat or the rough surface of your desk?
Sometimes what you feel is dangerous, so the nerve endings work
with your muscles to keep you from getting hurt. If you touch
something hot, the nerve endings in your dermis respond right away:
«Ouch! That's hot!» The nerves quickly send this message to the
brain or spinal cord, which then immediately commands the muscles
to take your hand away. This all happens in a split second, without
you ever thinking about it.
Your dermis is also full of tiny blood vessels. These keep your
skin cells healthy by bringing them the oxygen and nutrients they
need and by taking away waste. These blood vessels are hard to see
in kids, but you might get a better look if you check out your
grandparents' skin. As the dermis gets older, it gets thinner and easier
to see through.
The dermis is home to the oil glands, too. These are also called
sebaceous glands, and they are always producing sebum. Sebum is
your skin's own natural oil. It rises to the surface of your epidermis to
78
keep your skin lubricated and protected. It also makes your skin
waterproof – as long as sebum's on the scene, your skin won't absorb
water and get soggy.
You also have sweat glands on your epidermis. Even though you
can't feel it, you actually sweat a tiny bit all the time. The sweat
comes up through pores, tiny holes in the skin that allow it to escape.
When the sebum meets the sweat, they form a protective film that's a
bit sticky.
An easy way to see this film in action is to pick up a pin with your
fingers. Then wash your hands well with soap and water and dry
them off completely. Now try to pick up that pin again. It won't be so
easy because your sticky layer is gone! Don't worry – it will be back
soon, as your sebaceous and sweat glands create more sticky stuff.
The third and bottom layer of the skin is called the subcutaneous
layer. It is made mostly of fat and helps your body stay warm and
absorb shocks, like if you bang into something or fall down. The
subcutaneous layer also helps hold your skin to all the tissues
underneath it.
This layer is where you'll find the start of hair, too. Each hair on
your body grows out of a tiny tube in the skin called a follicle. Every
follicle has its roots way down in the subcutaneous layer and
continues up through the dermis.
You have hair follicles all over your body, except on your lips, the
palms of your hands, and the soles of your feet. And you have more
hair follicles in some places than in others – there are more than
100,000 follicles on your head alone!
Your hair follicles rely on your sebaceous glands to bring on the
shine. Connected to each follicle in the dermis layer is a tiny
sebaceous gland that releases sebum onto the hair. This lightly coats
the hair with oil, giving it some shine and a little waterproofing.
Your skin can help if you're feeling too hot or too cold. Your
blood vessels, hair, and sweat glands cooperate to keep your body at
just the right temperature. If you were to run around in the heat, you
could get overheated. If you play outside when it's cold, your inner
temperature could drop. Either way, your skin can help.
79
Figure 9 – The Skin
Your body is pretty smart. It knows how to keep your temperature
right around 98.6° Fahrenheit (37° Celsius) to keep you and your
cells healthy. Your skin can respond to messages sent out by your
hypothalamus, the brain's inner thermometer. If you've been running
around on a hot day, your blood vessels get the signal from the
hypothalamus to release some of your body's heat. They do this by
bringing warm blood closer to the surface of your skin. That's why
you sometimes get a red face when you run around.
To cool you down, sweat glands also swing into action by making
lots of sweat to release body heat into the air. The hotter you are, the
more sweat your glands make! Once the sweat hits the air, it
evaporates off your skin, and you cool down.
What about when you're ice-skating or sledding? When you're
cold, your blood vessels keep your body from losing heat by
narrowing as much as possible and keeping the warm blood away
from the skin's surface. You might notice tiny bumps on your skin.
Most kids call these goosebumps, but the fancy name for them is the
pilomotor reflex. The reflex makes special tiny muscles called the
erector pili muscles pull on your hairs so they stand up very straight.
Unlike other organs (like your lungs, heart, and brain), your skin
likes a good washing. When you wash your skin, use water and a
80
mild soap. And don't forget to cover scrapes and cuts with gauze or a
bandage. This keeps the dirt out and helps prevent infections. It's just
one way to be kind to the skin you're in!
Post-text assignments
1 Describe the structure of the human skin using the picture in the
text.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What are the functions of skin?
2 What is the melanin? What is it needed for?
3 What does dermis contain?
4 What is the sebum? What is it needed for?
5 How can hypothalamus control your body temperature?
6 What is the pilomotor reflex?
3 Translate the following:
1 As newer cells continue to move up, older cells near the top die and
rise to the surface of your skin.
2 The nerve endings in your dermis tell you how things feel when
you touch them. They work with your brain and nervous system, so
that your brain gets the message about what you're touching.
3 The sweat comes up through pores, tiny holes in the skin that
allow it to escape. When the sebum meets the sweat, they form a
protective film that's a bit sticky.
4 The subcutaneous layer also helps hold your skin to all the tissues
underneath it.
5 Once the sweat hits the air, it evaporates off your skin, and you
cool down.
6 When you're cold, your blood vessels keep your body from losing
heat by narrowing as much as possible and keeping the warm blood
away from the skin's surface.
81
Unit 20
Pre-text assignment
Learn the key words and phrases:
viral skin disease, germ, ailment, chemical irritant, poison ivy,
poison oak, poison sumac, detergent, edema.
Dermatitis
If you've ever suffered from the irritating itch of a skin disorder,
take heart… you're not alone.
Every year millions of people suffer from some kind of skin
disorder, skin disease or plain skin infections.
Skin disorders are very common among the human being. There
are not many statistics to prove the exact frequency of skin disease,
but general impression is 20-25 percent of patients seeking medical
advice suffers from viral skin disease. While infections are more
common in the tropics, These skin diseases are a great deal of
misery, suffering, incapacity and economic loss.
The largest organ in the body, the skin is the first line of defense
against dirt, germs and other foreign objects. Unfortunately, it is also
most affected by sun damage. The skin is one of the most vulnerable
organs of the body. Though seldom life threatening, skin disorders
can be uncomfortable and may cause chronic disabilities. In addition,
because the skin is so visible, skin diseases can lead to psychological
stress.
Skin disorders cover a wide range of conditions, some benign,
some very serious, and some even a sign of another underlying
illness. A skin disorder not only affects your physical health, but also
your emotional well-being.
One of the most common skin disordes is dermatitis.
Dermatitis simply means skin inflammation, but it embraces a
range of ailments. In most cases the early stages are characterized by
red, itchy skin, although acute attacks may result in crusty scales or
blisters that ooze fluid. Since many things can irritate the skin, a
doctor will try to narrow the diagnosis to a specific category of
dermatitis, even though treatment is similar for most types of skin
irritation and inflammation.
82
The types of dermatitis include:
Contact dermatitis typically causes the skin to develop a pink or
red rash, which usually itches. Pinpointing the exact cause of contact
dermatitis can be difficult. Among plants, the leading culprits are
poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac, although contact with
certain flowers, herbs, fruits, and vegetables can cause dermatitis in
some people.
Common chemical irritants include detergents, soaps, some
synthetic fibers, nail polish remover, antiperspirants, and
formaldehyde (found in permanent-press fabrics, polishes, artificialfingernail adhesive, particle board, and foam insulation). Wearing
rubber gloves, unwashed new clothes, or plated jewelry can also
cause contact dermatitis if the person is allergic to these substances.
The inflammation is occasionally caused by cosmetics, perfumes,
hair dyes, and skin-care products.
Nummular dermatitis consists of distinctive coin-shaped red
plaques that are most commonly seen on the legs, hands, arms, and
torso. It is more common in men than women and the peak age of
onset is between 55 and 65. Living in a dry environment or taking
frequent very hot showers can cause this condition.
Atopic dermatitis, or eczema, causes the skin to itch, scale,
swell, and sometimes blister. This type of eczema usually runs in
families and is often associated with allergies, asthma, and stress.
Seborrheic dermatitis consists of greasy, yellowish, or reddish
scaling on the scalp and other hairy areas, as well as on the face or
genitals, and in skin creases along the nose, under the breasts, and
elsewhere. This condition is called cradle cap in infants. It may be
aggravated by stress.
Stasis dermatitis is caused by poor circulation in the legs and can
happen in people with varicose veins, congestive heart failure, or
other conditions which result in chronic leg swelling. Veins in the
lower legs fail to return blood efficiently, causing pooling of blood
and fluid buildup and edema. This leads to irritation, especially
around the ankles.
83
Post-text assignments
1 Match the definition of the disease in column I with the name of
the disease in column II:
I
II
1 This disease consists of greasy, a) contact dermatitis
yellowish, or reddish scaling on
the scalp and other hairy areas.
2 This disease is more common b) stasis dermatitis
in men than women and the peak
age of onset is between 55 and
65.
3 This disease typically causes c) seborrheic dermatitis
the skin to develop a pink or red
rash, which usually itches.
4 This disease usually runs in d) nummular dermatitis
families and is often associated
with allergies, asthma, and stress.
5 This disease is caused by poor
e) atopic dermatitis
circulation in the legs.
2 Answer the questions:
1 What is the dermatitis?
2 What are the signs of dermatitis?
3 What irritants can cause contact dermatitis?
4 What can be the cause of nummular dermatitis?
5 What is the activator of seborrheic dermatitis?
6 Why people with varicose veins often have a stasis dermatitis?
3 Translate the following:
1 There are not many statistics to prove the exact frequency of skin
disease, but general impression is 20-25 percent of patients seeking
medical advice suffers from viral skin disease.
2 The skin is one of the most vulnerable organs of the body. Though
seldom life threatening, skin disorders can be uncomfortable and
may cause chronic disabilities.
84
3 Skin disorders cover a wide range of conditions, some benign,
some very serious, and some even a sign of another underlying
illness.
4 Since many things can irritate the skin, a doctor will try to narrow
the diagnosis to a specific category of dermatitis, even though
treatment is similar for most types of skin irritation and inflammation.
5 Seborrheic dermatitis consists of greasy, yellowish, or reddish
scaling on the scalp and other hairy areas, as well as on the face or
genitals, and in skin creases along the nose, under the breasts, and
elsewhere.
6 Veins in the lower legs fail to return blood efficiently, causing
pooling of blood and fluid buildup and edema. This leads to irritation,
especially around the ankles.
85
Список літератури
1 Fauci A. S. et al. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 17th
ed. / Antony S. Fauci. – McGrow-Hill Professional : United States,
2008. – 2754 p.
2 Marchalonis J. J. Immunity in Evolution / John J Marchalonis. –
Harvard University Press : Cambridge, Mass., 1977. – 336 p.
3 Nervous System. Columbia Encyclopedia – Columbia University
Press, 2010. – 1240 p.
4 Excessive Thirst [Електронний ресурс] – Режим доступу:
http://healthguide.howstuffworks.com/thirst-excessivedictionary.htm.
5 Factsheets [Електронний ресурс]
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts.htm.
–
Режим
доступу:
6 HIV&AIDS Information [Електронний ресурс]. – Режим
доступу: http://www.aismap.com.
7 How Your Lungs Work [Електронний ресурс] – Режим доступу:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/life/humanbiology/lung3.htm.
8 The Free Dictionary [Електронний ресурс] – Режим доступу:
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com.
86
Навчальне видання
МЕТОДИЧНІ ВКАЗІВКИ
до практичних занять
на тему «Медична термінологія»
з дисципліни «Англійська мова»
для студентів спеціальності 7.110101 «Лікувальна справа»
денної форми навчання
Відповідальний за випуск Г. І. Литвиненко
Редактор М. В. Буката
Комп’ютерне верстання С. М. Кириченко
Підписано до друку 26. 03. 2012 р., поз.
Формат 60х84/16. Ум. друк. арк..
Обл.-вид. арк.
Тираж 40 пр.. Зам. №
Собівартість видання
грн
к.
Видавець і виготовлювач
Сумський державний університет,
вул.. Римського-Корсакова, 2, м. Суми, 40007
Свідоцтво суб’єкта видавничої справи ДК № 3062 від 17. 12. 2007.
87