Prehistoric Art
Ancient Near East
Venus of Willendorf- the Venus best
exemplifies two characteristics of art
before documented history. First,
because it was made before any written
records, much of the art has an enigmatic
quality to it. Second, prehistoric art was
functional; specifically in the venus, the
woman’s reproductive organs are
exaggerated perhaps to symbolize
fertility.
Votive Statuettes- These statuettes are
great portrayal of Sumerian society.
Considering they were the first to have
religion, math, writing, cities states,
etc. these statues show the religious
devotion that was quintessential to
their society. They were placed in
ziggurats (their stone temple platforms)
to always stand in prayer even when the
donor couldn’t be present.
Stonehenge- the Stonehenge is an
example of the medium frequently used
in prehistoric art as well is one of the
greatest puzzles art historians have ever
faced.
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin- Akkadian
society primarily used art as war
propaganda. In the victory stele, the
king’s victory is shown as he is
portrayed as a god-like ruler climbing a
mountain above his soldiers after
crushing his enemy Lullabi.
Lascaux Caves-These prehistoric
caves are not only invaluable to art
historians but to all mankind as these
caves are some of the first recorded
images ever. The genre scenes show
humans, animals and some plants
portraying the hunter and gatherer
lifestyles. The meanings of the drawings
though, are ambiguous.
Law Code of King Hammurabi- This
is the first written law code in
documented history. The famous code is
an excellent portrayal of Babylonian
society under Hammurabi who was a
powerful king. At the top, the code is
seen to be received by the king from a
god to reinforce the ruler’s authority.
The lengthy code is on written on the
bottom of the phallic stone tablet
(perhaps symbolizing dominance).
Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions- Most
all of Assyrian art is war-related. In
this relief about the king hunting
lions, displays his power and violent
conquests through a common motif
of the time, lions.
Persepolis- the Persians built a great
empire, many roads, and prosperous
cities. In the massive “Persian city”,
as a ceremonial capital, the constant
commotion, size and reliefs all were
a testament to the power of the king.
Ancient Egyptian
Ancient Aegean
Palette of Narmer- this is one of the
most significant Egyptian art
works today because it not only
shows many of the conventions
of Egyptian art including
hierarchy of scale, traditional
profile view and an organized
composition, but also conveys the
unification of upper and lower Egypt,
which was a monumental point in
Egyptian history.
Great Pyramids- Egyptians had an
obsession with both eternity and
the afterlife. This is why, upon
death, the most powerful kings
built enormous tombs (which
evolved to pyramids) then buried
themselves deep within them. In
this way, their bodies would be
preserved “infinitely”, each king carried
his possessions and payment for the
afterlife, and a massive tomb was
erected to remind history of their power.
Ahkenaton, Nefertiti, and three
daughters- during the Armana period,
briefly, Egyptian conventions were
dropped in favor of naturalism.
This tablet is a prime example of
this naturalism. The king, queen
and children are shown casually
sitting under Aton’s rays with their
imperfect, curvy bodies and clothing
blowing in the breeze. This kind of work
opposed nearly all of traditional
Egyptian rules.
Temple of Ramses II-This colossal
rock-cut temple is not only one of the
most magnificent but says an
immeasurable amount about the
pharaoh. The temple was made with
traditional conventions showing the
king in a powerful frontal stance,
tributes several gods including Ramses
II himself. Between his massive legs
stand royal family members including
his wife.
Male Lyre Player- This is one of the
few surviving works from the Cycladic
civilization. What is significant about the
lyre player is that the sculpture took time
and material to create a musician,
expressing the increased status of the
profession in Cycladic society. This
particular player was probably created to
entertain someone who had passed on to
the afterlife, as he was found in a grave.
Bull Leaping from Knossos- This
fresco found at the palace of Knossos
shows some conventions of Aegean
society. The males are red-skinned,
the female are white skinned, the
bull is leaping to show maximum
movement, and the bodies are all
muscular. The bull is concurrent with the
theme of the palace which is said to have
once hosted the Minotaur.
Snake Goddess- This figurines meaning
is uncertain but she may be a fertility
symbol, mourning symbol, or may
reflect how Minoan women dressed. She
is one of a few figurines found at
Knossos but reflects the style of Minoan
characters.
Funerary mask- The significance
of the funerary mask is that it is the
first life-size representation of a
human. It belongs to a ruler
making it an object of power.
Lion Gate-Ancient Aegeans are noted
for their Cycladic masonry and corbelled
arches. The lion gate is a primary
example of this masonry and while it is a
post and lintel arch the rock around the
lions is an example of a corbelled arch as
well as a show of how the Mycenaeans
displayed their authority.
Ancient Greece
Dipylon Krater- This vessel best
exemplifies the geometric and
orientalizing period of Greek art that was
rhythmic, organized into registered and
would develop into white, black, and red
styles.
Kritios Boy- Perhaps the most important
breakthrough of all time in human
sculpture was contrapposto. The most
primitive example is the Kritios Boy
who stands only about 4 feet tall but has
perfect proportions and posture. His
realism was a turning point for all
western art as he was perfected, so began
the process to make sculpture better than
perfect, instead god-like.
Parthenon- as with sculpture, the greeks
sought perfect dimensions for their
temples. Using Entasis they
perfected their columns, created
beautiful running friezes, and
draped in lavish sculpture which all
culminated in the ultimate temple, the
Parthenon. (Doric outside, Ionic inside,
Hellenistic to come)
Doryphoros- As beautiful sculpture
climaxed, Polykliedos created a male
nude that was beautiful, the culmination
of perfection and fitting of the time.
Dolyphoros would come to inspire
countless as he represented an unnatural,
sweet, god-like man of classical
sculpture.
Laocoön and His Sons-the Hellenistic
era would bring leafy
columns, white figure
pottery, and powerful
sculpture. The larger than
life statue of Laocoon and
his sons is accurate to a
legend, shows the artist
competency of texture and
fully expresses the
emotions the characters
were undergoing.
Etruscan
Double-Flute Player- It is easy
to see the debt the Etruscans
owed to the Greeks stylistically
in this archaic piece.
Capitoline Wolf- One of the greatest
animal portrayals of all world
art. Shows the body tense, the
face grow anxious and psych
intensify as the animal
prepared for danger. The
infants were not originally
there and the wolf shows the skill of
Etruscan sculptors with bronze.
Aule Metele- Shows the pre-roman style
developing as one of the
magistrates calls a meeting to
business. This statue shows how
advanced the Etruscans were
when working with bronze.
Fowling Scene- This picture shows the
traditional conventions of humans in
Egyptian art. The body in
profile view excluding the
chest and eyes (frontal).
However, less important
objects such as plants, birds
and fish became natural, and
in most cases recognizable.
Congruent with the
convention that the less
important a subject, the more natural the
art.
Late Antiquity
Ancient Roman
Pantheon- There is perhaps not a more
Roman work than the
Pantheon, it was a monumental
Temple dedicated to the
pantheon of Roman gods made
possible by the engineering of
concrete to create an interior
space like none other.
Second Style wall paintings detail of
Tholos, from cubiculum M of VillaVillas in Pompeii and Vesuvius
reveal 4 styles of wall paintings
developed by the Romans as interior
decoration. The 2nd style is a
transition between the four and this
detail of tholos falls among the
common themes for the walls.
Arch of Titus- the Romans obviously
maintained powerful empire made
possible by their strong army and
leadership. The truly powerful
leaders would construct massive
arches telling their people and
others of their great conquests. As
is best shown in the Arch of Titus,
in which, close details show the
ransacking of Jerusalem after their
victory.
Head of an old man- Especially in the
early days of the republic, the
Romans were among the first to use a
veristic style to overemphasize the
qualities of an elder portraying their
respect for age, wisdom and realism
as opposed to Greek idealized beauty.
Augustus as General –As Rome made
the transition from republic to
empire, the art took a turn. The
emperor wished to be idealized and
beautiful, remnants of Greek style.
This statue is extremely important
because it shows the change in
attitude once the shift to a monarchy
took over.
The Good Shepherd, the story of Jonah,
and orants- late antiquity was a time when
syncretism was a great tool of the church.
Here the story of Jonah from the old
testament was popular because he was seen
as a prophetic forerunner of Christ. The
orants encourage prayer and Christ is still
looked at as a shepherd, who brings back a
lost sheep, aka a sinner. This is a great
example of syncretism.
Santa Costanza- The ceiling vault mosaics
are a great example of syncretism. Also the
central plan of the church comes to be the
preferred form in Byzantium. The church is
probably built because of Constantine’s rise
to power (he makes edict of Milan in 313)
and making Christianity the official religion.
His daughter Constantina was buried in
Santa Costanza.
Christ Seated- This is a great example of
young Christ as the church is developing.
Before Christianity is made official religion,
Christ is a young and innocent man. These
statues are rarities because before they are
used for advertisement and imperial
purposes, they are thought to be idols (no
idol-worshipping allowed).
Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes- This
mosaic is important because it shows a
turning point in focus; instead of the miracle
being celebrated, Christ is the center. Also,
different from the previous portrayals, the
scene is no longer really on earth as the sky
is now a majestic gold, the shrubbery is
scarce and Christ wears a lavish purple robe.
This begins the separation of Christ from
church goers to make him, little by little, far
and beyond superior.
Suicide of Judas and Crucifixion of
Christ- The plaque displays one of the
oldest passion scenes in history. This is
perhaps the first time the Crucifixion is ever
depicted and Christ, a beardless youth,
shows no pain as he is speared and stretched
on the cross. Judas to the side hangs himself.
Byzantine
Islamic
Christ as Pantokrator- Though there
are many of these colossal mosaics of
Christ as a “Judge” they show the way
the worshipper would be connected to
heaven through Christ, as well as
motivated to be a “better person” as to
not face to judge that bore down over
them constantly. There is no better
example of how Byzantine values were
communicated.
Dome of the Rock- The
dome of the rock holds great
significance to the Islamic
religion but also to many
other religions. The actual
building is covered in
arabesque calligraphy and
geometric patterns that is consistent for
Islamic art.
Hagia Sophia- this began one of
Byzantine’s golden ages as the
Emperor Justinian communicated
to the world exactly what he
wanted. It is one of the greatest
accomplishments of all time and
made a huge statement about the
magnificence of his empire.
Justinian, Bishop Maximus and
Attendants- this mosaic reveals a
byzantine aesthetic of frontal,
unspeaking, and “floating”
characters without dimensions. It
also speaks to the values of both church
and state that were indisputably being
mixed.
Transfiguration of Jesus- The apse
displaying the Transfiguration is
extraordinarily important for
finally completely ridding the
scene of earthly landscape.
Instead Christ and his prophets
are shown, shadowless and
bathed in divine light. The disciples are
serious showing the terrible difference
between heaven and earth giving the
worshipper something to contemplate.
Vladimir Virgin- This icon of the
Virgin and Child shows the frontal,
floating, formal, and flat style of
Byzantine art in full throttle. I also
included it because it is well-known and
the rare touch of compassion
distinguished it from other art of the
age.
Great Mosque of Cordoba- The Great
mosque of Cordoba has the plan of their
Prophet Muhammad’s house.
In the exquisite mosque,
through a hypostyle holds
many double-tier arches. The
whole church is decorated
with beautiful arabesques,
which are based of countless symmetric
designs.
Mihrab from Madrasa- Each mosque
has several key elements including the
kind of “altar” marking the direction to
their holy city. On this particular
Mihrab, the Mosaic design is a balance
between calligraphy talking about key
points of the religion and meaningful
design.
Mosque of Selim- During the
reign of Selim II, an architect
was commission to build a
mosque to rival the dome of the
Hagia Sophia. He
accomplished this as well as
conquered the central plan
domed mosque style.
Carpet from the Funerary mosque of
Shaykh Safi al-Din- A massive example
of a common art form of the period
is the carpet from a funerary mosque.
Millions of knots compose an
arabesque style reflecting a mosque
within it. Rugs were extremely
common and all had a certain
likeness to them.
Early Medieval
Sudan Hoo Purse- Warrior lords of
early Medieval Europe left behind a
few small pieces of their history
most were examples of animal
interlace styles with themes of man
conquering animal as is the case on
the purse.
Lindisfarne Gospels- Missionaries
brought Christianity to the British Isles
which is why most Hiberno-saxon art is
religious. But (as demonstrated by the
pages of the lindisfarne), pages
were not illustrated or devoted to
text but rather the initial letter or
theme was transformed into an
ornamented animal interlace style
pattern.
Palatine Chapel- This structure has
significance for all of Northern Europe
as it is the first vaulted structure. It
created a new type of central plan
making a simple, unified, massive
structure influenced by San Vitale
(Byzantine).
Otto III Enthroned- This piece shows
the attitude of the Emperor as the
ultimate authority. He holds
both religious and royal
objects, sits taller than his
attendants stand and is
dressed in purple and gold, all
symbolic of the power he
wished to communicate; it
worked because this became
Ottonian Germany.
St. Michael’s- Although a basilica plan,
this distinctive Ottonian church
(commissioned by Bishop
Bernard) had two transepts,
multiple towers making it
unique.
Romanesque
Saint-Sernin- This Church is one of the
best examples of a “typical”
Romanesque church. It had relics,
an additional aisle, ambulatories
and radiating chapels to
accommodate the pilgrimages of
the time. Complete with the
Roman “-esque” arches and ribbed vault,
this church has all the attributes of a
Romanesque church.
Eadwine the Scribe at Work- This
rarity is found within a book for god is
notable for the inclusion of a drawing of
the artist. He proudly pronounces
himself a “prince among scribes”
making this part of a movement that will
culminate as the renaissance, when the
notion of artistic genius will become
powerful.
Pisa Cathedral Complex- A
good example of just how
diverse the Romanesque
movement was is the complex
at Pisa. The centrally planned
baptistery faces the façade of
the cathedral, a basilica plan.
Bayeux Tapestry- In Normandy and
England a war waged, when Normandy
won, a tapestry to chronicle
the war was created.
Similar to the narrative of
the column of Trajan, the
cloth is a nice historical
narrative art piece.
South Portal of Saint-Pierre- This
portal is one of the more lavish
Romanesque Portals but it has
every component. Complete with a
Jamb-Trumeau-Lintel doorway, a
tympanum, and voussoirs (wedgeshaped blocks that make the round
arch), Moissac’s portal embodies
the rebirth of massive stone works
from roman times as well as
stylistically fit the quo.
Gothic
Annunciation and Visitation Jamb
Statues, Reims- Even though the Jambs
were made by different people, the
convention for Late Gothic Jamb Statues
was detached, free moving, conversing
figures. Here there is a distinguishable
S-curve as well which is classified as a
gothic trait.
Notre Dame-While nowhere near the
most impressive of Gothic Churches,
Notre-dame in Paris is a wonderful
example of how flying buttresses
worked to hold up the immense stainedglass walls, the churches would come to
hold.
Rose Window and Lancets-The gothic
movement was defined partly by the
stained-glass masterpieces created in its
time. Each color was significant,
composed of thousands of pieces, and
held up by flying buttresses, stainedglass held extreme significance. One of
the most beautiful ever created is the
Rose Window in Chartres, showing the
virgin, child, angels, kings, queens,
doves and the fleur-de-lis, transforming
sunlight into “lux nova”.
Salisbury Cathedral- not everyone
followed the French example, in
Salisbury, England, they instead focused
on horizontality and perpendicular style.
The lower vaults could later become fan
vaults and were used to decorate the
churches, excluding flying buttresses but
still including the windows.
God as the Architect-As Paris was the
intellectual capitol of the world it was no
surprise that soon, in a luxury art (folio
from moralized Bible) God was
portrayed to make the universe with the
same tools as gothic builders. This
elevated the status of the Gothic artist.
Early Northern Renaissance
Merode altarpiece-This altarpiece is a prime example of the incorporation of
patrons and symbolic items into a religious triptych altarpiece. Not only is the
scene aesthetically pleasing but the placement of symbolic objects also played
an extraordinarily important role at the time.
St. Luke Drawing the Virgin- The painting depicting a saint sketching the
virgin and child is a point for artists in time. This is amongst the first times
when the artist would be shown (elevating the profession’s status) as well as
changing the format of future portraiture.
Limbourg brothers’ Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry- Through a series of
12 alternating scenes of the aristocrats and peasantry, the brothers accurately
portrayed the life and times of citizens in the 15th century. The manuscripts are
easily the most important of their time.
Well of Moses-I selected this piece because it incorporated a northern style with
previous gothic styles although its massive size was unusual. It was a precursor to the
revival of sculpture that would follow in the renaissance. The artist, Sluter was very
talented and the difference between garment (which was of the time) hair, skin, etc. is
notable.
St. Anthony Tormented by Demons- The master of engraving in early northern
Europe was Schongauer. His St. Anthony Tormented by Demons shows a stoic and
serene Saint being disturbingly badgered; it reflected the time he must have spent
observing animals to portray the demons so realistically. This piece was very
influential.
High/Late Northern Renaissance
Isenheim Altarpiece- This master of imagery combined themes of suffering,
death and illness along with hope, salvation and comfort. Through religious
characters he showed major themes, and given it was set in a monastic
hospital there was perhaps no better place for this hope. Grunewald’s example
set the standard for High N. Renaissance altarpieces.
French Ambassadors- The double portrait shows a fierce attention to detail,
a variety of objects reflective of their qualities and has a debated commentary
hidden within the piece. All were characteristics of the time making it a
quintessential painting of the time.
Battle of Issus (Altdorfer)- Ushering in a new era of landscape painting,
Altdorfer demonstrated the symbolic war propaganda used by art patrons. He
related previous battles to the ongoing one, and while doing so, created a
masterpiece of the atmosphere behind.
Money Changer and his wife-A common theme (particularly of Netherlandish
art) of Northern paintings were values. Here was a commentary about a caring
too much for wealth instead of religion, but in other pieces the subject was not
so harsh.
The Burial of Count Orgaz- In Spain, the European power of the time, they
diverged down a different path. The “Platero” style developed and the leading artist,
el Greco, combined Byzantine and Italian Mannerism into large, dramatic,
innovational pieces that were a precursor to Baroque.
Early Italian Renaissance
High/Late Italian Renaissance
Northern Baroque
Italian/Spanish Baroque
Rococo
Early Northern Renaissance
Early Italian Renaissance
High/Late Northern Renaissance
High/Late Italian Renaissance
Northern Baroque
Italian/Spanish Baroque
Rococo