Unit 1: Introduction to Earth Science
I How do Scientists Learn about the
Universe?
A.
Scientists use the Scientific Method
1. How it works:
Edward Jenner and Smallpox Vaccine http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bchdLPV13zw
State the Problem
Gather Information about the Problem
Create a Hypothesis
Design and conduct an experiment
Collect and analyze data
Draw Conclusions
Repeat the experiment.
Our Home: The Earth from Space http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lwwioJhQzeg&feature=related

B. Scientists gather information
using the five senses.
These are called observations .
(Text p. 728)
Instruments extend the power of the senses and make better observations possible.
Ex. 5 senses Scientific
Instruments
1.
Sight
telescope, microscope
(text p.673, 678-684)
2. Hearing
stethoscope

3. Touching thermometer, seismograph
(p.222)
4. Smelling
smoke detector,
5. Tasting ?
[What are the limits of human observation?
Videoclips: Powers of 10] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPumskk1dGk&feature=related
Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You - Secret Worlds: The
Universe Within - Interactive Java Tutorial
Powers_of_Ten_-_Microscopic.avi
C. Scientists then interpret their observations and form inferences .
(text p.728-read)

Ex. 1: Observations Related Inference

The Sky looks cloudy.

The air feels sticky. It is going to rain.

I hear thunder.
Ex. 2: Observations

Matching fossils on continents (p.249)

Jigsaw puzzle fit of continents (p.248)
Related Inference
Continents drift or move around http://www.wwnorton.com/college/geo/egeo/flash/2_1.swf
Ex. 3: Observations

Light from distant galaxies shows a red shift. (p.718)

Background radiation in space. http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/cmbr_home.html
Related Inference
The universe is expanding.

Types of Inferences
1.
Prediction: an inference or guess about the future. Text p.728- read
2.
Hypothesis: an inference supported by a few observations.
Ex. Ancient life on Mars
MARS: Life on Mars? – http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&source=hp&q=mars+fossils&btnG=Search+Images&gbv=2&aq=f&oq=
&aqi=
3.
Theory : an inference supported by many observations and tested over many years.
Ex. Theory of Evolution,
Evolution: Videos for Students: Evolving Ideas
Theory of Relativity,
NOVA | Einstein's Big Idea | Preview | PBS
4.
Scientific Law: explains every observation ever made.
Ex. Laws of Motion,

Newton's Three Laws of Motion
Law of Gravity, law of Gravity
D. What is Earth Science?
… the study of the planet Earth and its place in the universe.
Branches of Earth Science
1.
Geology : the study of the solid Earth.
2.
Oceanography : the study of the Oceans.
3.
Meteorology : the study of the atmosphere, weather, and climate.
4.
Astronomy : the study of our solar system (the sun and other planets), space, stars, and galaxies.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jxbIJH4fTYo
II Scientific Measurement
Complete measurements must contain both a number and a unit.
Examples: 24

C.
50.2 cm.
Old English System
A.
Scientists use the Metric System
of units. Also called SI .
(See text p.741)
1.
Basic Metric Units
Length

Meter
Mass

Gram

Volume

Liter
Time

Second
Temperature
 
Celsius
2.
These basic units are defined by measurable physical properties. metric unit definitions
3.
All other units in the metric system are combinations of the basic units.
Ex. Velocity

kilometers per hour
Density

grams per cubic centimeter

Almost any physical property in the universe can be measured using the metric system . sample list of derived metric units
4.
Metric prefixes make units larger or smaller by a factor of
10.
meter (m)
Kilo (K) Hecto (H) Deca (D) gram (g) deci (d) centi (c) milli (m)
1000 100 10 liter (l) 0.1 0.01 0.001
[Other Prefixes] metric prefixes
5.
How to convert one prefix into
another:
Move the decimal point the same direction and number of places that you move along the prefix chart.

[Practice, Worksheet]
B.
Measuring Temperature
1.
The particles that make up matter are in constant motion.
2.
Temperature measures how fast these atoms are moving.
BEC: Temperature and Absolute Zero
3.
Temp. is measured using three units: Farenheit (°F), Celsius
(°C), or Kelvin (°K).
Scientists use °C. and °K.
Water Boils
°F °C °K

Room
Temp.
Water
Freezes
Coldest
Temperature
4.
Temp. is measured using a
Thermometer.

Practice reading thermometer

Temperature Conversions
(ESRT page 13)
Practice:
°F °C °K
104
55
-30
330

C.
Measuring Length
1.
Length is the distance between two points. Usually measured in
Millimeters (mm)
Centimeters (cm)
Meters (m)
Kilometers (km)
2.
Measured using a Ruler.
(see text p.741)
[Diagram]
Practice: textbook Length = ______
Width = ______

D.
Measuring Volume :
1.
Volume is the amount of space an object or substance occupies.
2.
Usually measured in liters (l) centimeters

(cm 3 )
milliliters (ml)
1 cm 3 = 1 ml.
3.
For a box shaped object
(rectangular solids) use a ruler and
the formula:
Volume = Length X Width X Height

[diagram]
Practice: Volume of textbook-
L = _____ W = _____ H= ____
V = L x W x H = __________
(review rounding)
4.
The volume of liquids can be measured directly using a graduated cylinder.
(see text p.741)
[ demo, diagram] vidclip volume 1
5.
For small, irregular shaped objects use the

Water Displacement Method
V = Water level - Water level
With object Before object
[demo, diagram] volume review.asf
E.
Measuring Mass :
1.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object or substance.
2.
Units used include:
Milligrams (mg)
Grams (g)
Kilograms (kg)
3.
Measured using a Triple Beam
Balance . (see text p.741-742) or
Electronic Balance

F.
Measuring Density :
1.
Density is the concentration of
matter in an object or substance
(how close together the atoms are).
[Diagram]
2.
Density is calculated using this formula:
Density = Mass / Volume
(D = M/V)
Ex. [Diagram] density 1
3.
The density of a substance remains the same regardless of size or shape.

Ex. Object Density
(g./cm.
3 )
Aluminum cylinder 2.7
Alum. foil 2.7
Alum. bicycle 2.7
See text p.53
4.
Mass, volume and density are related.

If two of these measurements are known the third can be calculated.

Use these formulas:
D = M / V M = DV V = M / D
[Worksheet: Density]
5.
Less dense materials float on more dense materials.

[Demo]
[Diagram 1- floating cubes]
YouTube - Egg Density Experiment
YouTube - Buoyancy and Density
YouTube - Float or Sink?
YouTube - Layer Liquids vidclip: Titanic
G.
“Percent Deviation from Accepted Value” is used to determine the amount of error in a measurement.
Use this formula:
Deviation % =
(difference from accepted value / accepted value) X 100
Example:
Measured value for length = 8.7 cm
Accepted or correct value = 9.0 cm.
Deviation % = (9.0 – 8.7 / 9.0) X 100

= (0.3 / 9.0) X 100
= 0.033 X 100 = 3.3 %
Percent Deviations
1.
My value for density = ___
Accepted Value = 0.5 g/cm 3
% Deviation =
2.
My value = _____
Accepted Value = 2.7 g./cm 3
% Deviation =
3. My value = _____
Accepted Value = Varies
(choose from chart)
% Deviation =
(show all work)

4. My Value = _____
Accepted Value = 1.0 g./ml.
% Deviation =
(show all work)
5.
My Value = _______
Accepted Value = look at chart
% Deviation = _____ (show all work)
H.
Density and the States of Matter
1.
On Earth, most substances exist in one of three States or Phases:
Solid, Liquid, or Gas.
http://web.visionlearning.com/custom/chemistry/animations/CHE1.1-anthreestates.shtml
Most substances are densest in the solid state and least dense in the gas state.
2. Water (H
2
O) is an exception.

Water is most dense as a liquid at
about 4° C. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Ww6BIy3nc0
3. This allows ice to float on liquid water. This is important to many earth and life processes. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pS7Q4pNm1HM http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akcWim3n1Yk
Ex. Lakes freeze from top down.
[diagram]
I.
Scientists express very large or very small numbers using
Scientific Notation .
(see text p.738)
1. For large numbers

Move decimal to the left


Stop with one nonzero number to left of decimal.

Number of places decimal is moved becomes the exponent
(placed above the 10).
Ex Estimated age of the Earth =
4,600,000,000. years =
4.6 X 10 9 years
2. For small numbers:

Move decimal to the right

Stop with one nonzero number to left of decimal.

Number of places moved is made negative and becomes the exponent.
Ex. Estimated diameter of an atom =

0.00000003 cm. =
3.0 X 10 -8 cm.
YouTube - scientific notation
[Worksheet]
J. Graphs and Data Tables are used to organize data, make it easier to see patterns, and make predictions.
(See “Graphing Skills” text p.740)
1.
Data Tables - Review
2.
Bar Graphs - Review
3.
Circle or Pie Graphs - Review
4.
Line Graphs are what we will use most this year.


Independent Variable : changes in a way you can predict. Plotted on X or horizontal axis. Usually time.

Dependent Variable : changes in a way that cannot be predicted.
Plotted on the Y or vertical axis.
5.
Rules for Graphing

Use an erasable pencil.

Plot X and Y axis using a regular interval.

Label the lines, not the spaces.

Choose a scale to spread out your data. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCeAj4cLPIA

Plot points on a line graph with a dot, then circle it.


Connect dots with a smooth line, either point to point or “best fit”.
More info: http://staff.tuhsd.k12.az.us/gfoster/standard/bgraph.htm
6.
Three basic shapes to a line graph

Direct Relationship : as one factor increases, so does the other factor.
[diagram]

Inverse Relationship : as one factor increases the other factor decreases.
[diagram]

Cyclic Relationship : as one factor increases, the other factor

increases and decreases in a repeating pattern.
[diagram]
7.
Rate of Change ( ROC ) is how fast a measurement is changing.
R.O.C. = change in value / time
See ESRT p.1
Ex. Rate of change in RVC temp. from 9 AM to 4 PM (use accuweather)
R.O.C. = 23 °C. – 19°C. / 7 hrs.

This equals the slope of the line on a graph.

 To calculate, use the “ rise over the run” or
∆Y/∆X
(See text p.740read )
Practice #1 (see text p.490):
Calculate ROC in temp. for NYC from March to July
ROC = ∆Y/∆X
ROC = 23°C – 3°C / 4 months
ROC = 20 / 4
ROC = 5.0°C./month
Practice #2 (text p.491):
Calculate ROC in temp. for
Seattle from March to July
ROC = ∆Y/∆X

ROC = 17°C – 7°C / 4 months
ROC = 10 / 4
ROC = 2.5°C./month
[Lab #3: Graph Analysis]
II Measuring the Earth
A. The Shape of the Earth
1.The Earths surface is curved.
How we know:

Ships at Sea sail around a curve:
[diagram] sailboat and Earths curvature

Rising sun appears first at highest places.

Setting sun disappears last at
highest places. http://free-slideshow.com/stock-photos/peaceful_nature/sunset-mountains.jpg
setting sun on mountains setting sun on mountains 2

Lunar Eclipses : curved shadow of
Earth covers full moon. kunar eclipse

Altitude of the North Star ( Polaris ) is the same as an observers latitude.
[diagram]
Where is Polaris? animation of Polaris

Photographs from Space – The best evidence!
(see text p.7)
Earth from space

3.
The shape of the Earth is nearly, but not exactly , a sphere
.
It is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator .

This shape is an oblate spheroid .

This is due to the Earths rotation
(spinning on its axis.)
3. How we know the Earth has this
shape:

Force of Gravity changes slightly by location.
Gravity is strongest at poles and weakest at equator.

The table below shows the gravitational acceleration in various cities around the world; amongst these cities, it is lowest in Mexico City (9.779 m/s²) and highest in Oslo (Norway) and Helsinki (Finland)
(9.819 m/s²).
Amsterdam
9.813 m/s² Istanbul
9.808 m/s² Paris
9.809 m/s²
Athens
Auckland
9.807 m/s² Havana
9.799 m/s² Helsinki
9.783 m/s² Kuwait
9.788 m/s² Rio de Janeiro 9.788 m/s²
9.819 m/s² Rome 9.803 m/s²
9.793 m/s² San Francisco
9.800 m/s²
Bangkok
Brussels 9.811 m/s² Lisbon
Buenos Aires
9.797 m/s² London
Calcutta
9.801 m/s² Singapore
9.812 m/s² Stockholm
9.788 m/s² Los Angeles 9.796 m/s² Sydney
9.781 m/s²
9.818 m/s²
9.797 m/s²
Cape Town 9.796 m/s² Madrid
Chicago
9.803 m/s² Manila
9.800 m/s² Taipei
9.784 m/s² Tokyo
9.790 m/s²
9.798 m/s²
Copenhagen
9.815 m/s² Mexico City 9.779 m/s² Vancouver
Nicosia
9.809 m/s²
9.797 m/s² New York City 9.802 m/s² Washington, D.C. 9.801 m/s²

Jakarta 9.781 m/s² Oslo 9.819 m/s² Wellington 9.803 m/s²
Frankfurt
9.810 m/s² Ottawa 9.806 m/s² Zurich

Polar and Equatorial circumference are different.
[Diagram]
P.C.= 40,008 km.
E.C. = 40,076 km.
C. The Size of the Earth
1. In about 200 BC the Greek philosopher, Eratosthenes , used geometry to calculate the circumference of the Earth.
(see text p.615)
Vidclip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VnHn03QQ8lU
9.807 m/s²

2.
If the circumference is known, other Earth dimensions can be calculated:
(No need to memorize!)
Circumference (C) = 40,000 km.
Radius (R) = C/2π = 6,369 km.
Diameter = 2R = 12,738 km.
Volume (V) = 4/3πR 3
= 1.08 X 10 27 cm 3
Mass (M) = Density X V
= 5.94 X 10 27 grams

D. The surface of the Earth is separated into layers due to density differences.
1.
Lithosphere : the solid outer rock layer
of the Earth.
(See text p.8)
2. Hydrosphere : the layer of water on top
of the lithosphere.
Includes oceans, rivers, lakes, ice caps,
and groundwater.
3. Atmosphere : the layer of gases on top
of the litho and hydrosphere.
Boundary between layers is called an
Interface.
[Diagram]
E. Latitude and Longitude : a system used to locate position on the Earths surface.

1. Latitude : a series of lines, running
from East to West, that cover the Earths
surface.
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude measures distance, in degrees (°), north or south of the Equator.
2. The equator runs midway between the
north and south poles.
[Diagram]
3.
Some sample latitudes:
Equator: 0° RVC: about 41° N.
North Pole: 90° N. Argentina: about 41° S.
South Pole: 90° S.
Parallels_of_Latitude_.asf
4. To find your latitude in the Northern
Hemisphere:
Angle to Polaris = Latitude North of equator

To find Polaris follow the “pointer stars” of the Big Dipper.
[Diagram]
YouTube - Ursa Major - The Big Dipper
5. Longitude : is a series of lines running from the North to South poles.

They measure distance, in degrees, East or
West of the Prime Meridian (P.M.)
From Wikipedia: The modern Greenwich Meridian, based at the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851. By 1884, over two-thirds of all ships and tonnage used it as the reference meridian on their maps. In October of that year, at the behest of U.S. President Chester A. Arthur, 41 delegates from 25 nations met in
Washington, D.C., USA, for the International Meridian Conference. This conference selected the Greenwich Meridian as the official Prime Meridian due to its popularity.
However, France abstained from the vote and French maps continued to use the Paris
Meridian for several decades.
The Greenwich Meridian is now marked at night by a laser beam emitted northwards from the observatory. greenwich laser
[Diagram: meridians of longitude]
Latitude and Longitude

6. Some sample longitudes:
Greenwich England: 0°
RVC: about 73° W. Haiti: about 73° W.
Chile: about 73° W.
Russia: 73° E India: 73° E.
International Date Line: 180°
Lines_of_Longitude.asf
7. To find longitude you need two clocks, one tells time where you are (local time), the other tells time along the P.M.
Not as easy as you might think-
Time_and_Longitude.asf
Every hour difference = 15° longitude
between clocks
If local time is earlier than GMT: West longitude.
If local time is later than GMT, East longitude.
[Diagram-example]

Why Time Zones?
YouTube - Time Zones & How They Work http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_zone
What is Daylight Savings Time? http://www.webexhibits.org/daylightsaving/c.html
Review:
Using_Latitude_and_Longitude_to_Find_Locations.asf
Some practice questions from old regents exams:
YouTube - Latitude and Longitude 3
YouTube - Latitude and Longitude 1
8.
Each line of lat. and long. is divided into 60 minutes (‘)
Each minute of lat. and long. is divided into
60 seconds (“)
Ex.: Exact location of Alyssa’s house:
(use google earth)
[Lab #5: Latitude and Longitude]