LEARNER GUIDE
Sea Kayak Instruct
The Outlook Training and Resource Centre
Dept of Communities
PO Box 226
Boonah. QUEENSLAND. 4310
Phone: 07-54631900
Fax: 07-54631185
CONTENTS
Overall perspective of this learner guide .................................................................................. 4
Section 1, Sea kayaking equipment ............................................................................................. 4
Contextual Issues .................................................................................................................... 4
Maintenance and Replacement ................................................................................................ 4
Equipment Storage .................................................................................................................. 4
Personal Flotation Device (PFD) .............................................................................................. 5
Kayak Paddle ........................................................................................................................... 6
Break down paddle .................................................................................................................. 8
Paddle leashes ........................................................................................................................ 8
Boats and boat design ............................................................................................................. 9
Rudders and skegs ................................................................................................................ 11
Hull Materials ......................................................................................................................... 12
Buoyancy ............................................................................................................................... 13
Hand Holds/Toggles............................................................................................................... 13
Rescue equipment ................................................................................................................. 13
Tools and repair kit................................................................................................................. 13
Clothing.................................................................................................................................. 14
Footwear ................................................................................................................................ 16
Helmets.................................................................................................................................. 17
Sunscreen.............................................................................................................................. 17
Waterproofing Gear................................................................................................................ 17
Torch ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Spray Deck ............................................................................................................................ 19
Paddle floats .......................................................................................................................... 19
Towlines................................................................................................................................. 20
Throw Bag ............................................................................................................................. 20
Navigation equipment ............................................................................................................ 20
Sea anchors and drogues ...................................................................................................... 21
Required knowledge and skill before venturing out on a trip or instruction session in a sea kayak
.................................................................................................................................................. 23
Know what you are getting into .............................................................................................. 23
Logistics and plans ................................................................................................................ 24
Marine Weather ..................................................................................................................... 24
Communications .................................................................................................................... 24
Swimming techniques ............................................................................................................ 24
Instructor considerations............................................................................................................ 24
Pre trip preparation and paperwork ........................................................................................... 24
Venue proforma ..................................................................................................................... 24
Float plan/intention sheet ....................................................................................................... 25
Risk Assessment and Management Strategy form ................................................................. 25
Equipment list ........................................................................................................................ 25
Session plan .......................................................................................................................... 25
Other important instructor decisions .......................................................................................... 25
Ratios .................................................................................................................................... 25
Doubles or singles?................................................................................................................ 26
Instructor equipment .............................................................................................................. 27
Putting good practice into procedures .................................................................................... 28
Instructor skills ....................................................................................................................... 29
Teaching skills ........................................................................................................................... 29
Embark and Disembark .......................................................................................................... 29
Capsize and wet exit .............................................................................................................. 30
The forward stroke ................................................................................................................. 31
Sweep Stroke......................................................................................................................... 32
Reverse Paddling ................................................................................................................... 33
Stern Rudder.......................................................................................................................... 34
Draw Stroke ........................................................................................................................... 35
Low Support (or low brace) Stroke ......................................................................................... 36
Crossing a current - ferry glide ............................................................................................... 37
Hazards ..................................................................................................................................... 38
Sunburn ................................................................................................................................. 38
Marine creatures .................................................................................................................... 38
Changing Weather ................................................................................................................. 39
Wind ...................................................................................................................................... 39
Waves .................................................................................................................................... 39
Hypothermia .......................................................................................................................... 41
Dehydration ........................................................................................................................... 42
Rescuing ................................................................................................................................... 42
Rescue Sequence .................................................................................................................. 42
Taking charge in rescues ....................................................................................................... 43
Instructing participants in self rescue if capsized close to shore. ............................................ 43
Rafting Up .............................................................................................................................. 46
Rolling .................................................................................................................................... 46
Deck carries ........................................................................................................................... 47
Towing ................................................................................................................................... 48
Equipment recovery................................................................................................................... 49
First assessment .................................................................................................................... 49
Recovery from simplest to most complex ............................................................................... 49
WEATHER ................................................................................................................................ 50
Communication ......................................................................................................................... 50
Stop ....................................................................................................................................... 50
Come to me ........................................................................................................................... 50
Emergency/ Distress .............................................................................................................. 51
Go Right / Go Left .................................................................................................................. 51
Run Straight Ahead ................................................................................................................ 51
Personal paddling skills for instruction and group leadership ..................................................... 51
Safety:.................................................................................................................................... 51
Teaching ................................................................................................................................ 52
Developing your own skills ........................................................................................................ 52
Further input in developing skills ............................................................................................ 53
Sea navigation ........................................................................................................................... 53
Dealing with fewer features. ................................................................................................... 53
Dealing with currents.............................................................................................................. 54
Aids to navigation ................................................................................................................... 55
Repairs .................................................................................................................................. 56
Rules for avoiding collision ..................................................................................................... 56
Minimal Environmental Impact Practices ................................................................................... 56
Minimal Impact Practices Guideline ....................................................................................... 56
Access ................................................................................................................................... 56
Rubbish.................................................................................................................................. 57
Fires ....................................................................................................................................... 57
Flora and Fauna..................................................................................................................... 57
Equipment.............................................................................................................................. 57
Rivers .................................................................................................................................... 57
Beaches ................................................................................................................................. 58
Campsites .............................................................................................................................. 58
Walking .................................................................................................................................. 58
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 58
Some suggested reading and references .................................................................................. 58
Overall perspective of this learner guide
In preparing this guide, it is assumed that an instructor will have sound personal skills and will be
highly capable of planning and guiding a variety of trips where instruction is likely to take place.
Therefore there will be an emphasis on developing sound theoretical and experience based
judgement.
SECTION 1, SEA KAYAKING EQUIPMENT
The following section covers some of the considerations and options in relation to selecting, using
and maintaining equipment for Sea Kayaking.
Contextual Issues
The following contextual issues will influence equipment choices and management decisions
 time of day
 weather: wind, temperature, precipitation, storms.
 season
 type of craft
 transport
 length of trip
 distance from shore and protection from shore
 contingency options, available support
 swell and wave conditions
 type of shoreline: beach, rocks, cliffs.
 navigation aids
 individual motivation, fitness, and commitment
 participant skill levels
 safety requirements
 tides and currents
Maintenance and Replacement
All equipment is subject to wear and tear. For equipment maintenance the following should be
observed:
 All equipment used in sea kayaking activities should be used, maintained and stored
according to manufacturers specifications
 Equipment needs to be regularly inspected and checked, before and after each activity.
Particularly important are steering systems, hatches, and any bolts or nuts that may work
loose.
 A maintenance program should be established to ensure the good working order and
maximum life expectancy of equipment
 A replacement policy for old or worn equipment should be developed based on the
manufacturer’s assessment of the safe limits of the equipment.
 All equipment used should be carefully washed after each trip, where wet suits and/or
helmets are used by different people they should be disinfected after each use.
 Australian Canoeing recommends that records be kept of all equipment use and
maintenance.
Equipment Storage
The storage of equipment should be considered carefully taking into account:
 The characteristics of the equipment being used. For example:
 Many plastics and synthetics (straps, paddle leashes, decks) degrade quickly if exposed to
sunlight
 Any movement (wind or vibration) can cause chafe



Damp conditions can bring on mould and mildew
Pressure points from racks or tie-downs can lead to denting, sagging, or buckling and
cracking of boats. Fibreglass boats are especially prone to cracking if they are loaded
inappropriately.
Salt water is especially corrosive to metal parts. Steel and aluminium parts (paddle shafts,
footplate adjustments, rudders and steering parts will corrode more quickly if they are left
where dissimilar metals and even impurities within the metal parts can cause tiny electrical
currents in the damp and/or electrolytic conditions of salty or mineral rich water.
The personnel storing the equipment need to be aware of the possible damage that can be caused
as above and also any risks associated with chemicals or flammable articles see below.
Regulatory requirements.
E.g. throw bags should not be stored with corrosive chemicals, (acids alkalis, and solvents)
Manual handling requirements may impact upon how canoes and kayaks are stored and loaded
onto trailers or vehicles: Workplace Health and Safety Act (1995).
The relevant Dangerous Goods Safety Management Act (2001) will apply to the storage of
flammable liquids such as stove fuel and flares.
As a reference for regulations and general good practice in recreational boating refer to
http://www.msq.qld.gov.au/Home/Publications/Boatsafe_workbook_download which is a workbook
for those seeking a recreational boat license. The information in this booklet is highly relevant to
many aspects of using sea kayaks in a marine environment.
Personal Flotation Device (PFD)
With the extra buoyancy of a Personal Flotation Device (PFD) swimming and floating for long
periods of time is much easier. All participants are to wear an appropriate personal flotation device
of Type 2, or Type 3 at all times while on the water.
Type 1
Buoyant neck collar
Type 2
(Bright Yellow, Orange or red)
Type 3
showing rescue features
There are three types of PFD’s:
Type 1 – these devices are commonly known as life jackets. They have a buoyant collar
around the neck and flotation material in front of the chest. They are designed to turn an
unconscious casualty onto their back when in water and are most commonly used as emergency
equipment in powerboats and yachts, not for kayaking. Motorised vessels travelling in open waters
are required to carry Type 1 PFDs for all persons on board. The legislation does not apply to nonmotorized vessels.
Australian Canoeing states: ‘Type 1 PFD’s are not suitable for Canoe or Kayak activities because
they impede paddling ability and restrict correct posture.’ (Australian Canoeing Safety Guidelines)
www.australiancanoeing.com . Kayakers considering open water crossings need to be aware that
their Type 2 PFD will not hold their head up if unconscious or exhausted.
Type 2 – these devices are less bulky than a type 1, are used mainly for active sports and
to keep the participant afloat. A type 2 is made of a bright safety colour and it will always state
somewhere on the PFD (usually inside back) that it is a type 2. A Type 2 PFD is to comply with
Australian Standards AS1499.
Type 3 – are very similar to a type 2 but not in a bright safety colour. It will also be marked
of the PFD as being a type 3. A type 3 PFD is to comply with Australian Standards AS 2260. Type
3 PFDs are designed for use on waters where search and rescue are less likely – They are not
acceptable in open waters at sea.
Key Points when selecting and fitting a PFD:
 Must comply with Australian Standards AS1499 – type 2, AS 2260 – type 3
 Must fit properly and be comfortable for long periods
 With all attachment straps or zippers correctly adjusted you should not be able to grasp the
PFD by the shoulder loops and pull it up over your chin.
 For comfort it is advisable to select a design with ample space under the arm pits and a
short body length for kayaking or a long body length for canoeing is fine.
 Check manufacturer’s recommendations for correct body weight and fit accordingly
 Highly recommended that all PFD’s be of a bright colour
 The PFD must not contain any pocket or other component that may impede paddling,
normal rescue practices or exit from craft.
Additional Features might include (usually for the instructor’s PFD):
Pockets on the front for sunscreen, small emergency equipment, food etc
Pouch on the back for a water bladder (to access items in the pouch attach a tape and run it over
your shoulder, or get someone else to get it out)
Attachment points for whistle, knife and two way radio
Reflective high visibility tape front and rear
Quick release safety belt with cow tail attachment
Care of your PFD
Always follow manufacturers care instructions
Keep it out of the sunlight
Avoid expose it to high temperatures – such as inside a closed car in the sun.
Hose off with fresh water after being submerged in salt water
Never use the PFD as a seat, the foam will compress and make it less efficient
Kayak Paddle
The kayak paddle is comprised of a blade at both ends of a shaft. Paddles for sea kayaks
generally have longer and slimmer blades than canoe or white water paddles. This is to reduce the
weight in the blades and to reduce the effort required for long days of paddling. Quick and powerful
responses are required less often than in white water kayaking.
Materials
Wood: Wooden kayak paddles are rarely seen now in use on sea kayaks. Exceptions are
the Greenland style of paddle which is favoured by some traditionalists. It is short and slim and the
blades are in one plane. It is likely that the design originally evolved more because of the lack of
available materials and technology in the arctic than with performance considerations. Skilled
people can do amazing things with these simple paddles. In their more conventional configuration,
wooden paddles that are strong enough to be reliable are generally heavier than the fibreglass and
carbon fibre models that have become popular. The other disadvantage with wood is that it will
soak up water over time in a marine environment. Unless cared for and oiled or varnished
regularly, the wood will become heavier and softer.
Aluminium: Aluminium is still used for shafts (with plastic or fibreglass blades). Aluminium
shafts and plastic blades are tough but they are also generally heavier than fibreglass or composite
construction.
Plastic blades are still used extensively in the less expensive end of the range. They are
durable but as a rule heavier than fibreglass or composite blades
Fibreglass and more exotic composites are generally used for higher performance blades
and shafts as these materials are strong and light.
Traditional fibreglass is heavier than the more exotic materials but is usually the least
expensive.
Kevlar carbon epoxy composites: The top of the line. Light, stiff, and strong, with the high
expense being the main drawback. Having said that, most composite paddles are aiming to be just
strong enough not to break in use. Since they are aimed at being as light as possible, they still
break from time to time and at the price, it will always hurt. However, the point is paddling pleasure
and accuracy and few paddlers who get to paddle with a fine (and expensive) paddle, go back to a
more utilitarian model.
Paddle shapes vary and generally they are asymmetrical for sea
kayaks aiming for a low twist load on the wrist and stability (absence of flutter) during the stroke.
The long slim paddles are very pleasant to use and avoid sudden high loads on muscles and
joints.
Propeller blade paddles: Some of the exotic paddles have heavily cupped blades that are
designed both for stability and for high lift for surface area.
Offset: Traditionally blades were offset at 90 degrees. The rationale was to allow the upper blade to
cut through the air as it moved forward for the next stroke. In sea kayaking, this feature has been
maintained although many paddles now come with adjustable length and offset in a split paddle
design. Paddlers now choose their own offset. Some paddlers who come from a white water
background prefer the blades with little or no offset but most people still choose an offset between
60 and 90 degrees.
Length: The old rule of a paddle that your fingers can curl over is probably a good place to start.
However with the range of blade designs and new materials available it does not do to be too
prescriptive. In favour of shorter paddles is the reality that more length = more weight. To
compensate, long slim paddles allow a longer and deeper stroke and are comfortable to use
especially for paddling in a straight line. The other consideration is rolling: if your paddle is longer
(or the blade area larger), you will have more leverage and more to work with when lifting yourself
out of the water. (Of course if your roll is very strong, you will not be relying too much on your
paddle). Experiment and find out what works for you. A paddle is too long if it is cumbersome and
too short if you cannot get a good clean grip on the water in rough conditions with your hands
comfortably spaced.
With the paddle horizontally placed on the head and the elbows at right angles (the
‘surrender’ position), the hands will be at the correct spacing.
http://www.canoe.org.au/?Page=2264&MenuID=Links%2F100%2F0%2F%2CCanoe%5Ftrails%5F
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Weight. This one is simple. Lighter is better. The tradeoffs are strength, stiffness and above all cost.
Locators
Paddles are held either “tight right” or “tight left”. This means that any rotation is achieved by letting
the other hand slip around to the appropriate position. The purpose of a paddle locator is to give
physical feedback about hand position for the “tight” hand when the paddler is not able to look to
see where the blade is. (while upside down underwater or while concentrating on something else).
This is especially important setting up for rolling when the grip on the paddle has been lost. Paddle
locators can be as simple as a small sliver of plastic taped to the front of the shaft. Other paddles
have oval shafts that let the paddler feel their position.
Care of your paddle
 a paddle should be hung up to protect the blade edges from damage and to allow any
moisture to escape from wood or fibreglass/composite blades.
 a paddle should not be used to push off the beach, rocks etc
 check regularly for chips in plastic or burs in alloy and aluminium
 check that blades are attached firmly
 your paddle needs to float so check to see if any water finds its way into the shaft. If so you
will need to drain it, find the leak and repair it.
Break down paddle
There are several types of breakdown paddle available and they are a necessary spare. It is very
easy to snap a paddle in a poor surf landing or exit and occasionally they snap in use by
particularly strong or enthusiastic paddlers. The bottom line is that you are severely disabled
without a good paddle. Two and three part paddles are available and they can be easily stored on
the back deck where they are easily accessible. Depending on where you intend to go, you may
decide you need more than one for your group. I have been on trips where as many as 4 paddles
were snapped. Fortunately, if you are camping on shore, wooden inserts can be carved that will
make a workable repair. For more details see the section on repairs.
Paddle leashes
Paddle leashes connect your paddle to your kayak. This can be vital if you are capsized and come
out in windy and wavy conditions. It takes only seconds for a boat to drift away from a paddler
and/or a paddle and you may not get a second chance to get to your boat. Having the two together
makes your decision process clear. Get to the boat and rely on the leash to retrieve the paddle.
Paddle leashes must be long enough to allow paddling comfortably and to let them move away
from the boat where necessary so that they a capsizing or heavy boat does not put undue strain of
the paddle shaft. Generally this is achieved by using a spirally wound plastic although elastic
chord is also used so that there is not a lot of chord dangling about while paddling.
Boats and boat design
A variety of kayak designs has evolved for a variety of purposes and there have been some
improvements in construction and materials that have supported improvements in terms of what
the boats can do. Most of the improvements are quite minor compared to the dramatic changes in
white-water boats. Versions of the long slim hull design of the Greenlander kayaks is still the
standard. Variation is available in terms of volume, shapes of hull sections, rocker, fullness in the
ends, as well as in hatch design, steering systems, deck layouts and pumping and flotation
systems. In many ways, every boat is a compromise or a trade-off in terms of the desired features.
Having said that, there is a general trend to improvement and some new ideas seem better than
others and gradually become widely accepted. The standard of finish and fitting out has improved
considerably. Whether you will paddle an estuary kayak or an ocean expedition thoroughbred,
your craft must be kept in good condition and have positive buoyancy. The section below revues
some aspects of boat design that are relevant to sea kayaks.
Waterline length
Simply stated, long and lean is fast, short and tubby means a low top end speed. This is mostly
due to the wave making characteristics of the hull. In short blunt boats, a depression forms after
the bow wave such that the speed of the boat is limited to what is called “hull speed”. It is a fact of
physics that on the air/water interface at the sea surface, wavelength increases as wave speed
increases. At a speed of approximately 1.34 times the square root of the waterline length (hull
speed), the vessel is riding in the depression behind the bow wave and any gain in speed will
come at great cost in terms of effort as the boat will be trying to climb up onto its own bow wave. If
the shape of the boat is short and squat, the only way it will be able to do this is to use
hydrodynamic lift to plane. If, on the other hand, the beam to length ration is above about 10 to 1,
the bow wave from the boat moving forward will be small enough not to cause a dramatic increase
in the effort required exceed the “hull speed” of the craft. Longer boats also have a higher “hull
speed” because the speed is higher when the wavelength is long enough that the boat sits into the
low point of the wave that is generated.
Where is the volume?
If there is more volume submerged (displacement) toward the ends of the boat – that is the boat is
fuller low down in the ends and has less rocker - the boat will generally be capable of a higher
sustained top speed (with a high level of effort). If on the other hand the boat has a lot of rocker
and is fine in the ends, it will move more easily at the lower end of its speed range and be slightly
more limited in top end sustained speed.
Entry and exit
Almost all boats will have a clean (sharp) entry and exit at the bow and stern. Any flat section at the
stern will case turbulence and drag. The entry at the stem should also be quite fine although the
boat will lose very little in the way of drag by being blunt enough to not be fragile (for impact with
rocks, jetties or other boats).
Wetted surface
After wave making drag, wetted surface friction will be the next biggest source of drag that will
need to be overcome as you paddle – especially at the higher end of a kayak’s speed range. The
most efficient shape in terms of low surface area for a given volume is a sphere. Since we need
long skinny hulls to reduce wave making, using circular cross sections is next best. In general, V
shapes and chines have a cost in terms of wetted surface drag compared to round hull sections.
This needs to be traded off with stability as boats with semi-circular sections – racing kayaks and
skis – are very tippy. Since the gains are mostly at the top end of the speed range, recreational
paddlers sauntering along would not usually be troubled by wetted surface drag. In contrast, most
would notice the difference in stability.
Stability
In kayaks there is often discussion of primary and secondary stability. Primary stability refers to
how tippy a boat feels and how solidly it sits on the water. Secondary stability refers to the way that
the forces change as the boat heels/tips over before it capsizes. In some cases, the stability
increases slowly to be highest at a high angle (high secondary stability) while for other designs the
stability is high initially but as the boat is tipped or leaned over, the stability decreases rather than
increases (high primary stability). The stability characteristics of kayaks are due to two things. The
position of the centre of buoyancy in relation to the centre of gravity is one factor. A high centre of
gravity initially has little impact on primary stability but it drastically affects secondary stability. The
other factor that impacts on secondary stability is the way that the distribution of the buoyancy
changes as the hull is tipped over.
The diagram below is intended to show cross sections of two (rather extreme) hull shapes to make
the point. The hull on the left is initially tippy, but as it leans over its centre of buoyancy moves
across as fast as the centre of gravity does. By contrast the hull shape on the right is very stable
initially but at a much smaller angle, the centre of gravity moves past the centre of buoyancy – the
point of no return - unless bracing is applied to prevent a capsize. The pictures beneath represent
the same hull shapes leaned over. Note that at a similar angle of heel, the boat on the left still has
some righting force (look at how the two opposing forces will push the boat on the left more upright
(the buoyancy is still outboard of the centre of gravity) while the other hull has passed the point
where the upward and downward forces align and it is already on its way over.
Centre of
buoyancy
Centre of
Gravity
Consider the same situation with the height of the centre of gravity. In both cases a high centre of
gravity would mean that the boat would be capsizing at the angle illustrated while a very low centre
of gravity would mean that the centre of buoyancy would still be outboard. In real world terms, if
the seat is high and the gear is stored on deck, the boat will be much less stable than if the weight
and the paddler are all low in the boat. Rocker can also contribute to secondary stability as the
weight of the paddler sits lower into the middle of the boat and the ends of the boat lean into the
water as it heels/tips over increasing the buoyancy above and outboard of the centre of gravity.
Dynamic lift and planing surfaces.
In the real world of sea kayaking, waves and currents mean that surfing and planing can very much
be part of the game. Therefore, consideration can be given to planing surfaces. Boats can be
designed for dynamic lift to keep the bows up in surfing conditions – for an extreme example think
of the planing surfaces attached to the bows of some surf skis. Less extreme is the use of flare in
the forward sections above the waterline. Kayaks can also be designed so that as they surf on
waves, they will lift and reduce drag. Flat(ish) sections on the bottom from about 1/3rd back from
the bow can help some boats stay on waves with very little extra effort from the paddler.
Rocker
Rocker refers to the way that the ends bend up on the keel line. Boats that are straighter have
some advantages in terms of directional stability and straight line speed in calm water. More rocker
means that boats will be able to cope more comfortably with bigger waves, they will be easier to
steer, and they will generally be more manageable in the surf.
Stem design
Stem designs vary from almost vertical and low (wave piercing) to high and overhanging.
 High stems tend to keep the decks drier and the overhang at the bow allows more reserve
buoyancy for big waves or surf. On the down side, the high bows can increase the wind
resistance and there are times when the buoyancy at the bow will cause the boat to pitch
up and down over every wave, losing momentum as it goes in to a chop.
 Wave piercing hull designs have the opposite features. A very wet deck, the tendency to
dive in to the bottom of waves when surfing, and at times, more efficient paddling into wind,
waves and chop due to less tendency to pitch, reduced windage, and slightly longer
waterline length relative to length overall.
Deck design
Decks can be flat or heavily cambered and they can also be high or low to enclose more or less
volume.
The camber contributes to water shedding and strength. . Flat decks forward can present negative
planing surfaces to the water when the bow dives in surfing so they are generally to be avoided.
The height of the decks can make a big difference to the characteristics of the boat paddling in a
cross wind. As the paddler is generally more than halfway back from the bow and the sections
forward pretty sharp, many boats tend to round up into a cross wind. Others with high bows tend to
blow off and can be difficult to keep on a course at an angle toward the wind.
The other feature that is affected by the deck design is the capacity of the boat in terms of available
space and volume for carrying gear. Low decks are great for reducing windage and they can make
the bats easier to roll but you may have to become very efficient at packing for long trips.
Rudders and skegs
Rudders have become very popular in sea kayaks and few production boats come without them
fitted as standard. They make it easier to maintain a course in conditions that tend to make the
boat round up or bear away. The advice of most kayak instructors is to learn to paddle without
them rather than to become reliant on them to turn their boats. There are many systems of rudders
and steering. Most have pivoting blades that can be lifted clear of the water and stowed securely
on deck. They are generally operated by cables attached to a pivoting bar or foot pedals in the
cockpit. Both skegs and rudders can make a big difference to easy surfing as they can prevent the
start of a broach. On the other hand, having rudders down while exiting through the surf is one of
the situations where they are most often broken and bent if the boat is driven backwards.
The three downsides of rudders are:
 They can contribute to lazy paddling and slow skills development
 They are fragile and fiddly and are out on their own as the equipment that needs the most
maintenance and repair
 They cause a small amount of unnecessary drag in many conditions
Skegs
Skegs are like fixed rudders in that they can balance a boat for the conditions. To be able to do
this they must be retractable so that they can change the centre of lateral resistance by increasing
or decreasing the area of the skeg at the back of the boat. Without the skeg, the centre of lateral
resistance is forward. It moves aft as the skeg is put deeper into the water.
Hull Materials
Plastic
More and more plastic kayaks are being made and the main advantages are the relatively low cost
of construction and the high resistance to impact and abrasion damage. The negatives for plastic
boats are that they tend to be heavier and less stiff than a fibreglass boat. A fibreglass boat has a
different and more crisp feel to it and its lower weight means less wetted surface and less to pull
through the water. The differences are getting smaller as plastic technology improves.
Plastic kayaks are manufactured in huge, two piece, heated metal moulds. Pea sized pieces of
coloured plastic are poured in. The mould is then clamped shut, heated, and then rotated and seesawed. This coats the whole of the mould with hot, liquid plastic. (This is why plastic boats are all
one colour). The complete process takes about half an hour and after some initial cooling, the
finished boat is removed from the still hot mould and placed in jigs to prevent it warping and
twisting as it cools. Once cold, the boat is finished off with the trimmings. There are different
plastics with different qualities and plenty of controversy around the issue. It can make a difference
and you may want to ask the vendors and manufacturers of the boats you are considering so that
you understand what you are getting. Some manufacturers have made their boats stronger, some
more flexible, some more brittle. They are all learning and developing so check out what they are
using.
Fibreglass and composite construction
As discussed, fibreglass boats are a little more fragile for transport and impact than plastic.
However, they do feel different and the lighter and stiffer the better in my opinion. The materials
that make up fibreglass will be discussed separately below.
Resins
Polyester resins are the least expensive and are still widely used with glass fibre fabrics. They use
a catalyst to harden and they can produce a good boat that will last a long time. Initially they are as
strong as any other resin if used with glass fibre but they fatigue more quickly and eventually get
brittle with age and frequent bending. They do not adhere as well to carbon fibre or Kevlar and so
tend not to be used with these fabrics. The other disadvantage of polyester resins is that they
absorb water more than epoxy resins do. This is seldom a problem for boats that are stored in dry
conditions but high levels of water absorption can add to weight and reduce the strength of the
laminate.
Epoxy resins rely on a different process to harden. They have a part A and a part B and by
combining these two components, cross linking occurs and a strong, flexible and durable material
results. Epoxy laminates can survive many more cycles of bending and flex and they quickly
surpass the strength of polyester resins in most marine applications.
Glass fibre
Glass fibre is strong and versatile. It can be formed, tied, knitted, and woven into many kinds of
fabrics. The most sophisticated fabrics have the fibres strategically oriented to align with the
stresses on the hull. The least sophisticated fabrics are chopped strand and they are equally strong
in every direction. Chopped strand fabrics are easy to use but they absorb more resin and they
require thicker laminates to achieve the required strength.
Kevlar
Kevlar is very strong in tension but has weaknesses in compression. Therefore it must be used
where its strengths will contribute to the strength of the laminate and avoided in situations where
compressive strength is important. Kevlar is also very tough and resistant to abrasion. It is
sometimes used along stems, paddle blades, and keel lines where it can lengthen the life of a
kayak or paddle by resisting abrasion.
Carbon fibre
Carbon fibre is extremely strong and makes for the strongest, stiffest, lightest boat available. It is
very expensive and it can only be used to its maximum advantage with epoxy resins. Some
designers use a little carbon fibre in high stress areas or as a matrix within the hull thereby gaining
some of the advantages of carbon without the cost of a full carbon layup.
In addition to the notes in the section above, it is important to choose your boat based on the type
of paddling you intend to do. No boat will do everything well. For the surf and rough weather, you
will want a boat that will turn readily and that will rise, plane or turn rather than dive and capsize if
broached. For carrying gear you may want large cargo capacity, For lots of flat water trips you may
want a long straight hull with low windage. If you will be paddling a jagged rocky coast and
needing to do surf landings, the advantages of plastic may be too strong to resist.
Buoyancy
All kayaks and canoes must have enough buoyancy fixed into the boat to easily float them when
they are full of water. They buoyancy needs to be in both the bow and stern of the boat so it floats
level. Watertight hatches are idea in the first instance but as a bottom line, foam or separate
sealed compartments (ideally filled with foam in case they leak) are required as back up.
Waterproof bags full of gear are an additional source of buoyancy when swamped although they
too can gradually lose their buoyancy as they leak.
Hand Holds/Toggles
Whatever the design of the kayak it is important to have hand holds at either end of the boat.
Handles are important for rescuing but they must also be strong enough to be used as handles to
carry a loaded boat. Carrying and loading will be discussed further in the section on beach
launches and landings. In sea kayaks, plastic or metal handles are often built into the deck. Other
methods include toggles or a loop of rope or tape which is large enough for an adult hand to easily
fit through to hold. End loop rope should be 6mm in diameter or more. Rope which is too small in
diameter will cut into the hand. Toggles and handles are more comfortable.
Rescue equipment
Some rescue equipment will be carried at all times and on even short and well protected trips. In
this category are pumps, paddle floats, tow lines, and spare paddles. Other equipment will come
along on longer trips or trips away from easy communication and sheltered conditions.
Communications
Radios, HF, VHF, UHF
Mobile Phones
Satellite phones
Signalling devices
V sheet
Mirror
Hand held flares
Parachute flares
Smoke Flares
EPIRB
Dye
Whatever you have that can attract attention or make a signal
Tools and repair kit.
Tools
The tools that you may require will depend on the particular boats in your fleet. You are likely to
find the following useful:
 screwdrivers and spanners to fit all fittings on all of your boats. (Seats, steering systems,
knee pads, foot rests, may all have stainless steel bolts and nuts).
 pliers or vise grips, wire cutters and a sharp knife to repair deck lines, steering cables, and
elastic straps.
 a sewing kit will enable you to repair torn decks

if you plan to carry fibreglass materials for hull repairs you will need whatever tools are
required. Generally this will be scissors, rollers or brushes, air rollers, sandpaper, and
masking tape.
Materials
 No matter what sort of boat you have, some sort of gooey adhesive sealant can be helpful.
Sika flex or silicone are old standards and the list of options fills aisles at modern hardware
stores. Sika flex and other urethane adhesives are expensive but they adhere well to many
surfaces and remain strong, watertight, and flexible. Sealant can repair decks and seal
holes in hulls, paddle shafts, and around bolts and screws. It can also be used as a glue if
repairs require backing plates where flexibility is as important as adhesion.
 Super glue can be useful at times but it seems to get used effectively for jobs like fixing a
pair of broken sun glasses more often than it manages to perform a useful repair on a boat
or fitting. It is poor at gap filling and so it works best only where the glue joint is tight.
 Five minute epoxy is a material that is reasonably strong, very resistant to sea water, fills
gaps well and is fast and easy to use. It is available at hardware stores.
 Resins and fibre - glass, Kevlar or carbon. If you intend to do repairs on your
fibreglass/composite boats while on a trip, you will need to know what kind of resin the hull
is built with. Polyester resins will not bond effectively to epoxies and neither resin is much
use on plastic boats. A short section on repairs will discuss the process of patching or
repairing fibreglass.
 Duct tape has become a repair standard for all kinds of hulls. It is cheap, easy to use and it
can be wrapped all the way around hulls if required. It does not bond well to wet materials.
Tip! To use duct tape for an emergency hull repair on the beach, boil some fresh water
and pour it slowly onto the damaged area. The heat retained by the plastic or fibreglass
will help the fresh water evaporate away and the remaining warmth will help the adhesive
on the tape to bond.
 Spectra chord can replace broken wire steering cables and it is much easier to adjust and
fit.
 Two part epoxy putty is versatile and after its two parts are mixed forms a hard and strong
material that can fill a hole or be formed into whatever is required. Once hard it is not very
flexible
Spares
 If your boats have only a few different sizes of stainless steel bolts or screws, it may be
worthwhile to bring along spares of these in case one rattles loose or works its way out.
 breakdown paddles have been mentioned earlier. A short piece of dowel the size of the
interior of paddle shafts is a handy thing to have along if you break a paddle. You can do a
useful repair overnight and keep the breakdown in reserve for immediate use. A sleeve to
match the external diameter of the shaft is also effective in this way but it interferes more
with paddling.
 I like to bring a spare deck (perhaps because of a memorable trip where one disappeared
miraculously in the night and we had to make one up out of tape and plastic).
 some sort of spare cable for steering can be helpful and some cable ties and stainless hose
clips are versatile for making connections and holding things in place.
Clothing
Choosing the right clothing for sea kayaking is important and needs some consideration. The main
issues are sun protection and temperature regulation. Ideally paddlers’ choice of clothing will be
able to deal with all conditions during the day or the trip. It is not always easy to change clothing
under way.
In Qld, the sun is almost a constant concern for paddlers. Big hats, gloves, and long sleeves can
help but you also need to consider the reflective glare from the surface of the water. Big brimmed
hats have the disadvantage of being easily tugged around (or off) by the breeze. Cap type hats
with cloth extensions that drape down to shield the neck and face are one option that works. Some
people find them too restrictive of vision and breeze. As an option, a cap with sunscreen or zinc
might do the trick. In full sun and on longer trips, sunscreen alone is seldom up to the job but a
good layer of zinc cream seems to work pretty well - although it gets on almost everything and
some equipment hire companies will not permit its use with their equipment.
Sunglasses are also very important - and at the same time a bit problematic as they do not work
well when frequently sprayed with salty water (or if they find their way to the bottom of the sea). I
generally remove both sunglasses and hats (I have a glove box on the deck in front of me) when
coming out through the surf or making a beach landing and I sort myself out again for the sun in
the more stable conditions outside the break. (I have also lost many hats and sunglasses)
In some ways it is nice to dress to be warmer than necessary because a splash or two can cool
you down. However, overdressing has disadvantages too and on the worst still and hot days, it is
not that easy to keep yourself wet and if you get lazy, your body will respond to the higher
temperature by sweating more. If you do not keep up your hydration, the increased sweat will lead
to dehydration - or in the worst cases to heat exhaustion or heatstroke.
Some of the light, self wicking, synthetic materials do seem to work pretty well as protection
against the sun and the cool breezes without being too stifling or restrictive. A thin nylon
windbreaker is amazingly effective and you can usually get it on or off and stashed without too
much trouble. If you wonder about whether to wear it or not, you are probably better to start with it
on and if you don’t need it, the conditions are probably not too severe and you will be able to get it
off. You can also control temperature a fair bit by the amount of effort you put into your paddling.
Layering principle
 Base Layer - to provide insulation and wick sweat away from you skin
 Mid Layer - to provide insulation and keep you warm
 Outer Layer - waterproofs to protect you form wind, rain and snow
 Not only does each layer have its own function within the layering system, but air is also
trapped between each layer. The air between the layers keeps you warmer than if you were
to wear one thick layer.
 The layering system is very flexible. If you are hot you can remove a layer. If you are cold
you can add a layer, for example you could use more than one mid layer to help keep you
warm.
 For the best comfort all layers should be breathable and have wicking capabilities. If one of
your layers is not breathable or wicking then the breathable/wicking properties of other
layers will not be so effective. Wicking is the ability of the fabric to move moisture from the
inside to the outside of the fabric.
Cold weather clothing
 If you need to keep warm and dry in cold
conditions a paddle jacket or a dry top with
sealed neck and wrist closures is the best
option. Worn over a short or long sleeved
polypropylene shirt the paddle jacket can keep
you dry (or almost dry) in rough conditions and
driving rain. Under a dry top, you can add wool
or fibre pile layers to stay warm even in icy
conditions. The colder the conditions, the more
important it is to keep dry to avoid losing heat
through conductivity.
Pogies and gloves

If you will be paddling in really cold conditions,
you may want to explore these options. Pogies
are neoprene (wet suit material) flaps that wrap
around your wrist and cover your hands and the paddle shaft leaving your fingers
free to move about and grasp the paddle under the covering.

Wet suit gloves are another option although the feel of the paddle is lost. In cold
climates a variety of thinner gloves are available. Surprisingly, even the humble
dishwashing glove can make a big difference in all but the most severe conditions.
Warm Weather Clothing
 Lycra or rash shirts – light weight, very quick drying, good sun protection (depending on
how old the garment is), no thermal or warmth qualities.
 Stinger suits – used mainly in Far North Queensland as protection from jellyfish stings, light
weight, very quick drying, no thermal qualities, have yet to see one that was not designed
with 80’s fashion in mind.
 Sun Shirts – light weight, fairly quick to dry, great sun protection (check the UV ratings and
the age they will loose UV protection over time), little thermal qualities.
Polypropylene Thermal
Wool Thermal layer
Water proof paddle jacket
In Queensland, a light coloured, long sleeved, synthetic or silk, collared shirt is another
inexpensive option (pick one up at a second hand shop) that does a pretty good job.
Clothing to Avoid
 Cotton – remember how people used to keep meat cool before refrigerators? By wrapping it
in wet cotton and hanging it out in the breeze, essentially this is what happens to clients
who get wet while wearing cotton T-shirts. Cotton absorbs moisture and is very slow to dry.

For long days of paddling, wetsuits are seldom comfortable and usually people who wear
them end up with chafe and rashes. However some people may choose to wear wetsuits in
some conditions. Wet-suits are designed to keep you wet and warm. They are made of a
closed-cell foam called neoprene which also provides a certain amount of buoyancy. The
suits come in various thicknesses and are designed to fit snugly over the skin. In the event
of immersion the suit allows a small amount of water to enter between your skin and the
suit; your body then heats up this water (which does not circulate) so that you keep warm.
For maximum benefit your wet-suit should fit closely with no large air pockets between you
and the material.
Footwear
Footwear is to be worn at all times while paddling. It is mainly to provide protection when the
wearer is getting in and out of the boat, and while walking in the water and along the shore.
Barnacles, oysters and sharp rocks will quickly tear up soft feet and the risk of infection in the
marine environment is high. There are many marine stingers in shallow coastal waters of Australia
and shoes offer one important line of defence. The design of the footwear should be such that the
footwear cannot come off easily, especially while walking in water or mud. “Crocs” type shoes
don’t really measure up. Some sandal types with firm soles and strong straps can do the job of
protecting the sole of the foot but they do not offer a high level of protection against stingers such
as blue ring octopus and cone shells. Closed footwear is recommended.
Neoprene socks can be worn for warmth but they usually don’t have a sturdy enough sole.
Neoprene booties with a hard sole are adequate for many conditions. Remember to wash them
out regularly.
Wetsuit Shoes
Helmets
Helmets are required for paddling in the surf. Although the protection provided by a helmet may not
make a big difference if you are driven head first into the sand by a big wave, it will help a lot if you
get tumbled and a boat or a paddle clobbers you in the wave. White water helmets are appropriate
for the job and if you will be doing a lot of surf paddling, take the time to get a good fit so that the
helmet is comfortable enough to wear for hours at a time. Helmets for paddling need to protect the
forehead and base of the skull without affecting hearing. They need to be tough, cushioned, and
securely fastened.
Sunscreen
In Australia especially, protection from ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun is vital. Even in
winter, UV levels are high enough to cause skin damage in as little as 15 minutes. Good quality,
broad-spectrum, water-resistant sunscreen is essential for the face and lips. The ability of
sunscreens to filter harmful UV light is measured by the Sun Protection Factor (SPF). Sunscreens
with SPF 30+ give the highest available protection, but even the best sunscreen is susceptible to
being washed, wiped or sweated off the skin and will therefore require regular reapplication.
Zinc provides a total block while it is on and if you are sensitive to the sun it is worth the mess.
Waterproofing Gear
Dry bags
Tapered dry sacks
Waterproof map cases
Dry Bags
Great for just about everything. Fill the sack up about 2/3 full. Squeeze out as much air as
possible. As long as you can roll the top down 4 times and buckle the clasp together everything
will stay waterproof. They come in many different sizes and shapes. Some are very light weight
and aren’t as durable as the heavier varieties. For gear that must stay dry, plastic bags as liners
can work quite well. Be careful about tears and twist the top and tie off with a loop so that they can
be undone without damage.
Clear Cases. For seeing the item and keeping it dry at the same time. Great for maps,
GPS units, mobile phones, radios etc
Containers
Very durable and will help protect fragile items (lanterns, medications). A
Little Petroleum Jelly around the lid seal will help keep it water tight.
TIP! Think how and where you are going to store your gear before choosing a
water proof dry bag. Quite often, lots of smaller bags make it easier to pack into awkward spots
and to allow you to get at the things you need along the way.
Torch
Another necessary piece of equipment to have in your kit is a good waterproof torch. Almost all
paddlers in fresh water opt for a head torch rather than a hand held torch, in order to leave their
hands free to do other tasks. Recently head torches have undergone a revolution, with the advent
of the LED bulb. Up until a few years ago, head torches utilized large square batteries that cost a
fortune and lasted a mere 8 hours before failing. The modern LED bulbs use AA or AAA batteries,
and last up to 150 hours! There are many varieties on the market, in different sizes and weight and
degrees of brightness. Some combine a halogen bulb with an LED bulb – you can switch from one
to the other, but be careful you know which bulb you’re using as the halogen one will use up your
battery. Others have a number of LED bulbs, and you can switch between using one, or two, or all
of them. Unfortunately, most of the head torches available are water resistant at best and are
susceptible to damage if sprayed with salt water. There are many waterproof torches available and
some are designed to float. The torch shown on the left is a diving torch with LEDs and would be
an excellent choice for general purpose as well as to be used as a signalling device. Without
doubt, good quality underwater led headlights will become more available soon.
In buying your torch, think about the following:

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


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How will it cope with a saltwater environment?
How much brightness do you need?
How reliable and effective is the switch mechanism
How heavy is it with the batteries in?
How long do the batteries last?
Is the switch too easy to turn on, so that it’s likely to switch itself on when stowed?
What sort of batteries does it require? Are these easy to obtain?
Is the wiring well protected for use in a marine environment?
Spray Deck
The spray deck seals the gap between paddler and cockpit rim. Needless to say, the deck must fit
both the cockpit rim and the paddler’s waist. Too loose around the paddler and it will allow water to
enter. Too tight and it will be uncomfortable. The spray deck must be in good condition, fit snugly
around the cockpit coaming, and be strong enough to withstand waves and water forces. If the
deck comes off in the surf or a breaking wave, swimming is probably not far away.
Neoprene decks are effective as the material stretches and seals well. However, the material does
not last well in the sun and neoprene decks are not as durable as the coated synthetic fabrics that
are often used on sea kayaks. All spray decks must have a readily accessible release tag or loop.
Historical note.
Before the days of plastic boats and stretchy synthetic materials, Eskimos used to
sew/lash their paddling coats/decks onto the coamings of their kayaks once they
were sitting in the cockpit in order to get a good seal (no pun intended) before
taking to the water to travel or hunt. For them, the option of bailing out from a
capsize and swimming was not an option and they were fully committed to rolling.
back up if they went under.
Paddle floats
Paddle floats are buoyancy aids that attach to one blade of a paddle to
be used as a kind of outrigger to give more stability while climbing back
aboard in the event that you come out of your boat during a capsize.
There are two types: inflatable and rigid foam. They are secured to the
blade and then the paddle is secured or gripped across the back of the
cockpit while it is used for stability to re-enter. As with most equipment,
if you practice the use of a paddle float you will understand its
limitations and get better at taking advantage of its benefits. No matter
how experienced you are, it is not out of the question that you may end
up out of your boat in rough conditions.
For a discussion of paddle floats and a look at a good resource for many sea kayaking topics, go to
http://books.google.com/books?id=vU4VFiTD4eYC&pg=PA39&lpg=PA39&dq=sea+kayak+paddle+
floats&source=web&ots=b4MTcXhAzt&sig=dRyT8_OMtEQHORsqHlWIO3GyvjM
Pumps
There will be many occasions where you will want to pump the water out of your cockpit. The
systems below are some of the ways to go about it.
Hand pumps
The most frequently used system in Queensland is the cylinder pump. This type of pump is
relatively fast and it can be used through the waist band of a deck so that water goes out faster
than it goes in. Its main disadvantages are that it is pretty awkward to use and it makes effectively
paddling or bracing a one hand job and extremely limited.
Lever action diaphragm pumps can also be used and these are fitted permanently to the deck.
Because they are fixed, they are easier to use but they still require one hand so paddling is
compromised.
Foot pumps
I have not managed to find a specially made sea kayak foot pump system available in Queensland
although the concept is an old one and some folk have made things that work. Two systems I have
read about are:
A spring action diaphragm pump mounted between or behind foot pegs or steering pedals on the
bulkhead. Depressing the pump repeatedly will force water out through permanent plumbing. (it is
important to valve the outflow so that the plumbing does not become a way for water to get into the
boat.
Another system that has been described is a semi rigid tube that can be depressed at any point on
its length to force water through a valve and out. I am told that this system is slower but it has the
advantage of being capable of being used while steering is being carried out.
Electric pumps
These are the deluxe version - when they work. Submersible bilge pumps can be mounted to clear
the water out of a swamped kayak in short order without compromising steering, paddling or
bracing. The negatives are related to keeping electric equipment working in the corrosive salt
environment. Batteries pumps and all connection need to be sealed and happy with being inverted,
submerged and generally pushed around by gear. Surprisingly, this can be achieved with great
care.
Sponges and bailers
These are handy to have around but limited to use on calm days and on the beach as they can’t
keep up with waves washing over the open cockpit lip.
Towlines
For sea kayak paddling, the sort of tow line you will need is long enough to allow ample clearance,
easily accessible and attachable to the boat via a shock chord and a quick release system such as
a deck clam or cam cleat. Towing a heavy kayak from a waist belt or PFD attachment point in wavy
or surging conditions is uncomfortable and tiring. In some circumstances you may need to tow an
injured or tired participant in rugged conditions for some time and you will need to be well
prepared. The towline can be stowed in an easily accessible hatch or in a pouch under deck lines.
Throw Bag
A throw bag is not really designed for sea kayaking. However, many paddlers have them and they
can be used as a tow line or perhaps in some circumstances to help reach someone in a rip or in
the part of the surf line that you would rather stay back from. (more likely, if the surf is big enough
to be a real threat, the 10 metres or so that you will be able to throw will not be enough to make a
big difference). If you do intend to use one they need to be accessible and attached either to the
boat or to you with a quick release buckle or catch. The rope used in throw bags is polypropylene
so it will float. You want to use a thickness big enough so people can hang on to it easily, around
the 8 – 10mm. In order to be effective with a throw rope it is essential to practice its use regularly.
Polypropylene rope is especially sensitive to sunlight and it is not a particularly strong rope to start
with.
Navigation equipment
Compass
A compass is an essential piece of equipment for sea kayaking. Even close to land, rain, mist,
darkness, or fog can obliterate visual reference points and the only thing left to do is to stick to a
planned course until something appears again. Compasses for sea kayaking can be permanently
fitted in the deck and this is a nice feature. If they are permanently fitted they are then susceptible
to impact, scratch and vibration damage while travelling. Fitted compasses are usually of the
gimballed and fluid damped variety and may be sensitive to being inverted. Another system is to
have a similar style of high quality gimballed, fluid damped compass that clamps or attaches to the
deck but that is stored separately during transport. A third approach is to use a bushwalking style
compass that can be kept in an easily accessible hatch, in a pocket of a PFD, or on a lanyard and
somehow secured on the deck while steering a compass course.
 Advantages of a fixed compass are that they help make it easier to steer as you go. In calm
white out conditions, it takes only seconds to lose track of direction and an almost constant
watch is required.
 Advantages of a hand held compass is that they make it easier to take accurate bearings
on features to fix your position. Ideally you will have both or a fixed version and a hand
bearing compass.
Hand bearing compass
Hand bearing compasses are designed to allow you to sight along them toward a feature. The
traditional bushwalking compass can be used in this way but there are compasses specially made
with a prism in the viewfinder that lets you hold the compass up to your eye and look along it at an
object with the prism lens in view clearly showing a magnified the compass bearing. A good quality
damped compass of this type will enable you to take a bearing with in a few degrees.
Charts
Charts are like maps. However they are especially made for marine use and so they have different
information on them. They will be discussed in more detail in the section on marine navigation.
Map cases
Your capacity for navigation work in a sea kayak is limited by the nature of your workspace and
potentially by the sea conditions. In rough conditions, you may not be able to free your hands from
bracing or paddling and your work space for laying out a chart is minimal. For these reasons a
great deal of your navigation will be done ahead of time so that your navigation underway will not
require the detailed course work and calculations that can be comfortably done ahead of time at a
table or desk.
If you have prepared well, you can print or fold a chart of the are you will be paddling and details of
your planned course in a transparent map case that you can fix to the deck in front of you. You
may also choose to laminate sections of charts to improve their resistance to the wet conditions
Watch
As you will often be reliant on time, speed and course to work out where you are, a waterproof
watch is essential.
GPS
No navigation section could be complete with out reference to GPS technology. The water resistant
versions with built in plotters are so accurate and easy to use that people without navigation skills
can venture to places where they would never have considered going before. While the
technology is amazing, using GPS has two weaknesses that make old fashioned navigation skills
and judgement indispensable. First of all, the information in the GPS plotters is only as good as
the programmers had as they entered the data. It is being updated all the time but if it does not
agree with what your eyes tell you, it van be very wrong. In the are around jumping pin bar, I have
been between the channel markers while my GPS was showing that I was in the middle of a 3
metre high sand island. In less travelled places, the plotter errors can be as much as half a
kilometre and believing that you know where you are can be a real problem. The other issue with
GPS in a marine environment is reliability. The tiniest bit of sea water sneaking past the seals can
fry the electronics of a “water proof” GPS in seconds. They are wonderful tools but we can’t rely on
them exclusively.
Sea anchors and drogues
Sea anchors are designed to grab onto the water. They are like miniature parachutes and if they
are attached to the bow (releasable from the cockpit), they can hold the bow into the waves and
prevent the boat from being driven off by the wind. These are two separate functions. Holding the
bow into the waves can make the kayak more stable and give a paddler a needed rest from
bracing or paddling. This can be important for pumping out, eating, drinking, resting, or navigating.
Preventing the kayak from being blown away by the wind can be essential during all of these
activities if downwind is not the way you want to go. This may be because your course is upwind or
- equally likely in coastal voyages - because the wind is from the side and it could be very
dangerous to be blown onto an inhospitable shore or into a bay that would require a slog against
the wind and waves to escape. Even when all is well, If you are fighting a strong headwind, every
metre is hard earned and a minute of rest may mean 5 more minutes of paddling just to get back to
the same place.
Drogues are very similar to sea anchors although smaller. They are really a specialist tool for long
voyaging and most paddlers (other than those trying to get to New Zealand from Australia) will
never use them. They are attached to the stern (again releasable from the cockpit) and their job is
to slow the boat down and prevent it from racing off or broaching while allowing it to progress in
following sea conditions with breaking waves. This guide does not take a position about their use
and is not recommending using or carrying one.
To finish the discussion of equipment, the section below is taken from the Australian Canoeing
website
Sea Kayak Equipment Standards
Kayak
When used in sea conditions, the kayak must be a recognised sea kayak with;
(a) Minimum volume cockpit (bulkheads or integrated cockpit) so that the kayak is
controllable in sea conditions with the cockpit flooded.
(b) Positive buoyancy made up of compartments or fixed floatation. It is
recommended that empty compartments be filled with buoyancy material (inflated
wine/spring water/fruit juice cask bladders, etc.) that will minimise the amount of
water that enters a compartment in the event that its integrity is compromised.
(c) Deckline system of at least 6mm in diameter that is secured to the deck with
fastenings that will not fail under normal sea conditions and that are sufficiently
spaced to keep the deckline controlled. The deckline system plus cockpit
surrounds should provide handholds for the complete length of the kayak.
(d) Toggles or other safe handholds as near as practical to the bow and stern. If
used, hand loops must not allow the full insertion of a hand.
(e) Pump or self-bailer
The ability to remove water from a sea kayak cockpit is essential since the
addition of water;
• Inhibits stability
• Increases the possibility of hypothermia
• Decreases endurance
• Increases the possibility of water and salt related problems such as
blisters, infection, etc.
Personal vessels
To help ensure your safety;
• you should have a “bomb proof” method of re-entering your kayak
after capsize (the preferred method is re-entry and roll)
• you should be able to paddle your boat, with a fully flooded cockpit,
away from a dangerous situation in offshore conditions and then
be able to completely evacuate the water from the cockpit in the
same conditions
• It is recommended that a pump or self-bailer system is fitted.
Choice of pump needs to give careful consideration to the skills of
the paddler, the vessel and expected operational use (expert
advice in this regard is recommended). NO pump system is fail
safe and all pump systems require regular inspection and
maintenance.
Vessels used for clients under supervision
• The kayak needs to be configured in a manner that a competent
paddler can guide and assist the novice paddler back into the
kayak in a safe and efficient manner.
• A method of evacuating any water from within the cockpit that can
be accessed effectively by either the competent guide or novice
paddler.
Paddle
(a) Paddle should allow the full range of strokes, braces and rescues and be strong
enough to withstand the forces involved in all aspects of sea kayaking including
surf launches and landings.
Spraydeck, cover or skirt
(a) Spraydeck must correctly fit the craft and stay fitted during all aspects of sea
kayaking.
PFDs
(a) PFD must confirm to Australian Canoeing safety policy standards for PFDs.
Spare paddle system
(a) A spare paddle must be available for immediate use, number to be determined by
the activity and group size and skill level.
Towline
(a) A quick release towline of at least 15 metres long with a float that will support the
system including any clips/karabiners if unclipped. Waist tow systems are not
recommended for use at sea because of the forces involved. Consideration
needs to be given to the thickness and stretch characteristics of the rope in terms
of safety, ease of deployment and recovery/repacking.
Paddle park or leash
(b) A Paddle leash system allowing the paddle to be restrained whilst used should
be available. Consideration needs to be given to the safety aspects of tethering
the paddle to the person or kayak.
REQUIRED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILL BEFORE VENTURING OUT ON A TRIP
OR INSTRUCTION SESSION IN A SEA KAYAK
Know what you are getting into
One thing that sets sea kayaking apart from most other adventure activities is the way that serious
danger can get very close while novice leaders and participants are completely unaware of its
presence. They can venture into harm’s way before obvious hazards and visual clues alert them
that trouble is near. The perceived danger is sometimes lower than the real danger. In many
outdoor activities the opposite is true most of the time.
Storms
The weather can change quickly and even relatively small tropical thunderstorms storms can arrive
with a fury. In most activities, participants have the option of taking shelter or moving to a place
where they will not bear the full brunt of the storm. Even mountaineers can tie themselves down
and hold on. If kayakers cannot reach shelter in time they may have no where to go and they will
be asked to use all of their endurance and skills to stay upright and together as they bear the full
force of the wind and the quickly building waves. Storms may be short or long and even with good
information and updated forecasts, it will be difficult to know exactly what to expect. In almost every
other endeavour, participants can get quickly to a place where they can rest (at least briefly) and
shelter to some extent from the storm. In severe conditions at sea in a kayak, even a momentary
lapse in concentration can be enough to begin a sequence of problems that may end in disaster.
Even if a leader can stay in control in the conditions and if the storm or squall is short, the group
will be quickly dispersed as some manage to hold their own, others capsize, and others get blown
off down wind. Rafting up is difficult and has its own dangers, so it is imperative that leaders avoid
the risk of getting caught out in a bad squall – even with a group that is highly skilled and well
prepared.
Perhaps even more treacherous is the danger of paddling along a coast an offshore breeze. Since
the force of the wind increases exponentially as its speed increases, the difference between
paddling upwind in 20 knots and 25 knots is amazing. Progress against the wind falls off very
quickly so that it is impossible for even fit and strong paddlers to make effective progress once the
wind rises to 30 knots (more or less depending on the waves and the paddler). For novice or unfit
paddlers, they may become exhausted fighting a consistent headwind and be unable to get far
against even 20 knots of wind. The danger is that the shore can shelter the breeze and keep the
waves small so that people are comfortable going out into the zone where they may be
overpowered by the increasing wind and waves such that before they know it, they are into the
territory where they recognise that things have changed and as they try to head back in, they find
they are making no progress. As they get further out, the wind increases further and the waves get
bigger. These circumstances can happen on the South East Queensland Coast anywhere on the
open Eastern beaches in the winter westerlies and in common summer sea breezes on the west
coasts of Fraser and Moreton Island.
Other dangers, such as sea cliffs, rocky shores and big surf are more obvious. The main point is
that the sea is a dangerous and changeable environment. Before heading out into it, leaders need
to be well aware of the risks and have plans and equipment in place to deal with them. If leaders
are aware and skilled in the environment they are leading in, most other aspects of taking a group
sea kayaking will be similar to taking them canoeing or bushwalking. Instructing skills will require all
of these skills and the ability to describe and demonstrate good technique and to observe and offer
detained and constructive feedback to participants. Planning and guiding trips will be considered
first.
Logistics and plans
Where are you going? What are you aiming to achieve? How long is the trip/session
expected to take? Most of these questions are generic and covered by your pre-requisite units.
With regard to sea kayaking specifically, it is important to recognise that keeping the group
together will not happen by itself. In all conditions, participants need to be clustered closely enough
for you to be able to communicate with them and to get to any of them as needed. Close attention
to group management and pre trip skill development for participants may be vital.
It is true of most sea kayak trips that once you head off, you will need to be completely selfcontained. If something is forgotten, you will have to do without it and it could have huge
consequences. Going back is usually out of the question.
The other logistic issue that requires attention is shuttles and pickups. Many sea voyages along the
coast are one way journeys. You will need different gear before,during, and at the end of the trip so
you need to consider what you will need and ensure it will be there when you need it.
Marine Weather
Communications
Signals, calls and methods of keeping everyone in touch and getting help if required. The
important thing is to have systems that all know and can use. See the sections on rescues and
group management for more information. Electronic equipment is especially vulnerable to damage
from sea water so be careful about your choices of communication equipment and how you store
and plan to use it. For example, a mobile phone may be within range and readily available. If it is
not completely waterproof, can you get it out and use it in difficult conditions without it getting wet
and salty. If not, it is not a reliable method of communication.
Swimming techniques
Everyone needs to be able to get out of an overturned craft and be able to manoeuvre in
the water in the waves and conditions that they are likely to paddle in. They need to be confident to
aid in rescues and to get back into their boats as required. Several sites recommend that
participants demonstrate that they are capable of swimming 200 metres before being allowed to
participate in open water sea kayaking.
INSTRUCTOR CONSIDERATIONS
Are you fit and healthy, Are your skills and qualifications current and of a high enough standard for
the trip and the requirements of the group? Have you informed someone of your intentions and
completed a risk assessment and devised a management strategy. Have you worked out logistical
details and session plans? Have you ensured that participants are aware of what they need to
bring to be comfortable and well nourished?
PRE TRIP PREPARATION AND PAPERWORK
Venue proforma
It is helpful to create a venue proforma for each trip that you do. Important information to include:
 Contact details - of any organisations or individuals that you might want to access on your
trip. For example, parks managers, property owners, other organisations that might use the
campsite or places you intend to visit, people who provide or have access to services or
equipment you might need, shops, instructors, emergency services, or hospitals.
 Accurate information - about charts, weather, currents and swell, navigation aids, features,
and the time that may be required for activities.
A template is included with other pre trip paperwork in Appendix C
Float plan/intention sheet
It is important that you have considered your strategies and made plans and contingency plans
before you start to ensure that you have the equipment and materials that you need and that you
are able to engage with support as required. With paddling it is especially important to consider
the impact of slower progress as changing weather and tides can dramatically affect your speed.
One hour late at point A might mean 6 hours late and point B only a few kilometres further along.
Contingency plans need to be available. A template for this is included with the documents in
Appendix C
An alternative float plan format is available on the Australian Canoe site at
http://www.canoe.com.au/site/canoeing/ac/downloads/canoe-education/info/SafetyGuidelines.pdf?MenuID=Education%2F99%2F7292
Risk Assessment and Management Strategy form
As a prerequisite to the sea kayak instructor specialisation you will already have done units in risk
management. The same processes that apply to other activities apply to a kayaking session or trip.
For some examples of forms to be completed prior to trips and for your assessment see the
templates in Appendix C.
Equipment list
Making up an equipment list is intended to help you with your planning and organisation and to
inform those that might be involved in evacuation or rescue events about what resources and
equipment you have with you.
Session plan
Each instruction session should be planned based on what you know and can find out about the
skills and training needs of students. The important matters to attend to are timetabling,
sequencing your presentation, teaching strategies, and content. A template for a session plan is
included as Appendix B. Where you are delivering accredited training, you will need to make sure
that you are covering all elements across the required range statements and ensuring delivery of
the required knowledge and skills at the level required by the unit.
OTHER IMPORTANT INSTRUCTOR DECISIONS
Ratios
The matter of instructor client ratios needs to be considered in light of the group, the trip, the skill
and maturity level of participants, and the goals of the trip. More staff are required where
participants are less mature or competent in the conditions expected on the trip. According to the
Victorian Education Department, two staff – an instructor and assistant instructor – are required in
every case and these 2 working together may supervise up to 8 students.
http://www.education.vic.gov.au/management/schooloperations/edoutdoors/actseakayakpeople.ht
m
Similar maximum ratios are supported by other education oriented sites. 1-6 instructor ratio and
two competent adults in charge. http://www.decs.act.gov.au/policies/pdf/water.pdf And
http://www.outdooredinburgh.org.uk/HSP6/HSP6APP3.doc also recommending a maximum ration
of 8-2 on open waters.
The following excerpt relates to Instructor ratios and is taken from the from Australian Canoeing
site.
Ratios for Sea Kayaking
The effect (not always obvious) of winds and currents on novice paddling groups at apparently benign-looking beaches, can be
dramatic. Local knowledge, and experience in this type of environment is vital for leaders. Control of a group at sea can be rapidly lost
as conditions deteriorate, and capsizes occur. Under such conditions, it can be impossible to keep the group together unless they are
able to respond skilfully and effectively to instructions – the larger the group, the more so. Some tidal estuaries, whilst sheltered at
times, at other times, can present severe open sea hazards.
The acceptable ratio of leader/guides to participants for conducting group kayaking or canoeing activities at sea is 1:6 or 1:8 if using
double kayaks.
Supervision should be increased towards a ratio of 1:2 considering the following
conditions/variables:
• Participants have special needs, including behavioural, physical or mental disability
• Participants are primarily children
• Foreseeable conditions are poor including swell, breaking waves, spring tides and/or wind (especially if against tide)
• The water temperature is cold and may affect participants’ capabilities
• A trip is being undertaken which;
Is along a committing shoreline
Is remote from observation
Involves unavoidable tide races or overfalls
• Access or egress will foresee involve surf > 1 metre
Supervision may be relaxed towards a ratio of 1:10 under the following conditions:
• All participants are adults
• All participants are competent, both individually and as a group, to deal with likely problems, which may be encountered
• All participants are reliable rollers
• Good weather forecast for a stable sea state with no spring tides or tidal stream
• Water temperatures are warm and present little risk to participants
• The location/route is in not remote and assistance from other groups or craft is available
• The location/route is always close to an easily accessible shoreline
• The leader holds a higher qualification than required for the activity
http://www.canoe.com.au/site/canoeing/ac/downloads/canoe-education/info/SafetyGuidelines.pdf?MenuID=Education%2F99%2F7292
Doubles or singles?
There is a reasonable argument that whether there are one or two paddlers in a boat does not
make a very big difference from a point of view of management and that managing doubles is little
more complicated than managing singles. This is likely to be the case as long as the group is
reasonably mature and you will not be spending a lot if your time intervening in interpersonal
conflict between paddling partners. As ever, leaders will need to consider the specific needs of the
group and make their decision based on their judgement and the relevant guidelines. Australian
canoeing suggests that an instructor may supervise 6 singles or 4 doubles. It is certainly easier to
count to 4 than 6 and doubles are often preferred for trips and journeys. Note that a team of two
competent leaders in separate singles is preferable with either doubles or single kayaks and even
with small groups.
The skills required for paddling double sea kayaks are notably different from those required for
single kayaks. Double kayaks have a longer waterline length and therefore generally will have a
greater turn of speed and will more easily maintain a higher cruising speed. They can also help
compensate for differences in skills, strength and fitness across your group by pairing strong with
weak allowing you to go where some individuals would struggle on their own in singles. Doubles
are more stable and it is much easier to get back in to a capsized double as an unassisted pair
than it is to get back into a single without help.
In order for participants to develop a full range of sea kayak skills, it will be necessary for them to
operate in both doubles and singles.
In my opinion, singles are where to start with skills instruction. The feel of the boat is altogether
different and the natural feedback from the craft in response to minor changes in strokes or
technique is much more sensitive. If the double does not respond to improved technique it may be
that the boat is just less responsive or that the partner is not doing their bit. Therefore it will be less
clear to participants when they are (or are not) getting the hang of skills and techniques.
Because doubles are so useful from a group management point of view, effective teaching of skills
in doubles kayaks is worth attention. If you have a canoeing background, much of the teamwork
aspects apply equally well with sea kayaks. Both paddlers need to be aiming to achieve the same
outcomes or they may be working against each other. Similarly shared stroke configurations are
similar to those of canoeing despite the double bladed paddle. The biggest differences are that the
paddlers are relatively closer to the centre in a double sea kayak and there will often be a rudder
that can assist in manoeuvres.
Instructor equipment
As the person in charge of a group at sea you will need to be as well prepared as possible for
whatever might happen on the water. On top of your skills and judgement, part of your risk
management planning will include consideration of participant and instructor equipment. Some
things can be shared around in the group while others will need to be immediately accessible. The
following list includes some of the things that you will need to have with you.
Communications





Radio
Phones
Sat phones
Whistle
EPIRB (emergency position indicating radio beacon)
Rescues



Pump
Knife
A plan for a team approach to rescues optimising group safety and the group as a resource
First Aid

Sufficient equipment, materials, and tools for first aid and documentation to maintain
casualties in line with your training and until help arrives or can be reached.
Recovery



Attachment points and fixed buoyancy for essential items
Paddle leashes
Patience to locate floating gear in the surf line if you failed to stow and attach your gear
effectively
Navigation equipment
You will need to have whatever you will need for navigating. (see the section on navigation)
Charts
Tide tables
Waterproof map case
Watch
Compass
Contingencies: You need to be prepared for whatever can go wrong. This will mean that you
will need:
 Spares for the possibility of lost broken or damaged equipment (such as paddles, foot pegs,
rudders or cables).
 Spare sleeping bags or clothes in case equipment or clothing gets wet and is not sufficient
to keep participants warm.
 Boat repair equipment and supplies such as tape, adhesives, and backing plates (see
section on repair s and spares above
 Equipment and plans for emergency evacuations. Maps for changes of route or any
possible contingency and communications to get help, inform your contacts, and engage
evacuation support if necessary.
Putting good practice into procedures
The section below is an example of an organisational policy/procedure statement in relation to sea
kayaking activities
These procedures refer to kayaking activities on lakes, estuaries and the ocean in craft purpose designed for
sea kayaking.
Leader The leader must possess:
1. AQF Certificate III or IV in Outdoor Recreation with specialisations
in sea kayaking OR
2. AQF Outdoor Recreation Industry Training Package
competencies
SROKYS006A Guide sea kayaking trips (easy to moderate
conditions)or
SROKYS008A Guide sea kayaking trips (moderate to difficult
conditions) OR
3. Australian Canoeing Award Scheme Sea Instructor (Level 2)
(Introductory Sea Kayak Skills) OR
4. Advanced Sea Instructor (Level 3) (Advanced Sea Kayak Skills).
First Aid • At least one accompanying adult, not a student, must hold a current first aid certificate and a
comprehensive first aid kit must be carried.
• For remote settings it is strongly recommended that at least one accompanying adult, not a student, has a
current Wilderness, Outdoors or Remote Area first aid certificate.
Group Preparation • Each student must:
o be instructed in and understand the basic safety requirements for kayakers and their kayaks
o satisfy the teacher of their ability to swim a minimum of 200 metres
o be able to float and tread water for 5 continuous minutes.
• Knowledge of hypothermia prevention and management is essential.
Supervision • 1:6
• There must be a minimum of two competent adults in charge.
• Any adult supervisor on the water must be a proficient sea kayaker.
• For competent paddlers at least one supervising adult must hold a current Bronze Medallion or a current
surf Bronze Medallion award.
• For beginner and novice paddlers see venue details below.
Venue • Beginners:
closed or protected water.
• Novices:
protected water or accessible coastline in good conditions
some paddling experience including ability to perform assisted rescues
paddling should be no more than 15 km per day.
• Competent paddlers:
may make short open water crossings or cover non landable stretches, both up to 5 km
pre-requisite skills must include ability to perform assisted rescues and surf entries and exits
paddling should be no more than 25 km per day.
• Leaders should take into account that increased wind and seas require increased levels of skill from
paddlers.
Clothing/Personal Items • Each student must wear:
a personal flotation device (PFD)
sandshoes, gym boots or neoprene booties
wetsuit/thermal clothing/cold water protection clothing where appropriate
sun protective clothing including gloves, hat and UV sunscreen
SPF 30+ sunblock, where appropriate
a kayak helmet when in the vicinity of rocks or when doing surf entries and exits.
• and have on hand:
whistle
cag or paddle jacket
warm clothing, matches, food and water stored in waterproof containers
tow rope of at least 15 m.
Equipment • Each kayak must:
be of a design approved by the leader for sea kayaking
not carry more than the number of kayakers for which it was designed
be fitted with handholds at bow and stern in the form of toggles and deck lines to which a tow rope
may be attached
be unsinkable and still be able to support a person when swamped by the presence of bulkhead/s
and buoyancy
have a suitable spray deck fitted with a suitable release strap
have fitted deck lines
have a pump or bailing system.
• Each paddle must be fitted with a leash.
• The leader must carry basic rescue equipment including tow line, throw bag, knife, karabiners, spare
paddle, map, waterproof torch, compass, bivvy bag, flares.
• The leader must carry basic repair materials.
Safety Points • Formation positions should be nominated to prevent craft from being dangerously dispersed.
• Travel must not be beyond a returnable distance from shore under the worst conditions possible.
• Team rescue procedures must be practised before trips are undertaken.
• Participants should be aware of the operation of other kayaks.
Care of Environment • Great care must be taken when camping close to water supplies.
• Attempt to camp at least 30 metres from the water.
http://www.decs.act.gov.au/policies/pdf/water.pdf
Instructor skills
You will want to keep your own skills and judgement sharp to allow you the flexibility and
perspective to do the best job you can. It is hard to overestimate the value of good judgement and
technically correct demonstrations.
TEACHING SKILLS
One of the most important things you will do when you begin to teach will be to learn about what
your students already know and can do in relation to what you are teaching. There is nothing
wrong with revision, but maximum learning and engagement happens at a cutting edge point
where new knowledge and skill build on the foundations that are already there. With this in mind,
setting out a “right” way to sequence skills would be outside of the spirit of this guide. Having said
that, some things need to be mastered before the next skill or concept makes sense and the skills
described below are set out in a deliberate sequence based on complexity and a “need to know”
approach. This section is included as a review of teaching points for you to consider and
incorporate in your instruction.
Embark and Disembark
There are several ways to get going with a sea kayak.
In sheltered waters you can use the traditional method of getting into a kayak. Put the boat into
water deep enough to float and beside the bank, a dock, or in water shallow enough that the
paddle can be used as a brace off the bottom as you get in. The paddle can be placed from the
support, across the boat and behind the cockpit to provide stability. Use one hand to clamp the
paddle in position at the back of the cockpit. The other hand rests gently on the paddle shaft for
balance. This method has the advantage of minimising wear and tear on delicate boats.
Surf
Assisted: If the shore break is not large and dumping it is sometimes possible to have one person
hold the kayak with its bow into the waves while a paddler gets in and does up their deck before
being pushed out into the waves. If the shore break is large or the beach is steep it may be
necessary for the paddler to get in ashore and then to be helped out with a receding wave. The two
key points are to keep the bow into the waves until through the break and to power into the
breaking waves to avoid being turned sideways or thrown backwards onto the beach.
CAUTION! A loaded or water filled boat in the surf is a serious hazard. Any assistants- in even
ankle deep water - (or paddlers who end up in the water) must avoid placing themselves where
the waves can throw the heavy craft onto them. Paddles and rudders are also very vulnerable to
damage if caught under boats on or near the beach.
Non assisted
The last paddler must always manage to get into their boat and through the surf without
assistance. A judgement skill that is worth developing is to find the closest place to the surf where
a paddler can get in and get the deck fitted before being swept around broadside or dragged into
the surf. Once participants are in and prepared, the goal is to use the water and fists or hands to
move the kayak down the beach until it can float out on a receding wave. At this point the aim is to
punch out firmly and straight through the break.
2). The seal launch: With plastic boats especially, they are tough enough to allow you at times to
get in on the rocks or beach and then slide into the water already decked and ready to go. A steep
beach uses much the same procedure as the unassisted launch but starting from dry land. In other
circumstances you may need to launch off rocks or ledges. Sometimes that will be sideways into a
gutter.
Capsize and wet exit
Capsizes are inevitable in kayaking, and you must be able to train your group to exit from the boat
in a calm and controlled manner. Fear of capsizing often prevents people progressing to more
advanced techniques. Developing confidence early is important.
People instinctively lift their heads when suddenly immersed into water. In a kayak that can lead to
bruises and scratches as people twist in the cockpit. In some cases people can get stuck and begin
to panic. The reflex must be overcome so that participants leave the cockpit correctly in a
controlled manner. It is normally easier to leave the cockpit of an inverted boat because the body
does not have to be lifted. Eventually you will want to train your groups to stay in their boats to roll,
rather than bail out immediately.
Key points
 Keep the head close to the foredeck. Exhale slowly to keep water out of the nasal
passages. (Hum a tune.)
 Spray cover off, knees straight, push with the hands and roll forward.
 Keep hold of the boat by the toggles, deck lines or end loops.
 If anything drifts away, participants will need to decide quickly how important it is and if they
can grab it. Advise participants not to risk losing contact with their boat. If there is a breeze
it will drift away very quickly and their safety will be compromised. Stay upwind of the boat
especially if there are breaking waves until ready to be assisted or to get back into the boat.
 If you lose your grip on the boat, try to regain it unless into the surf line in which case you
may be best following it in to the shallows if you are swimming in control. Remember what
you have been taught about swimming near a swamped kayak in the surf.
http://www.canoe.org.au/default.asp?MenuID=Education%2F99%2F7292%2F%2CGetting%5FStar
ted%2F87%2F7292%2F0%2CTechniques%2F55%2F0%2F0
Sea kayak paddling
As with any activity, the more you get involved the more you will learn. Sea kayak skills can be
broken down into 4 sections.
1) Moving forward efficiently -- you will do a lot of paddling in a straight line.
2) Staying upright in waves -- bracing and hip control.
3) Self and partner rescues – getting back in and going again when things go wrong.
3) Steering, playing and rolling in surf conditions.
All of these skill areas have strong parallels with flat and white water kayaking. Therefore we have
included a shortened section on basic strokes from the Australian canoeing webpage. A sound
understanding of basic strokes is an important foundation and the strokes are most easily learned
initially on flat water. The source of this material with sea kayak photos is:
http://www.canoe.org.au/default.asp?MenuID=Education%2F99%2F7292%2F%2CGetting%5FStar
ted%2F87%2F7292%2F0%2CTechniques%2F55%2F0%2F0
The forward stroke
Good technique and injury prevention start with a correct seating position. As with all seating,
whether eating dinner, working at your desk or paddling, the back should be straight. Don’t slouch.
A slight forward lean with the shoulders slightly in front of the pelvis is ideal. Knees should be
slightly bent (never straight) and there should be support for the feet.
The starting point to a good stroke is that the main power should come from the torso or trunk
rotation.
The Catch
 A stroke begins with the shoulders rotated to bring the bottom arm forward.
 Bottom arm is extended but not straight
 Top hand is around eye height, elbow bent, arm relaxed
 The blade should enter the water at around the level of the feet and be quickly buried in a
spearing motion
The Drive Phase
 The stroke is driven by torso rotation with both arms staying relatively fixed in place
compared to a rotating torso. The following photo shows the mid stroke position, note the
following
 Top hand is still at around eye height, elbow still bent, in the same relative position to the
shoulders as at the catch.
 Bottom arm is still extended but not straight, there is no attempt to drive the stroke through
the biceps.
Leg Drive is a term most often used in relation to flat water competition paddling, however all
paddlers should have a good understanding of its principles. Kayak paddling is often considered an
upper body sport. However, paddlers should use their whole body, especially incorporating the
strong muscles of their legs, hips and torso. The main task of the arms is to put the paddle in the
water and take it out, not for providing the propulsive force. At the catch, the leg on the side of the
next stroke, draws the hip forward so that the whole pulling side from pelvis to shoulder is fully
rotated forward at the catch. During the power phase, the stroke side leg straightens (the off-side
leg drawing up) so that it drives the stroke through rotation of the whole trunk. The power
produced is applied to the boat through the feet. This “leg drive” and torso coordination provides
the most powerful dynamic movement that can move the boat forward. This matching of power
through the whole body is important for the stabilisation of the trunk/lumbar spine/pelvis system
and helps to prevent lower back injuries.
The Exit
 The exit occurs just before the torso is fully rotated, when the blade is between mid thigh
and pelvis.
Note that at the end of the stroke the blade is off to the side of the boat. The path of the blade in
the water during the power phase of the stroke follows the wash line and is not parallel to the line
of the boat. Any attempt to pull the blade down the side of the boat results in the bottom arm
bending this in turn results in a loss of available power.
Exit is take to the side - not under your arm.
The bottom elbow bends and the hand leads up to the side.
Top hand remains relatively fixed and the paddle pivots on this hand - a dropping top hand reduces
power significantly during the stroke
Recovery Phase
 The recovery phase is the name for the section of the paddle cycle between the exit and
the next catch
 The torso keeps rotating the same direction as the just finished stroke - this brings the new
'drive side' shoulder to its maximum forward position. The front hand (old top hand) stays
high until the bottom hand is at the same height. Good rotation will result in the blade being
almost parallel with the boat just prior to its descent for the next catch.
 The paddle is then brought forward and down into the water in a spearing motion for the
catch of the next stroke
Sweep Stroke
Sweep Strokes are used to turn the boat. The effectiveness of sweep strokes is governed by
leverage and power. For the greatest leverage the blade must describe a wide arc, while power
must come from body twist (trunk rotation as described above). To protect the shoulder joint when
making reverse strokes, keep the elbow in front of the line of the shoulders (never reach behind
you).
Sweep strokes incorporated into forward or reverse paddling are used to keep the kayak running
straight.
Some Instructors prefer to start with sweep strokes so that students can develop some confidence
in controlling their direction before moving to other strokes. The biggest difference in using a sweep
stroke with a sea kayak is that the kayak will respond more slowly. For this reason, the extra skills
of leaning the kayak and selecting wave tops to turn on will need to be added to the list below.
Forward Sweep
Key points
 Rotate the torso fully for the set up
 Blade is fully buried
 Bottom arm is extended but NOT straight
 Reaching right forward with a straight arm exposes the shoulder joint to potential damage
 Top hand is in close to the body, low so that the paddle shaft just clears the deck.
 Blade starts at bow, and is swept in a wide arc by the unwinding of the torso rotation
 The stroke finishes when rotation finishes - DO NOT try and pull the paddle right back with
your arms, this can result in hyper-extension of the shoulder joint with possible damage
resulting. A long sweep is ideal, BUT this should come from torso rotation and not from
arm movement.
 Push on the footrest with the foot on the same side as the submerged blade.
Note it was traditional to teach this stroke with the person watching the blade to encourage torso
rotation, this method is no longer recommended for two reasons
paddlers should be looking where they are going when they paddle
It is much harder to unlearn techniques than to learn them.
Boat lean: in long and relatively straight craft, the resistance to turning can be reduced
considerably by leaning the boat. Lifting a knee and using the hips will lean the kayak to speed the
turn.
Using the waves: when the crest of the wave is under the paddler, the ends of the boat are lifted
out of the water and therefore they will offer less resistance to turning.
Picture shows a forward sweep.
Reverse Sweep
Key points
 Rotate the torso fully for the set up
 Blade is fully buried, stroke uses the back of the blade
 Bottom arm is extended but NOT straight
 Reaching behind you with a straight arm exposes the shoulder joint to potential damage
 DO NOT reach back turn back
 Top hand is in close to the body, low so that the paddle shaft just clears the deck.
 Blade starts near the stern, and is swept in a wide arc by the unwinding of the torso
rotation
 The stroke finishes when rotation finishes - DO NOT try and push the paddle forward with
your arms it is ineffective and bad technique. A long sweep is ideal, BUT this should come
from torso rotation and not from arm movement.
 Push on the footrest with the foot on the opposite side to the submerged blade.
Reverse Paddling
There will be times when you will need to paddle in reverse under full control.
Key points
 Do not lean back for this stroke
 Rotate the body so that the shoulder on the side of the stroke is right back
 Paddle is parallel to the boat with the blade flat on the water, back down
 Initially set the blade by pushing down with the bottom hand and raising the top hand to
about eye height - this will set the blade at about 45 degrees and fully buried
 Now unwind the torso, driving the stroke in close to the boat
 Blade stays close to the line of the boat
 Shaft is kept close to vertical
 Arms maintain the position of the blade rather than driving it
 The stroke finishes and the blade begins its exit when the paddle shaft is vertical, the exit
transfers neatly into the setup for the next stroke.
Look behind you on the same side every second stroke to avoid disorientation.
Emergency Stops
You need to be able to stop the kayak in a controlled manner, whether paddling forward or reverse.
Key points
Forward
 Short reverse strokes, blade close to hull, shaft vertical.
 Strokes on alternate sides to keep straight.
Reverse
 Short forward strokes, on alternate sides.
Stern Rudder
Stern rudder strokes allow you to guide a kayak through obstacles, and can be used while surfing.
Key points
 Rotate the torso fully for the set up
 Paddle is parallel to the boat
 Blade is buried and vertical
 Bottom arm is extended but NOT straight
 Reaching behind you with a straight arm exposes the shoulder joint to potential damage
 DO NOT reach back - turn back
 Top hand is low and over the side of the boat





Do not lean back as this puts bad stress on your lower back and reduces your ability to
stabilise the boat.
Two ways (often combined) to control direction:
push the blade away from the stern to turn towards the paddle side or pull it towards the
stern to turn the other way
roll the wrist outwards to turn to the paddle side, inwards to turn away.
If you start to lose control in a broach, do not try and fight it by extending your shoulders or
leaning back, tuck forward and prepare for a capsize or Support stroke (brace) as required
Body rotated towards paddle. Paddle alongside hull. Blade well aft. Control with wrist roll or
tillering with shaft Left Straight Right
Draw Stroke
Draw strokes are used to move the kayak sideways in a controlled manner for rafting and
approaching jetties and other landings.
Key points
 Rotate the torso to ‘face’ the direction you want to go.
 Keep the shaft vertical with top hand at forehead height and ahead of the face.
 Think of it as framing the face
 If you can look up and read your watch it is about right
 Bottom hand extends (out but not straight) at right angles to kayak level with the hips, blade
immersed, parallel to hull.
 Pull the blade towards the hips, top hand remains relatively fixed.
 Keep the boat level - do not lean toward the blade.
 Before the blade touches the hull, rotate the blade 90° then slice it back out to the start
position.
The sculling draw is usually taught after the basic draw is mastered. Torso is rotated to face the
direction of travel
 Top hand is lowered to around chin height
 Bottom arm is extended but not straight
 The blade is moved in a figure of 8 with the forward face (as the blade moves) turned
slightly away from parallel to the boat
 Do not lean on the blade at this stage
WARNINGS
 Bottom arm should always be slightly bent
 Bottom arm elbow should be in front of the line of the shoulders
 Top hand should never be higher than the head - NEVER reach behind your head
 Top arm should be bent with the top hand in close to the body
 Sculls should be small and controlled
Low Support (or low brace) Stroke
Support strokes are used to prevent capsizes. Although the paddle is used, the righting action
comes from the hips. The description here is for the Low Support (or low brace) stroke.
This stroke is normally taught from a stationary position with the paddler producing the lean
themselves and then correcting the lean. People are also often taught to practice this using a J
lean where the body remains vertical and the boat is 'edged' or tipped under the person - in this
way your body becomes a J - hence the name. Using a J lean rarely commits the person to the
support and is not consistent with a 'real' capsizing situation.
Paddlers should have two different (but interacting skills):
 The ability to 'sit their boats up'. This is the ability to maintain a vertical torso above a
moving boat and use slight movement of the hips to maintain stability
 Bracing or support strokes being the ability to use a combination of paddle and body
movements to bring the boat back upright after it has passed the point where stability can
be maintained simply with the ability to sit the boat up. To learn a reliable brace, allow the
boat to tip enough that it is unstable and then bring it back upright as follows.
Key points of the Low Support
 The paddle is most efficient when held at right angles to the boat
 Protection of the elbow, wrist and shoulder should be paramount
 Paddle shaft should be kept in close to the body
 The arm on the stroke side should rise up from the shaft in the monkey position wrist, elbow
and shoulder in the same plane as the paddle shaft
 The back of the blade is used, shaft horizontal
 As the boat begins to tip, the back of the paddle blade is brought to bear at the surface of
the water - do not practice slapping the water. This action should momentarily arrest the
tipping motion
 Now draw your hip in toward the paddle blade (in other words bring your boat in under your
head.
 Use the blade for support rather than driving down on it.
 Once stable, drop (rotate down) the control wrist and slice the blade out.
Much of the material on technique has been drawn from the Australia Canoeing Website
http://www.canoe.org.au/default.asp?MenuID=Education/99/7292/
Crossing a current - ferry glide
A ferry glide is a way to cross a current without moving up or down-stream. This will happen in the
tidal passes between the mainland and islands and in rivers and estuaries. If you head off aiming
for your destination you will actually paddle in a long arc finishing off by paddling toward your
destination almost directly against the current.
Current in passage
Diagram showing the course of a kayaker who ignores the current and heads consistently toward
their destination. A quick glance behind at any time would give a clear indication that the kayak
has been swept well off course.
In contrast, a kayaker who allows for the current as in the diagram below and who paddles at a
ferry angle will paddle less distance and run less risk of not being able to reach the intended
destination. Paddle at an angle to the current and adjust your speed so that you move across the
current, and not forward or back. The angles will depend on the speed of the current and your own
speed. On a fast current start with a small angle, and make sure you are leaning downstream. The
mathematicians among you will be familiar with vector sums. The resultant speed and direction is
a combination or sum of the boat speed and the current flow. Direction is as it appears and speed
is represented by the length of the vector. The diagram below represents a boat being paddled
upstream at just above the speed of the current at an angle that allows it to move sideways across
the current.
Upstream
Land
or
bank
Current
speed
and
direction
Downstrea
m
Resultant boat
movement
Boat speed
and direction
Land
or
bank
HAZARDS
Sunburn
Constant attention is required in Queensland to prevent sunburn. See the sections on sunscreen
and clothing. Cover up and Slip Slop Slap – and don’t forget the sunglasses.
Marine creatures
Australian seas and estuaries are home to a number of marine animals that can present a hazard
to sea kayakers. Considering the number of people playing in the water around Australia, there
are few incidents. However since some of the incidents are very serious and could be prevented by
good practice, they warrant mention and a link to some resources about the animals so that you
can protect yourself or avoid them. These links also have relevant first aid procedures to prepare
you in case something goes wrong.
Stingers.
Blue ringed octopus
http://www.avru.org/health/health_bluering.html
Cone shells
Stingrays
Stone fish and bull routs
http://www.avru.org/health/health_snakes.html
For all of the above consult the Australian venom research unit site
Jellyfish
http://www.health.qld.gov.au/goodhealthintnq/topics/jellyfish.asp
http://www.wettropics.gov.au/vi/vi_marine.html
http://www.ecpa.org.au/publications/marine_stingers.htm
Biting animals
Sea snakes
http://www.avru.org/health/health_snakes.html
Sharks
Crocodiles
For sharks and crocodiles avoidance is the best strategy and if you intend to go into areas where
you may encounter them, learn about their habits and inform your participants of the strategies you
will use and the risks they may be taking that will be beyond your control.
In relation to crocodile attacks, two points are made in the site listed below: Alcohol is often a
feature of crocodile deaths and people are advised not to take risks or to camp in or frequent
places that crocodiles visit
http://www.epa.qld.gov.au/register/p00820bb.pdf
Detailed information about the
habits of the creatures described
here, and the most up to date first
aid information about possible
injuries from them, is beyond the
scope of this guide. Some links are
included to help you begin to
research the risks and protective
practices relevant in your area. The
main point to be made here is that it is a responsibility of a sea kayak instructor to be aware of the
risks and risk reduction strategies in the areas they will be working in.
Changing Weather
The main reason that the weather presents a risk is that high winds can quickly overpower
kayakers and generate large and steep waves that make kayaking dangerous. Dust storms,
lightning, heavy rain and hail can also make kayaking dangerous and obliterate landmarks and
reference points. Both hail and lightning are a much more serious threat when there is no prospect
of shelter and the paddle and paddler are the highest objects around.
Risk management strategies are mainly avoidance. Close attention to weather forecasts and
conditions in the field can give warning and a carefully planned route will provide shelter options to
avoid the more severe weather.
Wind
Wind is very powerful and can blow kayaks offshore or into hazards such as rocks and cliffs. Wind
also generates waves.
The Bureau of Meteorology site is a great site to use and if you want more input or ideas, have a
look at the Sea breeze site as well.
http://www.bom.gov.au/
http://www.seabreeze.com.au/
Waves
Waves can be generated locally or they can cross many hundreds of miles from distant storms.
Large swell travels quickly and often precede the weather systems that caused them. Fortunately,
there are now several sites that provide forecast information about the size of expected swell. A
long swell is not a hazard at sea but it can create dangerous surf conditions or it can be rekindled
into large and awkward breaking waves with new wind. If your plan includes beach landings or
passage near inhospitable shorelines it may present a risk that you will decide not to take.
Wind waves get larger with time and with “fetch” - the distance they can travel without obstruction.
As they travel, they pick up speed and size as long as the wind continues to push them along. If
they are moving into a tide or current, they will stand up and sometimes break making these
conditions especially difficult. This occurs because the current affects (slows) the troughs of the
waves more than it affects the crests and the crests are trying to overtake the troughs. Given the
cyclical flow in waves this cannot happen and the waves crash over and tumble into the troughs.
For swell reports (aimed at surfers) you might want to familiarize yourself with the sites below
http://www.swellnet.com.au/loc_report.php?state_id=1
http://magicseaweed.com/
Waves also respond to the shape of the landforms and sea bottom. In shallow water (as with
current), the slowing effect on the troughs is greater than on the crests and again breaking waves
result. On beaches, this can set up alternate surges of advancing and receding water. The force of
a large receding wave can easily tear the sand out from under your feet and drag you out into the
break.
For a review of wave forms and how waves work at sea and on the shore consult the sites below
http://www.bom.gov.au/inside/services_policy/marine/sydney_hobart/append1.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_surface_wave
or
http://www.bom.gov.au/bmrc/pubs/tcguide/ch4/ch4_3.htm
Each of these sites gives the basic physics of waves and therefore this information will not be
duplicated here.
Wave interaction
The Complete Sea Kayaker’s Handbook has a useful section on rebounding waves and beach
conditions and landings. A preview shows some of the text at the site below.
http://books.google.com/books?id=w4HbF8ARXrIC&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=rebounding+wave
s&source=web&ots=fxN9yGcfnF&sig=-4q7S71p0hFYUr40WZ3Bz0AMk6w#PPP1,M1
Basically, waves at sea behave a little like other waves such as light and sound. That means that
they are subject to refraction and reflection. With refraction, the slowing effects of friction mean that
they will bend around headlands and islands and on sloping beaches they will tend to meet the
shoreline almost squarely even if they were parallel with the coast offshore. If however the water is
deep up to the shore as in sea cliffs or steep rocky shorelines, the waves will not be slowed by the
shallower water and will reflect off the shore following the old rule that the angle of incidence is
equal to the angle of reflection. This means that the waves that hit at an angle will reflect at the
same angle. What then happens is that the rebounding waves interact with the incoming waves
and the effects can be dramatic. Especially when the waves are hitting the cliffs at nearly a square
angle, the rebounding waves can slam into the oncoming waves to peak and erupt with great force.
The diagram below shows how reflecting waves might interact off a steep and straight cliff. The
waves are shown washing in from the left and reflecting off a straight line representing a cliff.
Where the crests coincide, the heights can be amplified in little peaks that seem like being in a
washing machine for even several hundred metres to sea. If the waves are closer to straight on,
the effects are more dramatic but they affect a shorter distance as the force is spent in the first few
collisions. Where waves run onto the beach, the waveform is so distorted by the breaking of the
waves and the incoming waves build such force as they break, that there is little evidence of waves
rebounding through the break. In the real world, each shoreline varies in the way that the bottom
rises toward the coast and the coastline is seldom regular. However, the laws of physics continue
to apply and you will be able to see them in action if you become a keen observer.
Incoming
wave crests
Rebounding
waves interacting
with incoming
waves
Note that the
interaction will
dissipate and
reduce the
rebounding waves
as their form is
disturbed
Incoming and reflected waves on a straight and deep sea cliff point.
Careful study of waves and charts over time will allow you look at a chart and tide information and
have a reasonable guess about what the waves might be doing in a particular spot. Just as
important, it will alert you to the places where the conditions might be dangerous or trouble your
group.
Hypothermia
Because the thermal conductivity of water is many times that of air, and paddlers tend to spend
time immersed in it and soaked by it, knowledge and awareness of the signs, symptoms, treatment
and prevention of this dangerous condition is extremely important. Even in far northern Australia,
whether on river, lake or ocean, time spent on the water combined with fatigue and wind chill can
induce a hypothermic state. Initial symptoms are called the “Umbles.” What rhymes with “umbles?”
Mumbles, bumbles, fumbles, stumbles, grumbles… The following factors are important in
preventing the onset and progression of hypothermia: Listen to weather reports and people with experience of local condition. Know what to
expect!
 Tune in to the cooling effects of evaporation, frequent splashing with evaporation can cause
rapid heat loss.
 Ensure that all paddling gear is in good order. An unplanned night out due to equipment
failure is a recipe for hypothermia
 Wear or carry warm and protective clothing sufficient for the worst conditions you could
realistically expect to encounter. Wear woollen or synthetic thermal wear, not cotton, in
cold conditions (wear wool for winter warmth. Cold cotton can’t come canoeing)
 Carry and use high energy food and keep some accessible
 Ensure that any spare clothing, sleeping bags, etc. are very well waterproofed
 Be vigilant for members of the party looking fatigued, uncoordinated, cold or lagging behind.
Try to keep them active, but don’t push them beyond their limits
 Give yourself an out – where will you go to stop, warm up, rest and nourish the participants
that might be feeling the cold. Doing anything out on the water - other than keeping going
to generate body heat - is unlikely to be helpful.
Stages of Hypothermia
Hypothermia can be viewed as having three stages of severity: mild, moderate and severe. The
transition from mild to sever can occur rapidly, so it is critical that the process is halted as quickly
as possible before it comes irreversible.
Mild Hypothermia
Core temperature drops to between 36° and 34° C, shivering is present, and there is
vasoconstriction of peripheral arteries (decreased pulse).
Moderate Hypothermia
As the core temperature drops through the range 34°to 32°Cm there is increasing confusion and
inappropriate behaviour, and progressively decreasing levels of consciousness, heart rate and
respiratory rate. The shivering reflex becomes inhibited, and as the temperature drops below 30°C
there may be irregularities in cardiac rhythm, dilation of the pupils, difficulty in finding a pulse, and
worsening risk of cardiac arrest if the victim is handled roughly.
Severe Hypothermia
At 32°C and below there is increasing muscular rigidity and shivering ceases. By 27°C, pulses and
respirations may be absent and there may be no response to pain. At 26°C coma is expected, and
spontaneous cardiac arrest may occur. Between 22° and 20° C heart activity usually ceases and
death ensues.
Management of Mild Hypothermia
Ideally, minimise further heat loss by removing wet clothing, replacing with dry clothing and
wrapping the victim in blankets or a sleeping bag to rewarm passively. A tent should be set up and
warmed for this purpose, if available, and insulation from the ground should be provided. Having a
second person in a sleeping bag can speed the warming process. I no dry clothes or tent are
available insulate the victim as much as possible and improvise a shelter. Remember that any
preferential warming of the limbs will draw blood from the vital organs, thus cooling them further.
Minimise victim exertion and do not massage, do not use warm water and do not give stimulants or
alcohol. Check vital signs regularly.
Management of Moderate to Severe Hypothermia
In addition to the approach detailed above, people suffering more severe hypothermia must be
very carefully assessed, as critical interventions such as CPR may become necessary. With the
slowing of breathing and heartbeat by cold, it may be more difficult to detect breathing and
circulation. The advice has been to avoid rough handling or alarming actions with hypothermic
people. Starting CPR can be seen as rough and alarming and does carry risks. Therefore, in the
past, some have advised that extra time be taken to assess the pulse before commencing CPR.
However, recent re-evaluations of risk show that people have great difficulty reliably detecting a
pulse. In view of the high risks associated with lack of oxygen, the current advice in relation to
CPR is to begin immediately if the patient is not conscious and not breathing. If you will be working
in areas where hypothermia is a risk – almost anywhere there is water – it would be wise to refresh
your knowledge of this topic and keep up with any developments in this important area of first aid.
Medical personnel have additional options for internal rewarming and for dealing with cardiac
emergencies or complications so it is important to summon help as early as possible. Despite the
lack of vital signs and the cold state of the body, people have survived after long periods of
lowered body temperature including cold with cardiac arrest. It is always worth persisting with
rewarming and resuscitation efforts. One medical site says “there is no such thing as a cold dead
patient” – you need to warm them up appropriately before you will know what state they are in.
Dehydration
Even though paddling is a water sport and paddlers are immersed in it much of the time,
dehydration is a very common occurrence on the water. Paddlers may be working hard and may
not feel thirsty if they are cool or preoccupied with the activity. It is a good practice to use a water
bottle to keep track of how much water is being consumed. As ever, headaches, cramps, lack of
urination or dark coloured, strong smelling urine are clear signs of dehydration.
RESCUING
Rescue Sequence
Often our first instinct when someone is in trouble is to leap to his or her assistance. This can be
disastrous. Your must train yourself so that your first impulse will be to assess the situation for
danger to yourself and then to the others around you. The worst decision possible would be to put
yourself or others at risk to save a piece of equipment. Almost as bad would be to take risks and
end up swimming yourself when your group is having trouble. The following section refers to
rescuing people first and foremost. If they bring their equipment with them, that is well and good. If
you have good communication equipment and can keep the group together you can call for help
even if the group is disabled due to lost equipment. A short section on recovery of equipment will
follow.
Always look for rescue methods that will not place yourself or others in danger. People requiring
rescue may be anxious or even in a state of panic. They may not react rationally when help
arrives.
The guiding principle is to try to stay out of danger yourself while effecting the rescue. Most of the
time, the hazard that unsettled a participant will be manageable by a competent leader, However,
there will be times when the prudent call will be to hold back and manage the group before
manoeuvring into a position where you can be effective as a rescuer while staying in control and
doing what is needed for the whole group.
If the participant is in the surf line or in danger due to strong currents or overfalls, it may be better
to get to where they will come out of the direct danger zone so that you can help them to recover
and get organized in their boat again. If the participant has ventured into the surf line and is out of
their boat in the surf this might mean organizing the group to wait safely outside the surf line while
you go inside and give instructions and make yourself available as it is safe for you to do so.
Trying to help someone to get on board or to help them get into their boat while the waves are
crashing over you both will put you and the participant at more risk than is necessary. If they are
trained to stay near and beneath the boat and they are wearing a PFD they will generally move
inshore to where you can assist more safely. If they are in a strong rip they will end up outside the
surf line and it will be best if you are there to help.
If the participant has gotten dragged in to an area of overfalls and strong current you may be able
to predict where they will wash out. If it is safe to do so you can manage the group and then head
for that point.
As you approach someone in the water, shout or signal instructions to the individual. Seek to calm
the person, give them directions, and tell them what they can do to help themselves. Only when it
is safe to do so and they are in control of themselves can you safely get close enough that they
can grab your boat.
Taking charge in rescues
To be effective in rescue situations, you will need to take charge of the situation. Don’t hesitate to
tell people what to do and expect them to comply. People will generally look for a leader in a crisis
and they are likely to comply willingly. Some of this will be related to the presence you have
developed as a leader from the start and to whether your group trusts your judgement. By being
thorough in preparation and careful with instruction, you will send the message to the group that
you are clear about what you are doing. They will also judge you on your own skills and if you don’t
look in control of your boat and yourself, it will be a lot to ask your group to trust you in an
emergency or incident.
There is a principle noting that when we handle or give direction to others we take on some duty of
care to them. This is unlikely to be relevant with rescues in your group as you already have a duty
of care to them as the group leader. It may be somewhat relevant if you happen on an incident and
take charge of assisting a stranger in difficulty. As long as you are working within your own limits
and following sound practices, you are unlikely to need to consider this as any disincentive to
assist. You are also protected by the Wrongs Act (known as the good Samaritan act) in the event
that you can establish that your intent was to aid the person in distress. However, if you are at the
limit of your own skills or are considering any reckless or risky behaviour as part of your rescue (or
if your offer of help is refused) you may want to consider the possibility of an increased duty of care
in the event that your actions make things worse.
Instructing participants in self rescue if capsized close to shore.
If participants have come out of their boat close to a safe landing it may simply be a matter of
instructing them to move to the bow, grasp the handles or deck lines and swim the boat in until
they can reach the bottom and walk. Make sure they know to stay close to their boat as strong
winds or currents can quickly separate a swimmer and their boat.
If they are out of their boat in the surf, they will need to stay behind their boat as they let the surf
carry it toward shore. You may be able to stand by and accompany them in if everything else is
under control. Recall that the AC Guidelines insist that only one participant at a time is in the surf
line so you need to be able to stop the others while you stand by.
Once the participant is safely ashore you will need to decide when to signal or head back out to
bring the next participant in - or to reorganize and head back out with the participant to rejoin the
group outside of the surf line or hazard. It is important to check that the participant is ok and to
gather up missing gear before you leave them so that the participant is not tempted back into the
surf alone. You will also be aware that the group needs direction and that they will be wondering
what is happening if they can’t see easily. Carefully observe the participant and check for signs of
injury, hypothermia or shock and give clear instructions before leaving them on the beach to go
back to the group.
Assisted rescue at sea.
If one of the group members capsizes at sea, the first thing to do is to make sure that the group is
ok and clear about their jobs while the rescue is underway. An assistant leader is very helpful here.
If the group can stay near the rescue by paddling into the wind and waves that is probably the best.
In moderate conditions, a raft may be an acceptable alternative if some paddlers are having
difficulty. Even though the raft will be blow off down wind, it will provide stability and keep the group
together.
Once the rescue has been completed, do not release the victim until you are certain that they are
capable of continuing paddling. Remember the rescue has only put the victim in the same
conditions that caused them to capsize in the first place. If you are unsure of their paddling
confidence keep supporting them and organize a supported tow to the nearest safe landing.
There are conditions on rivers and in the sea where environmental hazards may make a partner
rescue impracticable. If surf or approaching rapids see to your own safety first keeping the victim
in sight. When the hazard passes move in to execute the appropriate rescue.
Key points for rescuer
 Talk to the rescuee, giving clear, concise instructions
 Plan your approach to pick up the rescuee and boat in one move
 Have the victim transfer to your bow
 Place your nearer hand on the upturned hull
 With the other, grab the toggle or end loop
 Lean on the boat, and then push away to give some impetus for the lift
 Use the deck lines (if present) to haul the boat across: be quick at this stage to avoid the
stern filling
Diagram 15 – X Rescue
Grab the cockpit rim as soon as you can reach it, then drag the boat to and fro to drain it
Have the nearer side slightly higher so that it clears your own cockpit rim
Do not try to remove every last drop: you will not be able to do so and will waste time if you try
Do not try gripping the upturned hull unless you have hands like octopus tentacles. If the boat is
waterlogged (because of insufficient buoyancy), you may find it difficult to handle:
 let the rescuee do some work:
 the rescuee reaches across the rescuer’s deck to grasp the toggle or end loop of the
capsized boat
 drag it across the deck
 with feet on the gunwale, keep pulling until the cockpit is over the rescuer’s deck
 pull downward to begin draining
 the rescuer must hold the boat by the cockpit rim as usual

the rescuee must stay in contact at all times, and return to the rescuer’s bow.
Diagram 16 – Dealing with Insufficient buoyancy
Launch
Put the boat back into the water, on the side opposite from where you picked it up and facing the
opposite direction
Re-entry
There are alternative methods, depending on preferences and conditions, with all methods
requiring a stable raft.
Headfirst is easy, done the right way. Some people prefer to come over the rescuer’s boat. Feet
first does not require the victim to move around the ‘raft’.
Diagram 17 – Re-entry
Diagram 18 - Re-entering Feet First
Stabilise
Lean hard on the rescuee’s boat, with the peak of the deck in your armpit. That hand can hold the
rescuee’s paddle
Hold the cockpit rim with your other hand, ready to assist the rescuee if necessary
Head First
 Move around the raft to the cockpit
 Rescuer’s weight on rescuee’s boat
 Put one hand each side of the cockpit rim
 Kick the feet to the surface
 Make a breaststroke kick and pull with the arms to come across the deck
 Keep moving, face down, until the feet are in the cockpit
 Roll face up, and wriggle forward until over the seat
 Sit up.
Although the victim can assist in hauling their kayak across the rescuer’s boat, which may be
necessary if the boat has insufficient buoyancy, the rescuer normally does the entire rescue. This
makes it ideal for Instructors or leaders of inexperience paddlers.
The swimmer assisted rescue
In this rescue the victim leaves the boat inverted and moves to the stern. The rescuer approaches
the bow with canoe/kayak at an angle of 90° and grasps the toggle. The victim pushes down on
the stern to lift the bow as the rescuer draws the canoe/kayak over their gunwale/deck until the
canoe/cockpit is clear of the water allowing it to be drained. The canoe/kayak is then righted and
pushed back into the water and supported for the victim to re-enter.
Rafting Up
The usual call for a raft up is a Paddle in the air and if necessary a whistle blast. If you are
intending to use rafting up with your group it will be necessary to clarify signals before heading off.
The quickest procedure for rafting up under pressure is for the boats to gather around the boat with
the weakest paddler. They will not then need to manoeuvre to the raft. Practice in rafting up is
great for boat control and manoeuvre- ability so make sure that in practice the opposite occurs and
the weaker paddlers get plenty practice getting into the raft. There is no need for the raft to all be
pointing the same direction and once together, paddles stowed to free the hands of those in the
raft will make it easier and safer to keep the raft together.
The risk of rafting as a strategy are related to collision damage – to boats, rudders and potentially
to hands or joints as participants struggle to hold the boats together while preventing them from
hitting each other. There may be damage from boats hitting together in the raft. However, the
greater risk is during the assembly of the raft there a bow or stern could piece another hull and in
the break up of the raft where rudders frequently snag and hit on other boats.
Rafting is a great strategy for grouping for instruction, eating breaks, and to check in with the group
and in some cases to manage the group in an incident. If you are going to do it, practice it before
you need it.
Rolling
Being able to roll your sea kayak if you are capsized is a valuable skill that will give you peace of
mind and allow you to venture more safely into the conditions that will really build your skills and
judgement.
Here is a very new take on rolling practice – you might like to have a play to see what you think of
this as a teaching tool.
http://www.creativepursuits.net/kayaking.htm
Kayak Rolling: the Black Art Demystified - by Loell Collins. This book takes a systematic approach
to breaking the skill of rolling down in to many sequenced steps and stages and is all about getting
the feel of what is required. He is a strong advocate of the C to C roll and a separate handout on
this roll is included as Appendix D. Of note is his comments in relation to teaching the Pawlatl roll
suggesting that teaching this roll can be counterproductive as it relies on brute force and leverage
rather than good technique.
A verbal description of a rolling progression will not be attempted here. My preference is to teach
rolling as a feeling thing and to be careful not to move on until each required step has been
achieved reliably.
Have a look at the book preview for Loell Collin’s book at
http://books.google.com.au/books?id=PhS0Iw8uRjwC&dq=eskimo+rolling+sea+kayak&pg=PP1&ot
s=zZ8mYQUm8T&source=citation&sig=CF3xYAy34qKxfnhbJyRasB999k&hl=en&prev=http://www.google.com.au/search?hl=en&q=Eskimo
+rolling+sea+kayak+&btnG=Google+Search&sa=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=1&cad=bottom3results#PPP1,M1
If you want another trip through rolling instruction, this site is simple and pretty straightforward
although not referring to sea kayaking specifically. The skills are the same but the results may be
quite different as a sea kayak can be harder to roll.
http://www.schools.ash.org.au/daptohigh/eskimoroll.htm
All sea kayaks are not created equal. If you are having a lot of trouble with your own roll or if any
of your students are not quite getting there, it may be worth swapping about with boats. The lower
volume boats and the boats with high secondary stability are generally easier to roll. Remember
that it is technique more than strength that you need to develop and so don’t tug and strain.
Shoulder and other joint injuries are a real risk if people put all their effort into their roll as a
compensation for poor technique.
Deck carries
If a paddler has been separated from their kayak or their kayak has been severely damaged to the
point of sinking and being impossible to tow, it may be necessary to carry the paddler to safety on
the rescuer’s boat. This is unlikely and to be avoided by all precautions taken to prevent this
occurrence. It is also possible that a paddler may come across a swimmer in need of assistance.
There are several carry methods (as pictured below) applicable to all kayaks. They can be readily
used by sea kayakers although the added length and buoyancy of a sea kayak makes the rear
deck carry more effective than with shorter boats. The bow carry allows the paddler to be more
stable but it is slower and once near the shore- in surf or shallow water - the bow carry (top
picture) is not recommended due to the risk that the person might hit the bottom or be squeezed
between the bottom and the boat that is trying to help them.
Diagram 20 – Deck Carries
Towing
There are relatively few cases on sea kayak journeys where towing as a means of making
progress is appropriate. Towing is to be avoided if possible. However, this varies considerably
with the client group and the aims of the outing. Some commercial tour guides tow quite regularly
to avoid unhappy customers who are there for the tour rather than the paddling. In any group there
may be circumstances where an injured, ill, or exhausted paddler can be aided by a tow line.
Sometimes a prompt tow of a slow individual will get the whole group out of potential danger and
towing is strongly advised in these conditions. The most likely scenario will be on the way back to
the beach or home after the paddler has run out of steam and motivation. Towing is very
demanding on both the paddling skill and the energy reserves of the person towing. Leaders may
be the strongest and most fit paddlers on a trip but if they tie in to a tow line, it will mean that their
ability to get to other incidents and generally manage the group may be compromised.
Unless the conditions are very safe and controlled, when towing is required, it will generally be best
to select a capable group member or members who are in good condition to do the towing. You
can work out a rotation as required. Remember however, that if one paddler is having difficulty,
there may be others who are not coping, and a rest or a change of plan may be a better strategy if
it is possible. If you decide that towing is the best option, ensure that everyone in the group is clear
about their role and make certain that a quick release system is used on the towline.
Swapping the group around if a double kayak is struggling.
If you happened to end up with two of the weakest paddlers together in a boat, it may be possible
to rearrange the teams such that they can partner with stronger paddlers and keep up with the
group. This is generally far preferable to towing.
Single and double towing
It is possible to tow singly and also to hook two boats together to tow. This can be done with the
boats in line or it may be done with the two towing boats hooked up independently and staggered a
little to allow them to pull more directly without interfering with each other’s stroke. This method is
generally preferred as each paddler is more free to release themselves and to control the loads on
themselves and their lines.
Length of tow line
A longer line has the advantages of reducing shock loads and reducing the risk of collision. The
line needs to be long enough so that the boats are well clear of each other. With following waves,
the boat behind can surf forward at different times and so it is best if the person in the boat being
towed still pays attention to steering and bracing.
Quick release
Whatever system is set up it must be releasable. The easiest systems to use have a cleat on the
deck behind the cockpit that is easily reached.
Stability
When being towed paddlers may still need to pay attention to keeping their boats upright. Keeping
the paddle low and ready be placed on the water as required is best. Actually bracing puts the
brakes on and is better avoided except to keep upright.
EQUIPMENT RECOVERY
Finding equipment that has floated away in the surf or in turbulent waters is no easy task. It is
especially difficult when mishaps occur in dangerous conditions and when people are tired or at the
end of the day when light may be about to fade. In some circumstances, lost equipment will mean
that a walk out will be required and in many places that carries its own risks and difficulties.
Once you are certain that the people are safe, prompt attention to tracking and recovering
equipment can help keep a minor incident from becoming a major problem for your group. A first
step is to minimise the amount of loose equipment and gear in boats as it will soon come out of a
boat that is flushed in the surf.
The gear most likely to be lost is the gear that is on deck and not sufficiently secured. This is likely
to include hats, sunglasses, spare paddles, pumps, maps, and water bottles. They are easily torn
loose from weak or poorly fastened lashings by powerful surf or breaking waves. Next most likely
to be lost is any gear left loose in cockpits when people capsize and come out of their boats.
Anything in the cockpit will go if it is not tied in.
As a second prevention tactic, it is good to have a competent paddler ahead of the group and
established where they can help get paddlers and gear together inside the surf line on beach
landings where most incidents may occur.
First assessment
When an incident - such as a capsize - occurs, your first assessment must help you decide on your
priorities for action. In all cases, you must prioritise your own safety and that of the group. In
short, you must do a very quick risk assessment before making your decisions. Who else is at risk?
Who needs help now? Can some one else in the group safely assist? Can the group wait where
they are while you deal with the situation? Who can get themselves to safety without assistance?
How much time/space do you have to engage with swimmers or equipment before you and your
boat will be at risk of being dragged into a situation where you may be unable to deal with the
additional burden of a carry, tow or handling equipment? Are you more valuable/safer on the
beach or in your boat? If you become occupied in chasing or recovering gear, does the group know
what to do? How long will you be able to leave them safely without your supervision?
You will only move on to equipment recovery where you are confident that it is safe to do so and
that all group members are safe and clear about what is expected of them.
Recovery from simplest to most complex
As described before, lost gear is a sign that preparation was not done well. However, unless you
are a total dictator and rule with an iron fist, it will likely happen so you may as well have a strategy
for gear recovery. Paddle around and gather up floating gear and return it to paddler/s as they
prepare themselves and get back into their boats. You can drag or tow boats and pile loose
equipment on your deck as necessary if the conditions allow.
If the equipment is lost in the surf or breaking waves remember to prioritise your group’s safety
and if all else is under control, paddle beside loose equipment, keeping it in sight until it is in a
place where it is safe for you to grab it or tow it to shore.
Again, preparation is the key and one paddler at a time in the danger zone will keep recovery tasks
manageable. At times you will be able to get the people already ashore on the lookout and helping
to locate anything that has washed away.
WEATHER
Accessing and interpreting weather is of paramount importance to sea kayakers. As a guide or
instructor, you will need to get hold of the best information possible right up to departure. You will
need to understand and interpret the information you access from external sources and also to
factor in the new information that becomes available from your observations and other sources as
your trip progresses. Because this is such an important aspect of sea kayaking, it is included in a
separate learning guide and the information will not be dealt with in full detail here. The relevant
unit is SROOPS007A: Interpret weather for marine environments.
COMMUNICATION
Signals: The signals outlined below are drawn from a system of communication that is used widely
on rivers. Many of them are also appropriate for sea kayaking which is handy as many white water
paddlers also paddle sea kayaks. Some of them, such as the OK symbol and the three whistle
blasts for distress are international. However, different traditions develop among paddling
communities and there is sometimes confusion if the signal systems are not made explicit. The
important thing is to make sure that you have a well understood system of communication that
everyone in your group will understand.
Stop
Wait for the group or do not proceed until
you get a signal to go ahead. Paddle held
horizontally above your head or arms held
horizontally from your side.
1 Whistle Blast to stop (or get attention)
(“look at me for direction”)
Come to me
Paddle or arm held skywards above your head.
Turn blade or palm flat for maximum visibility
All O.K. (used as a question and as a reply)
Finger tip aiming downwards touching top of head
forming an ‘O’ with the arm and head. This is the
recognised O.K. signal in the diving industry.
Emergency/ Distress
Require immediate assistance. Three long
blasts on whistle while waving paddle or hand
from side to side over your head. If no whistle,
use visual signal on its own. THEN point to
location of emergency.
3 Whistle Blasts – Emergency, ensure your own
safety and that of those around you and only then
proceed to give assistance.
Go Right / Go Left
One arm held skywards (all clear) with the
Other arm pointed in the direction desired.
Remember: point to the safe line and
never point to obstacle you wish paddlers
to avoid.
Run Straight Ahead
Both hands held above head, palms facing together
and move up and down in a vertical motion, starting
from face level.
PERSONAL PADDLING SKILLS FOR INSTRUCTION AND GROUP LEADERSHIP
There are two separate aspects where your own skills and experience will make a big difference to
how safe and effective you are as a Sea Kayak Instructor.
1) Personal paddling skills
2) Judgement and planning skills
From the point of view of safety, both are essential. From the point of view of teaching, both will
help you to do a better job.
Safety:
Paddling experience allows you develop your judgement and intuitive sense of danger. Paddling
skills allow you to take groups into situations where students can be stretched and allowed to take
the risks of learning new techniques with appropriate backup. To lead a trip with students, leaders
need to be sufficiently at ease and with enough “in reserve” to be effective in handling the
conditions AND other tasks such as instructing, dealing with group dynamics, or offering rescue
assistance.
Planning skills are important for site/trip selection in line with the objectives and skills of the group.
Planning is also important for arranging logistics, equipment, contingency plans, sequencing and
organising of lessons.
Judgement is essential to stay in touch with what is happening for the group, noticing fatigue and
deciding when a break is required, picking up signals that individuals may be losing focus,
becoming anxious or feeling that the challenge may be too great. Judgement helps in assessing
dangers along the way, setting up safety systems and for choosing appropriate trips and venues
for learning and practicing new skills.
Teaching
The biggest advantage in having high skills as an instructor are related to knowing the difference
between effective and ineffective technique and being able to demonstrate the skills you want to
share. It is possible for a poor player to be a good coach but it is difficult to explain a physical skill
without a demonstration. It is also the case that once people see something done, they are
generally more inclined to believe they can do it. A highly skilled instructor can be an inspiration.
Judgement as an instructor is essential for relating with group members, modifying delivery to suit
participants, and in all stages of analysing technique and providing feedback
DEVELOPING YOUR OWN SKILLS
If developing your skills is a priority for you, this section offers a few ideas. We all have different
experience and you never know where you will find a tip or get some feedback that will help you.
One of the best things you can do is to paddle with people who have things to teach you. These
might be highly skilled paddlers if you are fortunate, but often you will learn from others who are
learning too. Don’t miss opportunities to paddle with paddlers who use different boats, who have
specialised in different techniques, who have more experience in particular areas or who can do
things that you have not yet learned. They will probably be delighted to share their knowledge and
sometimes give you valuable tips.
Other than that, set things up safely so that you are not taking silly risks and then get in there and
give things a go.
Work on your rolls
 In so many cases, a roll – or many rolls - can make all the difference. Swimming in wild
and aerated surf is one of the most dangerous aspects of sea kayaking and in many cases
it can be avoided. Our first impulse is to get air. Getting out of the boat seems the best
solution. However, if you can develop a habit of really working at your roll in all conditions,
rolling up will become your first impulse and you will be much safer as a result. Getting
back into your boat in the surf is no easy task. Good technique with rolls on both sides
combined with courage and strong commitment can mean that some of the best paddlers
go years on end paddling difficult conditions without swimming.
Get out in the surf
 If you live in South East Queensland, most days the surf is working well enough to help you
build boat skills and confidence in the waves along the shore. Do be careful though not to
underestimate the risk and to always paddle with others. Large waves can implode your
deck and if you end up swimming alone, your boat will be difficult to manage in the surf.
You will not be able to drag your boat against any rips or the force of the waves and you will
need to be patient and persistent to find your way out to the more regular waves or in to the
beach.


Going in and out through the surf is excellent for building your steering and bracing skills. If
you get out when the waves are getting bigger, it will also ensure lots of rolling practice.
Side surfing will teach you to control boat lean, edge control, low bracing, and how you sit
and use your weight in your boat. Try coming in backwards and sideways and turning
around between waves.
A team approach to supporting each other makes a huge difference to how you will develop
skills. You will build your judgement and streamline your skills for helping each other
develop self rescue and partner rescue skills. You can learn a lot by putting your heads
together to pick your route out or in through the waves or by encouraging each other to
practice the uncomfortable things such as upside down entry and roll. Build or join a group
of regular paddlers willing to use safe systems and to really look out for each other.
Build skills and confidence gradually
 Only paddle in conditions where you have evaluated and managed the risk.
 Do ask yourself “what can go wrong?” If you don’t like the answer you give yourself, stay
ashore.
Celebrate your successes.
Further input in developing skills
There are several good books, articles and DVD’s to consult in relation to developing good
technique and paddling skills. New ones come out all the time. Visit your local library and paddling
store, Use the internet and watch videos of skilled paddlers.
SEA NAVIGATION
Most of your land navigation skills apply directly to navigation at sea. However, the sea sometimes
gives you less to work with in terms of features and it also has the habit of moving the rug under
you. Currents mean that just because you have stayed still in the water does not mean you are still
where you were when you stopped.
The section below assumes that you are already competent with basic compass work, fixing your
position using bearings, and plotting a course.
Dealing with fewer features.
Calculating courses and any reference points ahead of time.
Because weather conditions can change and leave you out of sight of land and its features
at any time, you need to be ready to work with just your compass and your calculations. Imagine
yourself on a vast desert with no hills or trees in view. The sea can be the same. Prepare yourself
by calculating your compass course and checking with every available piece of information to
confirm that you are holding the course you set.
Reading the available information
Remember though that there may be some clues that you can access and so do tune into
them. If you have paid attention to the forecast you may at times be confident in the wind angle
and the direction of the swell and these can confirm your choices. You may also be able to see the
sun and with your watch this can be a help. Another possibility in some places is to carry a sounder
or some line and a piece of lead to sound the depth. All of these can give you information that can
reassure you that you are on course.
Dead reckoning
Dead reckoning is a maritime term for following a course based only on speed direction and
time. Where you have no other information to use, you may have to commit to following a pre
planned course and even changing the course at a pre planned time without any reference other
than the speed direction and time. If you knew where you were and you know where you have
gone, you will be able to calculate where you are by dead reckoning.
Advancing a line of position
Sometimes in navigating at sea you will have access to only one feature to take a bearing.
While this will tell you what line you are on, it will not tell you where you are on that line. If you take
note of the time that you took a bearing and then move a set distance in a given direction, you may
be able to take another bearing ( even on the same feature) that crosses the advanced line of
position so that you can be reasonably confident of your position.
Advanced line
of position
Initial bearing
on lighthouse
advanced by
the distance
travelled
between
taking the two
bearings
Initial bearing
on lighthouse
Second
bearing on
lighthouse
Intersection of
the two
bearings =
position
Distance and direction
calculated between the
two bearings using
speed and time
Relying on your compass, speed estimations and watch
It will quickly become apparent that you will need to rely heavily on your compass , your
speed estimations and your watch. Therefore it is especially important to become a very good
judge of speed and to take every opportunity to get feedback on your estimations. Likewise it will
be important to become confident that you can maintain a compass course over a distance without
other references. (It is good to remember your watch too)
Dealing with currents
One of the biggest challenges for new navigators is to deal with the fact that the sea is often
moving under the boats as the group travels. There will be no sign of this to a paddler in deep
water and you will need to rely on tables and your calculations in many circumstances to make
adjustments. Basically the situation is identical to the diagram above with the exception that the
additional current vector must be added to the calculation to establish the position by dead
reckoning (or advancing a line of position). Note that if advancing a line of position, the line must
be advanced by the sum of the distance made good by paddling and the distance made good by
the current (rather than adding the current vector to the position after calculating the intersection).
Second
bearing on
lighthouse
Intersection of
the two
bearings =
position with
allowance for
current
Intersection of
the two
bearings =
previous
calculated
position without
current included
Line of position
advanced using
distance paddled
and current
(speed x time)
Initial bearing
on lighthouse
Allowance
for current
Distance paddled
between the two
bearings using speed
and time
The above diagram shows the same scenario as shown above but taking into account a current
flowing in the direction shown and at a speed that is represented by the length of the arrow. The
length represents the distance the current would have taken the kayak over the time between the
bearings. Note that the bearings, the direction paddled, and the time between the bearings are
identical to the previous diagram. Note too that the bearings as taken indicate that the initial
position of the boats had to be as shown given the separate scenarios and the information as
presented. The course and the currents can all be pre planned so that the course made good is
the one that is wanted.
Using transits to maintain and adjust your course
It is difficult to accurately predict currents and they often vary in speed with the state of the
tide and the depth of the water. As you leave the beach or port, look behind you and try to identify
two features that line up. Ideally they will be some distance apart from each other and the one
behind will be higher. As you follow your planned compass course, look behind to see if your
course is keeping the two features in line. If not you can make adjustments as necessary, As you
move further away, you may be able to select different features such as a larger feature near
where you left and a point on the hills behind. You can also use navigation markers to check as
you pass them. If you are not being carried off course by currents, the objects that you pass will
remain in line with your course on a reciprocal bearing behind you.
Aids to navigation
Rather than describe them all again, this guide refers you to the Qld Gov Site that describes the
buoyage system in place in Australian waters.
http://www.msq.qld.gov.au/Home/Safety/Iala_buoyage_system/
For another presentation of the same information you may prefer to view the following site.
http://www.holidaysallover.com.au/boating/important_boat_info/cruising_basics/aids_navigation.ht
ml
Repairs
Because of the variety of materials involved, repairs are really beyond the scope of this learner
guide. You will be required to do what needs to be done to get you to your destination.
Quick fixes with limited tools and skills:
 Sealant: Some leaks can be plugged with an object and some sealant or some sealant
alone. Sealant will only cope with small gaps and bonding surfaces need to be dry. In
addition, the sealant needs curing time to fully set and this can take longer than 24 hours.
Just because a skin has formed the material may not yet have any strength.
 Backing plates. Backing plates can be made of almost anything and fastened by screws,
bolts or even lashing. The function of a backing plate is to replace the strength and reduce
movement across the repair.
 Duct Tape. Very useful and versatile. Limited to relatively smooth surfaces and fussy about
having a dry warm surface to adhere to.
Fibreglass repairs
Workable repairs can be carried out on fibreglass on the beach overnight. You will need tools and
some experience to be confident of effecting a useful repair. Don’t expect it to go well the first time
unless you have read and studied the topic in detail. The equipment is light and convenient to carry
but the resins go out of date and must be replaced every year or so depending on storage
temperature and conditions. The following are the basic steps.
 Sand the surfaces to be bonded
 Cut or prepare the fabric to be used
 Select the appropriate resin – find out what the hull or paddles are made with.
 Mix the resin
 Wet out the fabric in the location you intend it to stay
 Roll the air out of the patch
 Allow to set and sand smooth as required.
Rules for avoiding collision
The Qld government website (Maritime safety Qld.) describing the international rules for avoiding
collision at sea is available at:
http://www.msq.qld.gov.au/Home/Safety/Collision_regulations/
MINIMAL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT PRACTICES
Minimal Impact Practices Guideline
(Modified from the AC canoeing site)
Sea kayakers, like others who use the outdoors for recreation, have a responsibility to minimise
their impact on the natural environment, the enjoyment of others and on public and private
property.
Australian Canoeing Guides and Instructors agree to comply with these guidelines and any
additional National Park, council or other authorities regulations and fire bans.
Access
Always seek permission from landowners (including government authorities) for access to water.
Apart from being courteous, it is often required by law. Also, you may need their help later.
If you land at the edge of private property, be courteous and make yourself and your intentions
known to the person
Use gates, not fences, and leave gates as you find them.
Only drive vehicles on designated roads.
Leave livestock and property alone.
Use current paths and do not damage or remove flora.
Rubbish
If you carry it in, carry it out. Carry bags for storing your rubbish.
Take foods which have minimal packaging. Fresh food does not need cans and jars.
Don’t be too proud to clean up someone else’s rubbish.
Conserve water sources by not polluting them with soap, detergents or food scraps
Fires
AC recommends the use of fuel stoves for cooking, they are environmentally friendly and more
efficient than fires.
Some national parks do not allow open fires - check the local regulations
If you do require an open fire
Do not collect wood for fires - it is illegal in some national parks
Check with the regional fire service or council for fire bans before lighting any fire or stove.
Use fireplaces or old fire scars if available - do not create new areas.
When on beaches, build the fire below the high tide line.
Keep fires small. large fires are wasteful - 'the larger the fire, the larger the fool' (Paddy Pallin)
Carefully select a site away from bushes, trees and rocks which could be damaged.
Do not surround the fire with stones (leave the stones where they are)
Do not dig a pit.
Stop the fire long before you intend to leave, putting out fires should not be a last minute practice.
To ensure the fire is completely extinguished quench the fire with water before leaving.
Toilets
Make provision to carry out human wastes where conditions are likely to result in wastes being a
significant part of the impact of the group
Select toilet sites 100 metres or more from water courses.
Dig a hole 15–20 centimetres deep.
Toilet paper should be carried out.
Sanitary pads and tampons should be carried out.
Flora and Fauna
Use tracks where possible to minimize damage to flora.
Just being there is a disturbance to wildlife. Make as little noise as possible and respect the homes
of animals.
Animals and plants are not to be disturbed.
Do not feed animals.
Do not bring animals into National Parks.
Conform to fishing requirements including licensing and size/volume restrictions
Equipment
If boats require tying up, ensure that the system does not damage the rocks or vegetation that is
used.
To avoid the transportation of weeds or soil borne pathogens, ensure all gear is cleaned prior to
any trip and then at the area prior to leaving after a trip.
Use self supporting tents, rather than tarps or systems that rely on guys etc. from
flora
Rivers
Avoid putting anything into the water which may pollute it soap, dishwater, food scraps and
rubbish.
Beaches
Dunes and their vegetation are an essential but fragile part of the beach ecosystem.
Minimise damage to dunes by
Carrying boats over dunes - do not drag them
When entry and egress is from the water, leave boats below the dune level
Do not dig into dunes or create high use tracks - where a formed track is present, always use it
Beaches and dunes are the nesting sites of many birds, tread carefully and do not disturb nests
Campsites
Campsites should be at least 20 metres from creeks, rivers or the sea shore, some National parks
have a minimum requirement of 200m.
Do not take radios or play loud music in campsites respect the rights of others and minimise your
impact on the local fauna.
Leave timber etc where it is - do not create campsite furniture.
Do not clear campsite areas and if staying for more than one night, move your tent to minimise
damage
Walking
Use formed tracks where possible.
In untracked areas, do not cut or trample vegetation, with larger groups use multiple routes so as
not to create a badly worn area.
When planning your trip (including emergency access) plan to use formed tracks.
SUMMARY
There is so much that can be said about sea kayaking instruction that it is difficult to decide what
points should be restated in the summary.
Safety needs to be paramount as you will be responsible for the well being of people in an
environment where they may not understand the risks. Know your venues, your equipment and be
honest with yourself about your own skills and limitations.
Share your enthusiasm and also your experience based caution. Where people have been is only
a very rough guide to their depth of experience. A friend recently visited Antarctica and crossed the
Drake Passage in glassy calm conditions. Even more, be cautious about assuming skills when
people have only paddled in protected waters for many years. Because people can get along in the
calm protected waters of rivers, passages and estuaries, don’t be fooled into thinking they will be
competent in the conditions you may meet on the trips you plan. Be constantly tuned into gauging
the true skill and fitness level of your group and reading the potential dangers. Some of these your
participants may not have the experience to recognise.
Build on the knowledge and experience of your participants as they go. Remember that sea
kayaking can be very much about the journey and the places and creatures (and people) you may
encounter. Some participants will want lots of skill training and others will want to focus their
senses on experiencing the environment. If you are managing safety well, there can be room for
both. Do however make certain that participant skills are established before they may be called
upon to use them. Make the teaching fun and fit it in with your trips. Ensure that difficult challenges
are presented gradually to enable enough success to maintain enthusiasm. Above all, enjoy
yourself and share your passion for the activity.
SOME SUGGESTED READING AND REFERENCES
Paddling Techniques:
The Optimum Kayak
- by Andy Knapp - Ragged Mountain Press
The Savvy Paddler
- by Doug Alderson - Ragged Mountain Press
Sea Kayaking - A Manual for Long-Distance Touring
- John Dowd - Douglas & McIntyre
The Complete Book of Sea Kayaking - Fourth Edition
- Derek Hutchinson - Ragged Mountain Press
Expedition Kayaking on Sea and Open Water
- Derek Hutchinson - Globe Pequot
Sea Kayaking - A Womans Guide
- by Shelley Johnson - Ragged Mountain Press
Complete Sea Kayak Touring
- by Jonathan Hanson - Ragged Mountain Press
Sea Kayaker - Deep Trouble
- Matt Broze and George Gronseth - McGraw Hill
Sea Kayaking
- Nigel Foster - Fernhurst Books
The Coastal Kayakers Manual
- Randell Washburne - Globe Pequot
The Essential Sea Kayaker
- David Seidman - Ragged Mountain Press
Extreme Sea Kayaking (Tsunami Rangers)
- Eric Soares and Michael Powers - Ragged Mountain Press
River Rescue
- Les Bechdel and Slim Ray - AMC Books
Eskimo Rolling
- 2nd Edition - Derek Hutchinson - McGraw Hill
The Bombproof Roll and Beyond
- Paul Dutky - Menasha Ridge Press
Nigel Foster’s Surf Kayaking
- Nigel Foster - Globe Pequot
Catch Every Eddy .... Surf Every Wave
- Tom Foster and Kel Kelly - Outdoor Centre of New England
Sea Kayaking - Basic Essentials
- by Dave Harrison - Stackpole Books
Kayak Touring - Basic Essentials
- by J. Michael Wyatt -Globe Pequot
Weather & Kayak Navigation:
Fundamentals of Kayak Navigation
- David Burch - Globe Pequot
Emergency Navigation
- David Burch - McGraw Hill
Sea Kayak Navigation Simplified
- Lee Moyer - Alpen Books Press
Map Reading Handbook - Edition 2
- TASMAP - Mercury Walch
Manual of Meteorology - Part 1 - General Meteorology
- Bureau of Meteorology - Govt. Publishing Service
The Storm Spotters’ Handbook
- Commonwealth of Australia - Australian Government Printing Service
The Australian Weather Book
- Keith Colls & Richard Whitaker, NSW Bureau of Meteorology
- National Book Distributors & Publishers
Wild Food in Australia
- A.B & J.W. Cribb - Collins Australia
Cookery - National Outdoor Leadership School
- Claudia Pearson
Wilderness Medicine - Beyond First Aid
- Wm. Forgey, M.D. - ICS Books
Paddling Adventures
In the Wake of the Jomon
- Jon Turk - McGraw Hill
Cold Oceans
- by Jon Turk - Harper Collins
Southern Exposure
- Chris Duff - The Globe Pequot Press
The Dreamtime Voyage
- Paul Caffyn - The Kayak Dundee Press, New Zealand
Cresting the Restless Waves - North Island Kayak Odyssey
- Paul Caffyn - New Zealand Canoeing Association
Dark Side of the Wave - Stewart Island Kayak Odyssey
- Paul Caffyn - New Zealand Canoeing Association