The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 1: Roots of Western Culture
Introduction: This Week's Goals
Before starting this section, make sure that you have read Welcome to Virtual Core 4 thoroughly.
The first week of our course has two main goal


That all students become familiar with how to take part in the course. This means learning how to use
[by using them!]:
o Email - for personal communication with the teacher.
o Caucus discussion conferences - for discussion of set themes.
o Majordomo maillist - in order to receive extra press reports in your email, and to discuss
*anything you want*
o The Web Browser - in order to access class readings, self-test quizzes, and so on.
o The Internet - especially the search engines, so that you can find things on the web.
o I expect you will already be familiar with how to read a textbook!
That we master the technical details above in the course of the discussion one central question - what
do we mean when we talk about our civilization as "The West".
o To answer this we should be able to identify when and where the following past cultures were,
and what they contributed to the "The West".
 Egypt
 Mesopotamia
 Ancient Israel
 Greece
 Rome
o None of the above cultures was "The West", although all contributed to it. "The West" came
into existence during the period we know as the Middle Ages". We need to be able to explain
then:
 Which three world cultures emerged after the breakdown of the Roman Empire.
 Which religion provided a degree of cultural unity.
 What the "Commercial Revolution" was.
 What changed during the "Renaissance".
 What happened during the Reformation.
Text
Kagan: No assigned textbook reading for section 1
Multimedia
Music
1. Bulgarian Folk Music 1. 40
Song: Pilentze Pee
2. 10th Century Liturgical Chant 1. 50
Song: Alleluia, Christmas Day, Proportional Rhythm
3. 13th Century Gregorian Chant 1. 05
Song: Pange Lingua
4. 16th Century Polyphony 2. 35
Song: Allegri, Misereri
5. 18th Century Opera 1. 50
Song: Mozart, Or sai chi l'onore, from Don Giovanni
6. 20th Century Opera 2. 30
Song: Gershwin, It ain't necessarily so, from Porgy and Bess
7. 20th Century Pop 1. 50
Song: Mariah Carey, Vision of Love
8. 20th Century Rap . 50
Song: Two in a Room, Wiggle It
Images [Images are also integrated into the outline]


Martin Luther and 2, 3
John Calvin and 2, 3, 4
Sources
[Sources are also integrated into the outline]









James H. Robinson: Why Study History Through Primary Sources
The Code of Hammurabi [18th Century BCE]
The Great Hymn to Aten
The Story of the Flood [Genesis 6-9]
Zeno of Elea (c.490-after 445 BCE): Paradoxes
Galgacus: On Roman Imperialism
Niccolo Machiavelli: The Prince [excerpts], 1513
Francesco Petrarch: Letter to Posterity
Martin Luther (1483-1546): On the Freedom of a Christian, extracts.
Outline
I. Introduction
Before we start on the main part of the course 

This course is in modern world history with a emphasis on Europe and America. Together Western
Europe, North America, Australia, and in many respects South America belong to a culture or
civilization we call "The West".
Western history did not begin in 1700. It goes back thousands of years. This section looks at the
Roots of Western history, at the ideas that played an important part in its development, and at what
elements make up the "West."
Chronology and Periodization

"Ancient" "Classical", "Medieval", "Early Modern", and " Modern". What do these words mean?
o Ancient = all of history before 500 CE ["CE" means "common era" and is an increasingly
o
o
common way of referring to the usually dating system without using the abbreviation "AD",
which means "In the Year of the Lord" and thus might be inappropriate to use about nonChristian peoples and societies. "BCE" means "Before the Common Era".]
Classical = those periods in ancient history which produced art and literature which later
achieved great acclaim. In practice this means Greece in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE,
and Rome in the first century BCE and the first century CE.
Medieval = European history between about 500 and 1500 CE.
Early Modern = European history from about 1400 (there is an overlap with "medieval" to
1789, and the French Revolution.
Modern = History since the French, American and Industrial revolutions in the late 18th
century.
These definitions are very much centered on Europe. They do not apply to other parts of the
world very well. They also tend to represent the politics and arts of the elite in society.
In practical terms they have something to do with the amount of source that survive. Modern
historians have to select sources from a massive amount of material. Ancient and Medieval
historians have to work hard to fill in the gaps between the sources.
II. Egypt and Mesopotamia


The Code of Hammurabi [18th Century BCE]
The Great Hymn to Aten
1. Egypt - c. 4000 BC
Longest continuous civilization
-Religious ideas
-Architecture
-Math, especially geometry
2. Mesopotamia - also c. 4000 BC - in Iraq
Major cultures were called Sumeria, Babylonia, Assyria
-Writing
-Numbers - use of base 12 - in time (we still use 12 hour periods for days)
-Astronomy and Astrology
3. These cultures influence us through two ways
-through the Jews and through the Greeks
III. The People of Israel

The Story of the Flood [Genesis 6-9]
1. The Jews are the only ancient people still around.
One does not often meet Hittites or Goths in the street, but the Jews are still here.
2. They absorbed a lot from Egypt and Mesopotamia
-e.g. the creation story, the flood story.
3. But one massive contribution- Monotheism
- Belief in one caring God.
Unity of cult and ethics
4. Also a belief in history - that we are going somewhere.
This is a contrast with the more cyclic views of the East, and of the Egyptians.
5. Jews wrote the Bible: Most read book book in the world and parts are at least 3000 years old.
The Bible is one of the chief sources of western culture
These IDEAS pass into Christianity and Islam.
IV. Greece

Zeno of Elea (c.490-after 445 BCE): Paradoxes
1. The other major source of Western IDEAS.
Ideas more important heritage than details of its history.
The ideas survive in literature and art:2. From around 750BC.
Homer: The Iliad and The Odyssey
The idea of ORDERED COSMOS - vital in Western ideas about science and God.
3. Invention of writing - for everyone not just the clergy.
4. Thales of Miletus - asked for the first time what the world was made of - water - SCIENCE
5. Athens - The People, Democracy, natural art,
6. Socrates: People as morally autonomous,
7. Plato - Asked most of the Philosophical Questions
-how do we know what we know.
8. Aristotle - Introduces observation into science.
9. Alexander the Great - c. 300BC. Conquers the whole Eastern Mediterranean. Greek ideas, and the
Greek language dominate the area.
10. Note two things:
Greeks did not know about the Jews: Jews did know about the Greeks.
All the discussion so far has been based in the Eastern Mediterranean, away from what we now call
the West.
V. Rome - Always a Western city.

Galgacus: On Roman Imperialism
1. From around 300BC it began to grow in importance. Within 300 years it had unified the
Mediterranean into one state.
2. All elites spoke either Greek or Latin.
3. Intellectually Rome was dominated by Greece, but its genius was in STATECRAFT and LAW.
4. Roman Law is still the basis of laws, via Napoleon, in most of Europe. US law derives from English
Law, but that also is influenced by Rome.
5. The ideal of Unity and the Universal state has been important in Western history ever since.
VI. Christianity




Jesus Christ. Born c.6BC, d. c. 33AD.Founder of Christianity.
St. Paul, A Greek-speaking Jew and main apostle of the Faith. United Jewish and Greek ideas in
Christianity.
Christianity becomes religion of Mediterranean area c. 400.
The most Christian areas are probably Egypt and Anatolia.
VI. Breakup of Classical World
1. The Mediterranean was a united cultural area. It was the breakup of this area that led to the
development, amongst others of the "West".
2. Roman Empire: Invasions from the outside, Economic problems internally. Breaks Up. But it did not
die.
Each part took something from Greece, Rome and Judea
1. Byzantium [See Byzantine Studies Page]
The Empire in the East continued, based in Constantinople.
It was Christian and Roman and Greek. It was the most obvious heir to the culture of the Classical
world.
The Byzantine Empire lasts until 1453.
Its culture still dominates Eastern Europe and Russia, through Orthodoxy.
2. Islam
Islam was the religion of Arab townsmen. Led by Mohammad (d. c. 640, Hijira 622). They swept out
of the Arabian peninsula.
Eventually took control of all North Africa, Egypt, Anatolia (under the Turks) and for a time Spain.
Islam also is an heir to Classical civilization. It also learnt mathematics from Mesopotamia,
Philosophy from the Greeks and Monotheism from the Jews.
For almost a thousand years Muslims were by all objective standards more advanced than Western
Europe.
3. Latin Christendom
Finally, what was left, was dominated by Barbarians. France, Spain, Italy, Britain, Germany.
The least developed of the three cultures that succeeded the classical world.
It was dominated increasingly also by the Church of Rome. It was a Latin reading and speaking
world. i.e "Latin Christendom."
This area was to become the West.
VII. The Western Middle Ages
A. From around 600 to 1000 AD conditions were fairly bleak.
Around 800 Charlemagne.
Most people lived on the land. Subsistence farming.
No towns larger than say 10,000 - at the most.
B. c.1050 Latin Christendom comes to life.
1. Politically States begin to pull themselves together,
England, France, Germany (for a time)
- Concept of Kingship and what a king should be/do develops.
2. Crusades - Westerners attack both Byzantium and Islam in order to conquer Jerusalem. They succeed
for a time.
-Architecture develops.
3. Intellectual Life great writers like St. Thomas Aquinas (13th. C.)
4. Christianity becomes more like it is today.
Devotion to Mary. Mass. Development of all the religious orders.
5. Art and Music - We can now trace direct lines from then to now.
6. Economically - From around 1050 a Commercial revolution.
In the earlier period money had largely disappeared. Now it becomes important again and trade starts
up in local areas and between far distant areas. Westerners even get as far as China.
7. In short the West begins to have notion of itself. The notion is called Christendom, but develops into
the idea of Europe.
8. In the Middle Ages we have the origin of a specifically Western civilization, based not on the
Mediterranean, but the Western lands of the entire continent.
VIII. The Renaissance


Niccolo Machiavelli: The Prince [excerpts], 1513
Francesco Petrarch: Letter to Posterity
1. Period from late 14th, early 15th Century (explain 1300s and 1400s)
- a new emphasis, spurred by examination of Classical past but also by internal European
developments created an artistic and intellectual ferment first in Italy and then in the rest of Europe.
2. Renaissance thought stressed Classicism, Individualism, Humanism - belief in no limits to human
accomplishment (Pico de Mirandola). This, rather than more medieval ideas, was the precursor to
modern ways of thinking.
3. Humanism A. Erasmus of Rotterdam - Version of Bible in Greek attacked superstition
B. Thomas More - Humanism in England
C. John Calvin - first serious writing in French
D. Printing Invented - was to lead to great changes as information could be spread much more easily Johannes Gutenberg d. 1468
IX. Religious Thought: Reformation and Counter-Reformation
1. The Reformation was another great development at the end of the Middle Ages/Beginning of Early
modern period.
2. Religion united both the intellectual elite and the people. Ways of thinking were not scientific for
many - their pre-occupation was with God and especially Salvation (getting to heaven). The thinkers
we shall be examining as creators of the modern world lived in this background.
3. Importance of Reformation was it split Europe into two ideological camps. This in fact allowed new
ideas to develop and have a chance to become widespread.
The Reformation (First half of 16th C.)

Martin Luther (1483-1546): On the Freedom of a Christian, extracts.
1. Martin Luther (1483-1546) [Image: Martin Luther and 2, 3]
Began challenge to Rome in 1517.
His main concern was with personal salvation
-Justification (setting right before God), was the most important thing for him.
-But it is important to note another aspect of the Lutheran Reformation - the very great respect it gave
to the state. In effect Lutheranism allowed a separate morality for individuals and the State. This is
often seen as a factor in German history.
2. John Calvin (1509-64) [Image: John Calvin and 2, 3, 4]
Advanced the Reformation in French speaking areas.
-Most of his thought is implicit in Luther, but Calvin was more rigorous. He had the doctrine of
predestination to salvation or damnation. The saved or the Elect were a major part of his thought.
(Came from his experience as a preacher - why did some not believe).
-Note importance of notion of the Elect. It made Calvinists politically active in a way that Lutherans
were not. Calvinists felt able to reject the state - led to religious wars in short term. Calvinists often
felt themselves to be justified - gave confidence to Calvinist entrepreneurs.
The Counter Reformation
1. Catholic Church reformed itself
2. Council of Trent (1545-63) 18 Years
This re-established Catholic norms.
It even cleared up previously undefined areas.
It was very anti-Protestant.
3. The Jesuits - Shock troops of the Church.
Insisted on intellectual rigor.
4. The Index of Forbidden Books. - this was only really important now that there were many books
about due to printing. It allowed the church to control what books could be published in some
Catholic countries. [Extra: See List of Banned Books]
Effects of Renaissance and Reformation
1. The Counter Reformation made Catholic countries firm in their Catholicism - and made it impossible,
or very hard, for non-believers to live there.
2. Secondly it was much harder to express new opinions and ideas in Catholic Countries (France was
different - the French Church -the Gallican Church - was under royal control - some liberty of thought
allowed)
3. So most of the new ideas that made modern world grew up in Protestant countries and France (Value
of diversity of states in Europe?).
X. The Thirty Years War and 1648
1. There were a lot of religious conflicts in Europe for almost a 150 years after Luther. These were
major wars that tore countries apart - The Holy Roman Empire was divided, France was rocked by
wars between Catholics and Calvinists (1598 Edict of Nantes, Henry IV).
Religion was not the only factor, often not even the major one. Suffice to say that many states came
close to destruction, and one, Poland, disappeared.
2. There was a large scale general European war from 1618-1648. Thirty Years War
The Treaty of Westphalia 1648, marked the end of major religious wars. The Pope was not invited,
and was sidelined out of politics.
3. In Europe - a general feeling that religion should be removed from politics.
The 18th C. was to be much less religious.
It is at this point we can start modern history.
XI. Continuity of Old Ideas
1. By the 17th century there were clear elements of modern western ideas - about religion, the state,
science. But the remained in flux for sometime to come. But also note that the older ideas persisted a
long time alongside more modern ones - e.g. look at modern newspaper astrologers.
It was hard to break out of this view of the world - Great intellects had built it up and it took
enormous breadth of knowledge imagination and even hubris to change it.
The changing of the Scientific world view, was the single most characteristic change that led to a
modern world view.
2. We have been discussing the world that people lived in at the start of the modern era. Many of theses
ideas we have been discussing continued amongst some groups long after the revolutions in European
life we will be discussing. One of these was the Divine right of Kings. Lead into Absolutism - to be
covered in next section
Discussion Questions
1. What are the names of other world civilizations than those discussed above?
2. Suggest the distinct contributions of Egypt to later civilization. Do the same for Mesopotamia, The
Jews, Greece, and Rome.
3. Which areas and culture were part of the Roman Empire, but are not considered part of the "West"?
4. When did the civilization we call "The West" begin to come into existence?
5. What religion provided the focus for "Western Culture"? Suggests some ways in which we might still
see its impact.
6. What new ideas did the Renaissance promote?
7. Why was the Reformation important in terms of politics?
8. What elements make up a civilization? How does a civilization differ from a country?
Introduction: This Week's Goals
This week we look at a world of kings, courtiers and philosophical defenses of kings. It all seems
very remote, but is it? Our goals this week are:





To understand the problems that European governments faced in the 16th and 17th centuries,
so that we can grasp what sort of of solutions were tried.
To see beneath the glitter of kings and robes and nobles. But we also want to see what was
the purpose of all that glitter.
To be able to explain the specific changes absolutist governments brought about.
To understand why these absolutist states were in many respects more "modern" than other
countries that may have been freer.
To understand the spread of Absolutist government from France to Russia, Prussia and
Austria.
Text
Kagan, 449-51, 463-76, 504-506, [optional, but recommended 513-18, 525-36]
Multimedia
Music

court music
Images





Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661, r. 1642-1661)
Louis XIV (b.1638-r.1642-d.1715) and as the "Sun King"
Versailles: aerial view, garden, hall of mirrors, bedroom
Blenheim Palace [one of many imitations of Versailles]
Louis XV




Mdme de Pompadour [Louis XV's mistress]
Bishop Bossuet
Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) and 2
Catherine II the Great of Russia and 2 (b.1729-r.1762-d.1796)
Sources






Cardinal Richelieu: Political Testament, 1624
Duc de Saint-Simon and The Duchess of Orleans: The Court of Louis XIV
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683): Analysis of French Finances and Efforts to Improve
Government Income
Bishop Jacques Bossuet: Politics Taken From the Very Words of Scripture, 1679
Jean Domat (1625-1696): On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy, 1697
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Leviathan, Chaps 13-14, 1651
Outline
I. Introduction
A. The problem of political disintegration in 16-17th Centuries.



France - Wars of Religion
England - the English Revolution
Holy Roman Empire (Germany and Austria) - 30 Years War.
B. Causes of disintegration

Competition between the aristocracy and the monarchy - this was often the mainspring
behind the religious wars.
C. Ways of Uniting States
Two alternatives evolved:


Constitutionalism and
Absolutism
we will be looking mainly at absolutism in this section.
Absolutism formed the immediate background to the French Revolution, but constitutionalism
provided many of the ideas for that revolution. We might say that Absolutist governments were more
"modern" and efficient than constitutional states, but that Constitutionalist political ideas were these
ones with a future.
D. Absolutism and Constitutionalism.

Nature of "isms". See Glossary for a discussion of words ending in "ism"
1. Definition of Constitutionalism



Constitutionalism does not require a written constitution, but does require a set of rules about
government which government respects - it is not arbitrary.
It also implies a balance in power between the government and its subjects - this was
provided in England by power of subjects in Parliament.
We will discuss what happened in England and Holland in the next class.
2. Definition of Absolutism



In contrast to Constitutionalism, Sovereignty - the power and right to rule, resides
exclusively with the King and not the nobles nor any assembly. This represents a real change
from later medieval reality.
The idea of the Divine Right of Kings became important in this context.
Note that in this period Government did not impinge on many areas at all, for instance social
welfare to any great degree. Absolute Monarchs were limited in actual power and were
not "totalitarian".
Absolutism was very practical - it developed modern ways of government to make its claims work:



State bureaucracies
Committee structures of government
Standing armies
II. Poland - A failed state
Poland is a good example of what could happen if the nobles became too powerful.




Poland was a very large state in Eastern Europe.
The "Noble Republic" - the nobles elected the kings.
Any noble could veto any law in the parliament.
Consequences?
o Complete collapse of central government.
o The enserfment of the peasant population for the profit of the nobles.
o The eventual disappearance of Poland from map of Europe.
A result of no constitutionalism and no absolutism?
III. Spain - Absolutism Attempted
The dominant country of the late 16th century, based on military power and enormous wealth from
the new world.
King Philip II (b. 1527-d.1598, ruled. 1556-1598) was the monarch. Although he faced challenges to
his power from Aragon (along with Castile, one of the two major parts of the Kingdom of Spain),
from his viceroys in the New World, and from his own officials, it is possible to see some of the later
marks of absolutism in his reign.





Centralizing control
Central source of authority
Attempted state control of the Church
Bureaucratic systems
The building of a new capital city and palace as the center of power [in this case Madrid and
the Escorial palace].


Use of council/committee system of government.
Spain declined after 1600: due to economy and bad government.
IV. France - Absolutism Triumphant
What happened in France provided more of model for the rest of Europe than Spain, or England.
France's importance as a country was based on its wealth, its geographical centrality, the size of its
population (the biggest in Europe), as well as its very influential culture.
A. French Wars of Religion and Henry IV





The Reformation in France. Calvinist.
Catholic and Protestant nobles use religion to challenged central government authority..
Lax and inefficient rulers.
Noble wars virtually destroyed the country
What was needed was a new approach to government. (If the goal was a stable country). *

Henry VI (1598-1610), formerly King of Navarre. His famous line was "Paris is worth a
mass" [when he became a Catholic so that could inherit the throne of France].
Edict of Nantes 1598 quieted country. Allowed toleration to the Huguenots.

B. Louis XIII (1610-43)
Effective ruler Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642)

Cardinal Richelieu: Political Testament, 1624
Richelieu's Actions:
1. He broke power of nobility and made it clear there was only one law - the King's. However
still very limited legal unity in the country.
[cf. Stuarts where local law was in hands of JPs.]
Estates General meats for last time in 1615.
2. He began administrative reform and centralized control over regions. He sent out Intendents.
[cf. the Stuarts lack of local control]
3. He fought Habsburg Dynasty - made France a great power (fought for Protestants in Thirty
Year's War)
4. Richelieu also opposed Huguenots - as defiant of King's power and began the road to
oppression. Removed their right to fortified towns.
C. Louis XIV (Ruled 1643-1715)


Duc de Saint-Simon and The Duchess of Orleans: The Court of Louis XIV
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683): Analysis of French Finances and Efforts to Improve
Government Income
1. Cardinal Mazarin (1602-1661) [Image Cardinal Mazarin]
effective ruler at first - continues policies of Richelieu.
2. The Fronde 1649-52
- revolt by nobles sick of absolute claims. This had big psychological effect on Louis XIV.
He was determined to be powerful
3. Louis comes to power in 1661.
His reign is the height of absolutism. "L'etat. c'est moi."
4. Louis' conception of himself as King - and of the problems he faced. [Image: Louis XIV and
as the "Sun King"]
5. Although egotistical he was not a madman. He thought he had to work hard and let good
sense act. But his "working hard" was a few hours a day.
6. Government under Louis XIV
It is often seen as one of the first modern governments.
- its system of councils to control the real ruling of the country
- Intendants - royal officials in provinces gives central control of the entire country.
- Its establishment of a standing army which Louis used in a series of expensive wars. This
gives him great power.
7. Influence of Louis XIV's Government and Style
Versailles and Louis' government were admired throughout Europe.
French became the language of many courts - e.g. Russia (ref. Tolstoy: War and Peace).
Copycat palaces were built all over Europe: Vienna/Schonbrunn, St. Petersburg, Berlin.
[Images: Versailles: aerial view, garden, hall of mirrors, bedroom and Blenheim Palace, one
of many imitations of Versailles]
8. Louis XIV and Religion
The Position of the Church as State within a State
-Divine Right was important in Louis' ideas.
-It is important to realize the power of the Church in France. It was like a state within in a
state
-largely independent of Rome
-tax free
-Church Courts had power over parts of life, for instance marriage and wills.
-Louis supported the Church fervently.
-Revocation of Edict of Nantes 1685
-1/4 mill Protestants left - (New Rochelle)
9. Absolutism and Religion
Absolutism did not allow, in France, liberty of conscience. This affects French
Enlightenment thinkers. There was anti-clericalism even from those who support monarchy.
[cf.-anti-clericalism in French Revolution]
10. Louis XIV' successors tried to maintain the same system.
[Image Louis XV and Mdme de Pompadour, his mistress.]
Absolutist Fiscal Policy
1. Important both in explaining how Europe came to expand overseas, and certain elements in
the outbreak of the French Revolution.
2. The main problem was that nobles would not pay tax. This was not solved. France remained
under-taxed. So other solutions were sought.
3. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1693) - Finance minister. Colbert's aim was to have a trade
balance in France's favor - Mercantilism is name given to this policy of promoting trade..
o It centralizes economy
o Close government control.
o Relieves the need for direct taxes.
o Expansion abroad - emphasis on exports and getting bullion into the country.
o
Trade is needed especially by absolutist governments as it enables indirect taxes to be
raised - which are necessary without parliaments.
4. Worldwide Effects of Fiscal Policies
o Expansion of Mercantile empires in India, North America and above all the West
Indies. This was encouraged by governments.
o Development of Slave trade.
The Theoretical Elaboration of Absolutism



Bishop Jacques Bossuet: Politics Taken From the Very Words of Scripture, 1679
Jean Domat (1625-1696): On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy, 1697
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): Leviathan, Chaps 13-14, 1651
Absolutism came into being as a practical way to control the state. But there were theoretical
justifications.




Bishop Bousset (1627-1704) [Image: Bishop Bossuet]
Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Scripture, 1679. He was tutor to Louis XIV's heir.
-His basic justification was Divine Right: God makes a King absolutely sovereign.
Jean Domat, (1625-1696), in Public Law, 1697 attempted to set Absolutism in context of
law of nature and law of God. [Discuss dangers of such a project]
Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan, 1651, even though it was written earlier, provided a more
modern justification based on Nature.
Other justifications were offered by later writers.
-Voltaire praised Louis XIV as being an effective ruler.
Did Absolutism need to be justified?

Probably most of the French people accepted Absolutism because this type of rule brought
peace after decades of civil war.
At this stage Nobility and Monarchy were the only players. It was the emergence of another
class which was to be important in 1789.
VII. Absolutism in Other States
Some of the Older States Faded
The Holy Roman Empire (the state which nominally included Germany and surrounding areas)
faded. So did Poland and the Ottoman Turkey.
Three new powers come to occupy central Europe in the 18th century.
1. Austria
Absolutism without a nation-state.
Maria Theresa 17402. Prussia
Prussia copied France but has its own distinctive character. Prussia became an important state
under Frederick I (1688-1713). Military emphasis: the upper class become the officers in the
army.
-300 other states in Germany remain divided.
Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786)][Image Frederick the Great of Prussia and 2]
continued the trend.
3. Russia - Emerges at this time.
Peter the Great
Catherine II the Great of Russia (b.1729-r.1762-d.1796) [Image Catherine II the Great of
Russia and 2]
German-born Tsarina, who emulated absolutism, but gave over the peasants to the nobility.
Others


Italy
remained divided with inefficient old-fashioned governments and some republics. Even
though it had a large population, it was politically insignificant.
England and Holland
Will be looked at in next class.
X. Conclusion



Absolutism is the political actuality of the Ancien Regime.
We have seen it was a development of Early Modern, not medieval Europe.
It was background to French Revolution and also to the Enlightenment.
Web Exercise
Your web exercise this week is to find information about monarchies in modern countries. Because
the United States is a republic, monarchs often seem out-dated and remote. But many countries are
still run by monarchs.
What sort of power do modern monarchs have?
What do their subjects think of them?
Why do monarchies persist in the modern world?
Your project here is to find out answers to these questions, and to post your findings answers in the
Caucus Conference. (You can do this by cutting and pasting results - cut the texts from a web site
and past it into a caucus message. Make sure to add your own comments!)
To answer these questions, try looking at online newspapers from countries with monarchs: e.g.
Britain, Canada, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, or Malaysia. To find some online newspapers, see the
Search page.
Remember to evaluate the web sources you find according to the Guidelines on How to Evalute
Web Data and by using the Checklist.
Discussion Questions
1. What aspects of Louis XIV's government are still used by all modern governments? [See the
goals at the top of this page. This is the crucial question here.]
2. What are the advantages of monarchy as a system of government? Why do some modern
Western countries keep their monarchies?
3. What seems "old-fashioned" about absolutist states?
Section 3: Constitutionalism and Roots of Modern Political
Thought
Introduction: This Week's Goals
Absolutist states lead the way in developing modern governmental methods such as hierarchical
bureaucracies, standing armies, strict definitions of sovereignty, and so forth. But it was in England,
the Netherlands, and the early American colonies that a series of internal and external military
conflicts lead to the creation and spread of modern ideas about constitutional government. At the end
of this section you should:









Know the institutional background in England under the Tudors and the significance of
Parliament.
Know what the English Civil War was about
Know about new ideas which emerged in the period, and who put them forward, and what
was distinctive about the ideas.
o Parliament
o Levelers
o Women
o Baptists and Quakers
Know what events took place during the "Glorious Revolution"
Understand John Locke's views on government.
o How government emerged.
o The nature of "natural rights" (and what they are)
o Theory of the social contract
o The "right to resist government" and the historical background.
Know how political stability was established in the 18th century.
o The emergence of Constitutional monarchy.
o Cabinet government at Robert Walpole.
Know about other areas: the Netherlands.
Be able to discuss the effects of these events in colonial North America
o Calvinism
o Governmental liberties
Be able to discuss the origins and issues around slavery in the Western hemisphere.
Text
Kagan, 450-63, 506-509, 518-25
Multimedia
Images






Elizabeth I, and 2 (b.1533, r. 1558-1603)
Charles I (b.1600- r 1625-d.1649) and Charles I beheaded and 2
A Cavalier
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658, r.1653-58)
John Locke
English Puritan Woman 17C
Sources






Petition of Right, 1628
Statement of the Levellers, 1649
Radical Women During the English Revolution
Declaration of Right, February 1689
John Locke (1632-1704): Second Treatise on Government, 1689, excerpts [At Northpark]
William Temple: Observations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands
Outline
I. Introduction
The problem of political disintegration in early 17th century England


Led to the English Revolution
Absolutism and Constitutionalism in competition.
II. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) - Practical Constitutionalism





Withdrawal of nobility from politics.
Working with the gentry.
The Gentry as a class - hold local power.
Parliament.
Ministers - the Cecils.
Note: This was the great age of literature in England - Spencer, Marlowe, Shakespeare, Jonson,
Webster, Donne.
III. The Stuart Family - Attempted Absolutism



Mary, Queen of Scots, granddaughter of Henry VII.
James I & VI came to the English throne in 1603. ruled in England 1603-25
Charles I 1625-49
They promoted absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings.

James VI A Trew Law of Free Monarchies 1598
advocated the Divine Right of kings to rule.
Problems Faced by the Stuart Kings
1. Fiscal problems: Issue of Taxation and Consent.
2. Power of Parliament: problem for Kings in England was the strong tradition of Parliament.
3. Religious issues between Anglican Kings and very Protestant parts of the population. Also
there were Protestants in Scotland - opposed to bishops.
4. James I and Charles I were not tactful in dealing with the Gentry, the class who controlled
Parliament. James I, for instance, gave away titles, plus favorites - Duke of Buckingham.
5. Both James and Charles were very moderate Protestants. which angered the Calvinists who
wanted a "purer" church.
6. James had dirty habits. He had ruled well in Scotland, did not go down well in England, but
was generally accepted. Charles I was much more conventionally "moral", but a much less
successful ruler.
IV. The English Civil War 1642-49
1. Charles II tried to rule without Parliament but he needed it for direct taxation.
2. Archbishop William Laud (1573-1645), Archbishop after 1633. Episcopacy in Scotland.
3. Parliament called 1628.
Petition of Right - against taxes and arbitrary royal power.
4. Intellectual Debate in the Period
Ranters Baptists levelers Unitarians Quakers Congregationalists
5. War with Scotland
Forced Charles to call Parliament twice in 1640. Short and Long Parliament,
6. War broke out between Charles and Parliament.
Cavaliers and Roundheads.
He lost. Beheaded 1649
7. The Parliamentary Army (New Model Army)
Marston Moor 1644, Nasby June 1645
V. The Commonwealth 1649-1660
1. Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) (Destroyer of Ireland) Cromwell became Lord
Protector/Military Dictator died 1658
2. England a Republic
Scotland and Ireland conquered.
VI. The Restoration 16601.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The Stuarts were restored 1660.
Charles II (1660-1685) was clever king. died a Catholic.
1662 - Anglicanism restored fully
Mercantilism - competition in trade.
Restoration culture. Plays. Science
VII. James II & VII (1685-1688)

Roman Catholic - belief in England in Catholic plots His aim was absolutism.
VIII. 1688 - The Glorious Revolution



James II deposed - a bloodless coup known as the Glorious Revolution.
William III of Orange and Mary (James' daughter) became joint monarchs.
1688 Bill of Rights said sovereignty - the right to rule - rested with "the King in parliament"
IX. The Hanoverians


1714 George I of Hanover becomes King.
He could not speak English. - results of this.
X. The Establishment of Political Stability



After 1688 you have a process of political stabilization consequent on the return of the
nobility to politics.
Tories - lower level gentry
Whigs - Upper Aristocrats
Control of Patronage was the issue.




English Whig aristocrats take control of Britain through buying up parliamentary seats - The
three year rule helps King is in background.
Effectively get a one party state.
Robert Walpole (1676-1745) becomes first in long series of Prime Ministers from about 1720
until 1742.
XI. Why did Kings in England Fail to Become Absolute Monarchs?




They were personally inept
They also faced a strong tradition in Parliament. The people who ran Parliament actually ran
the country.
But 18th c. England was not, although the most liberal regime in Europe, a Democracy.
Britain was looked to from all over Europe in 18th and 19th Centuries as a model for
government.
XII. The Netherlands





Dutch Wars with Spain
The United Provinces
o League of Counties
o Statholder
Social and Economic Issues
o High Population
o Trade as source of Wealth
o Amsterdam as and Entrepot
The Dutch Golden Age
The Atlantic Economy
XIV. Theoretical Elaboration of Constitutionalism


Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan
o Absolutism defended as rational, not by divine right
o See Diagram
John Locke, Two Treatises on Government
o See Second Treatises on Government
o See Diagram
Discussion Questions
1. What roles did religion play in the events of English Civil war and after?
2. What makes a country "constitutional".
3. What makes a constitution work?
4. Which were the politically important groups in England in the 17th century? Which in
France? Which in the modern United States?
5. What makes a "good" government? Efficiency and "getting things done", or preserving
human rights?
6. What is the difference between a "constitutional" state, and a "democratic" state.
Section 4:The Scientific Revolution: Copernicus to Newton
Introduction: This Week's Goals
Between the publication of Copernicus' On the Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs in 1543, which
proposed that the earth and other planets went around the Sun but did not show how or why, and the
publication of Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1687, which
provided an all encompassing explanation, European thought about the natural world underwent a
revolution. This Scientific Revolution is just as much a definer of the modern world as the
developments in politics we studied over the past two sections. There was, in fact, some connection
between the parallel sets of developments: think, for example, of the use of the idea of "nature" in
the work of thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.
Note: Some of the readings for this section might seem a little tough. If so, just try to read a
few of them well, especially the readings from Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton.
By the end of this section you should:







Know how to define "scientific thought"
Be able to explain what the "Aristotelian-Ptolemaic" system was.
Be able to explain why mathematics was so important to the Scientific Revolution.
Be able to explain the roles of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Galileo and Newton.
Be able to explain the difference between "induction" and "deduction".
Understand why Isaac Newton's contribution can be said to have ended the "Scientific
Revolution", and begun the period of "Classical Physics".
Be able to discuss the limits of Scientific Revolution.
Text
Kagan, 481-504
Multimedia
Images








Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
Ptolemy (2nd Cent. CE) and 2
The Ptolemaic System
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) and 2
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)and 2
Brahe's System
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and 2, 3






Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and 2
René Descartes (1561-1626)
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and 2
Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) and 2
16th Century Anatomical Drawing
A Surgeon in 1593
Sources







Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, 1543
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): Letter to the Duchess Christina of Tuscany, 1615 [the main text
to discuss this week]
Opposition to Galileo
Francis Bacon: Preface to the Novum Organum
Réne Descartes: Discourse on Method, 1637
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727): Principia Mathematica, 1687
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790): Experiments with Balloons, 1783
For more sources, see Modern History Sourcebook: Scientific Revolution
Outline
I. Introduction
We are now starting on the great intellectual revolutions that lead to the modern world - The
Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.
We are going to look at the pre-modern ways of thinking that were the starting point for so many
later developments.
This is looking at what we call intellectual history or the history of thought.
Chronological Framework
The chronology here overlaps. What is often see as the start of the Scientific Revolution, Copernicus
in 1543, occurs at the same time as pre-modern religious wars are breaking out. By then end of the
period, in 1687, Europe is about to embark on the Enlightenment, a cultural movement that largely
rejected religion.
It is important to realize that people who are very advanced in one area of thought may be very
archaic in other areas.
II. Before the Scientific Revolution
These include medieval traditions, and seeds of what was to come. Pre-modern ways of thought coexisted with what we call modern for long periods.
A. Scientific Thought
Science tries to explain the world without reference to gods. It sees the world as an object, or series
of objects, and tries to explain how they move and interact. Science is thus distinct from
technology, which is a way of manipulating the world. Many cultures had technological knowledge,
but scientific thinking was first developed in an extensive way by the Ancient Greeks. It was Ancient
Greek thought which dominated Europe up until the Scientific revolution.
The BIG issue for the Greeks was trying to explain how and why things moved. Since they
believed everything happened for a reason, they thought there had to be an explanation for any
motion at all. It was overturning this idea that was Isaac Newton's greatest triumph.


The Impact of Aristotle
o Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
o Aristotle, 384-322 BCE A great thinker in ancient Greece, he set ways of thinking for
thousands of years.
o He remained supreme in logic until the 19th century.
o He was rediscovered in Europe in 13th century and he greatly affected scientific
thought.
o Science was only a part of what he did. He is also important as a founder of political
science, literary criticism, biology, pure philosophy.
o Notable Theories of Aristotle with regard to the Scientific Revolution
 Motion
For Aristotle rest is natural. There is motion only by continuous contact with
mover. He needed angels to explain motion of the heavenly bodies.
 Heaven and Earth
The heavens are different stuff from Earth - light, airy and perfect.
 Matter
Earth, Air, Fire, Water, The idea comes from from Empedocles (d.c. 433BC)
o Aristotle and the Church: Aristotle's ideas fitted in with some religious theories. Also
due to great influence of Thomas Aquinas (1225-74) he was given great regard in the
Church.
The Ptolemaic System
o Ptolemy (2nd Cent. CE) and 2
o The Ptolemaic System
o Ptolemy, 90-168AD (Claudius Ptolemaeus) He was a Greek astronomer based in
Alexandria in Egypt.
o Astronomy
Ptolemy's Almagest was basis of pre-modern astronomy. He based his system on
Aristotle's theories. [Note that Ptolomy was 400 years later than Aristotle].
o Aristotle needed the Earth to be center of Universe. Ptolemy explains everything else
by cycles and epicycles - 80 in all. The whole universe revolves around the Earth.
o Heavenly Spheres
The idea of crystalline spheres was ancient (Anaximenes), but the idea of each planet
and start being fixed on a crystal sphere grew more popular in the Middle Ages.
o Planets.
In this system it was not quite clear what the planets and stars were. The system was
quite small. There was no real notion that the Sun was star and the Earth a planet.
o Perfection
Note the emphasis on perfection in both Aristotle and Ptolemy; the emphasis on the
perfect sphere, and perfect motion in circles - this stuck for a long time.
B. Magical Thought
Magical thought is likely to see the world as filled and governed by spirits. The goal then is to
control or influence the world through such spirits. In practice science was not clearly distinct from
magic. One of main motives for intellectuals throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was
to look back at the admired thinkers of the past (EMPHASIZE) so along with logic and the art of the
past, the rather large amount of magical and symbolic thought of the past was retrieved.



Alchemy This involved trying to convert iron to gold or to find some elixir of life. It was
based on Greek science. Chemistry was in fact a subject that did not advance for a long time,
possibly because of an obsession with alchemy, but notion of mutability of matter was there.
Astrology This thought that events in the heavens effect events on Earth and was preAristotelian, but Aristotle's idea of contiguous motion gave a scientific rationale to it. The
idea of a Chain of Being is important here. It was fitted into a Christian world view by saying
that the stars affected the lower nature of people, while the higher parts still had free will.
Witchcraft There was a Witch craze in 16th and 17th century Europe. Old women were
killed in the hundreds, especially in Scotland. The people at the time really believed that
these women had magic powers. Very many people demons were in the air all around them.
C. Religious Thought
We now turn to religion. Religion united the intellectual elite and the people. From your reading you
should have seen that the ways of thinking were not scientific for many. There was a pre-occupation
was with God and especially SALVATION (getting to heaven). The thinkers we shall be examining
as creators of the modern world lived in this background and often shared it. Copernicus was a
Catholic priest for example, and Newton wrote far more about religion than about science.


The Reformation (First half of 16th Century)
o Martin Luther (1483-1546)
His main concern was with personal salvation.
-Justification (setting right before God), was the most important thing for him.
o John Calvin (1509-64)
He advanced the Reformation in French speaking areas. Most of his thought is
implicit in Luther, but Calvin was more rigorous. He held a doctrine of predestination
to salvation or damnation. The Saved/Elect were a major part of his thought, which
developed from his experience as a preacher and the problem of why did some not
-Mention Calvinist Adherents
The Catholic or Counter Reformation
o The Catholic Church reformed itself.
Council of Trent (1545-63) -This re-established Catholic Norms of belief and
behavior. It even cleared up previously undefined areas. It was very anti-Protestant.
The Index banned books dangerous to orthodox thought - this was only really
important now that there were many books about due to printing.
o Consequences of Counter Reformation
--The Counter Reformation made Catholic Countries firm in their Catholicism - and
made it impossible for non-believers to live there.
--Secondly it was much harder to express new opinions and ideas in Catholic
Countries. Spain especially ceased to be important intellectually.
--France was different. The French Church (the Gallican Church) was under royal
control and some liberty of thought was allowed. But most of the new ideas that made
the modern world grew up in Protestant countries and France. (Value of diversity of
states in Europe).
D. Philosophical Thought
Philosophy - the love of wisdom - used to include what we now call "science." Nowadays, we use
the word more to mean thinking about who to think.








Philosophy looks at ways of argument - at logic and how we know what we know. (Logic
and Epistemology)
It looks at the World, and why it exists, whether God exists and what God is like.
(Metaphysics)
It looks at Morality and at what is right and wrong, both for individuals and society. (Ethics
and Politics)
Compare it to an Egg
o The Shell - Logic
o The White - Physics and Metaphysics
o The Yolk - Ethics
Philosophy tries to tie these together - as we shall see the change in views about the nature of
existence effects people's views on what is right in politics.
Medieval Philosophy
o The dominant philosophy of the Middle Ages had been scholasticism. It was a
rigorous and logical way of looking at the world, but had become arid and pointless
for many readers.
o There was a period of torpor after Scholasticism. Intellectuals became involved in the
Reformation.
Renaissance Platonism
o The Renaissance produced no new great synthesis in philosophy such as
scholasticism, but there was a very important revival of Platonism (NB Some students
are studying Plato in other core clusters).
o This was often seen as a sort of religion. It was far from a modern world view.
o Mathematics
There was one major impact, though, of Renaissance thought. Plato, and another
ancient thinker Pythagoras had emphasize mathematics. Plato thought math was the
surest knowledge we have. He also emphasized simplicity, and LIKE ARISTOTLE
the concept of Order. This was, as we shall see, going to influence all scientific
thinkers.
Doldrums It is important to note that as we approach the Modern period, philosophy as a
subject was in the doldrums. Beginning with Descartes (1591-1650) philosophy was to be
reborn.
Summary
There were a number of world views held by different people in the late Middles Ages and 16th
century - some held by intellectuals, others more attached to popular thought. Also note that these
ideas persisted for a long time, alongside more modern ones, for instance look at modern newspaper
astrologers.
It was hard to break out of this view of the world. Great intellects had built it up and it took
enormous breadth of knowledge imagination and even hubris to change it.
The changing of the Scientific world view, and the acceptance of science as a major source of
knowledge, was the single most characteristic change that led to the modern world.
III. Origins of the Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution was the prelude to the wider movement we call the Enlightenment.
Why is it a "Revolution"?
It was very slow, taking almost 150 years, but it completely altered old ways of thinking. It was also
one of the most exiting adventures of the human mind.
For an important discussion of the concept of "Scientific revolution", take a look at:

Thomas S. Kuhn: Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 1962, [At BGSU]
Causes of Scientific Revolution





Trade and Expansion of Trade Navigational problems of sea voyages generated scientific
research. Overseas specimens aroused peoples interest in different worlds.
Medieval Universities Medieval universities were not all stuffy and unadventurous. In fact
certain tendencies there made science a possible development. Without the study of ancient
texts it would have taken much longer to get off the ground. Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and
later Democritus were essential.
Modern Science did not start from scratch but from breaking old models of the world.
o The study of Aristotle. Aristotle as well as getting many things wrong had also had an
inquiring mind, and had looked at what we now call science.
o William Ockham. Ockham's Razor was and idea, an idea that cut away the surplus
of much speculative thought.
Simply put it was "Do not multiply entities more than necessary". In other words,
make your explanations as simple as will fit the facts.
We can note here both Copernicus' reasons for making the Sun the center of the
Universe, and the tendency in science always to look for the most simple explanation.
o The University of Padua was to prove a particularly important center for modern
thought. It was under the control of Venice, a relatively free thinking city.
The Renaissance
o Leonardo da Vinci and Plato's Mathematics.
The Renaissance did bring forth a heightened interest in mathematics as part of
influence of Plato.
o The importance of the notion of Order goes back to the Iliad.
o Also the idea of perfection in the heavens implies simplicity and this is an important
notion in science.
o We can see that it was the most mathematical sciences, astronomy and physics,
that were most strongly effected by the Scientific revolution.
Renaissance Humanism The belief that there are no limits to human accomplishment (Pico
de Mirandola). This, rather than more medieval ideas, was the precursor of modern ways of
thinking.
Reformation The Reformation divided Europe. Science could go on in other countries when
Catholic Hierarchy opposed it.
Summary
We have looked at the types of ideas people used in the middle ages and the 16th and 17th century to
explain the world around them. We see there were elements in the world of the time that pushed
some to begin to break the mold of thinking. It was a mold of thinking that just did not continue to fit
the observations. Discrepancy between observations and actuality is one of the springboards of the
development of the history of science.
Because the ways of thinking were so set this is a story that lasts a century and a half, from an
obscure Polish priest to one of the giants of modern science.
IV. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)
With Copernicus the Scientific Revolution starts.








Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) and 2
Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, 1543
He was a Polish priest who studied in Renaissance Italy at the University of Padua Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine and Theology made up the curriculum.
De Revolutionibus Orbium Caelestium On the Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies 1543
[Note the importance of printing - Da Vinci (1452-1519) knew all this but did not publish his
results.]
The idea of a heliocentric [sun-centered] universe was a mental breakthrough, but did not
offer explanations for the other things, such as motion, that Aristotle's' view of the world did.
This had been the reason Ptolemy rejected it.
Copernicus' theory was based on very conservative mathematics and not on observation as
such. Recall Platonists' obsession with simplicity and perfection. It was simpler to explain
heavenly motion if the Sun was at the center. Copernicus offered it as a hypothesis. His way
reduced the number of spheres from 80 to 34. He was still loyal to Ptolemy's system in many
ways.
Copernicus was obsessed with perfect circular motion. He was wrong; he thought that planets
moved in a perfect circle (not so), due to Platonic mathematics. But the important thing was
Copernicus' mental breakthrough. He was wrong but was the stimulus for future scientists to
come up with something better.
V. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish Royal Astrologer.





Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)and 2
Brahe's System
Brahe set new standards in observation without a telescope. (There were no street lights or
pollution and it was easier to see sky then than now.) He disbelieved Copernicus because his
observations showed that planets did not move in perfect circles.
In 1572-73 a new star appeared (the Crab Nebula?) and in 1577 a new comet. This went right
through any supposed crystal spheres. Neither event sat well with the idea of perfect
unchangeable heavens,
Brahe thus junked the idea of perfect circular motion, and the idea of fixed spheres in the
heavens.
VI. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)





Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
Johannes Kepler: Laws of Planetary Motion, [At Hawaii]
A web page illustrating the laws in diagrams
He was a student of mathematics and astronomy and a student of Brahe.
He put Brahe's observations into order. His method was to test hypothesis after hypothesis
until he came up with an answer that worked. Eventually he came up with the idea that
planets move in ellipses.
His Three Laws of Planetary Motion corrected Copernicus in light of Brahe's observations.
Note also the beginning of the use of the idea of scientists discovering laws.
o Planets move in ellipses - of which Sun is one focus.
o

One law: An equal area of the plane is covered in equal time by planet revolving
around the Sun. (or the period of revolution around the sun is proportional to distance
from the Sun.)
Kepler had no explanation of why this was the case. In fact he was involved in number
mysticism and explained it as part of the mystery of numbers.
The old Aristotelian system was broken, but there was no new synthesis to replaces it. Constructing
a new, equally persuasive synthesis was the achievement of the Scientific Revolution.
VI. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and 2, 3
Italian. He also studied at Padua, which was a hotbed of scientific discussion, on both the cause of
motion and the scientific method. Galileo was also a mathematician, and was also keen on
Archimedes (who was translated in 1543).
There are two main aspects of his work to note.




Astronomy
o He used a telescope for better observation c. 1609. He was not however the first to do
so.
o his confirmed the heliocentric system. There were also surprises, like seeing the
Moon with scars on, seeing sun spots. This was in a supposedly perfect heaven. The
difference between Earth and the heavens was disappearing.
o What was really important was that he tied in astronomy to motion on Earth, which
had also been the great achievement of Aristotle's system.
Motion on Earth
o Galileo also did experiments about motion on Earth. Recall Aristotle's' notion of
contiguous motion.
o There is the story of Galileo dropping objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to see
if heavy things really did fall faster as predicted by Aristotle. (Of course not. Gravity
works on each particle separately.) 1591. This is probably not true, but Galileo did
argue on the basis of tying two objects together and asking if they would fall more
quickly.
o There is also the story of him watching a pendulum swing in Siena Cathedral.
1638 - Discourse on Two New Sciences
o at first passed Church Censors.
o What Galileo did here was more important than the debate over astronomy.
o HE IMAGINED MOTION WITHOUT ANY OF THE CONSTRAINTS IT
FACES IN THE REAL WORLD - A THOUGHT EXPERIMENT WHICH
BREAKS THE MOLD.
o He based his theories on observation, but would go beyond observation to the truth,
since he recognized the constraints on simple observation.
o Notion of inertia - a body continues to move unless it is stopped - vital. Not fully
developed by Galileo. He thought motion was naturally in a circular direction, rather
than a straight line. Also he still had the old medieval idea of impetus in his head.
Galileo still did not offer a convincing explanation of heavenly motion. But his importance
was that he attacked the whole Aristotelian system. He saw the need for an entirely new
view.
Conflict with the Church
In 1600, Giordano Bruno had been burnt for suggesting a plurality of worlds, and other heresies.
This had led to an intensification of fear about Copernicus' ideas just before Galileo became active.






Letter to the Duchess Christina of Tuscany, 1615 [the main text to discuss this week]
Galileo argued for separation of theology and science on the grounds that God endowed us
with reason.
Opposition to Galileo
1616 - hearings by Inquisition.
1632 Dialogue on Two World Systems
1633 - Galileo was banned by the Church and put under house arrest. Decree from Holy
Office, which is not always infallible, says that it is heresy to believe the Sun is at the center
of the Universe. Galileo recanted to save his neck.
Was Galileo Totally Right? There were real problems in his use of scriptures.This was
especially true for Bellarmine. Galileo was persistent - he raised the ire of the curia. Some
supported him, including Pope Urban VIII.
Opposition in Catholic Countries to Science?




Italy and Spain
There was more freedom in France (Gallicanism), England and Holland (value of divisions in
Europe.)
The University of Padua was under Venice, the most anti-clerical state in Europe,
Copernicus, Galileo, and the medical men Vassalius and William Harvey all studied there.
Protestants had been as hostile to Copernicus as Catholics, on biblical grounds, but there was
less state control in Protestant countries, and in the end Protestantism became more liberal
than it was at first.
VII. The Problem of Method in Science
As well as all this growth of practical knowledge, there were some thinkers considering scientific
method. Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes were especially important. Both decided that all previous
beliefs (outside religion) had to be ignored.
A. Francis Bacon (1561-1625) and Induction








Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and 2
Francis Bacon: Preface to the Novum Organum
English Lord Chancellor.
It should be noted that he had an enthusiasm for the application of science; for Bacon science
was power - HE PROMOTED THE MODERN IDEA OF PROGRESS.
1620 Novum Organum (New Tools)
The Inductive Method; make a lot of observations and then generalize rules of nature. This
leads to scientific observation as a method.
What problems can you see? (set by David Hume) - Basically THERE IS NO LOGICAL
REASON TO GO ARGUE FROM ANY AMOUNT OF EXPERIENCE TO A GENERAL
LAW. THIS IS THE "PROBLEM OF INDUCTION"
Problem of Induction
o Basically science is not logical, at least in its observational mode, but this does not
mean it is false.
o One important modern philosopher of science, Karl Popper, suggests that science
proceeds by hypothesizing a reasonable model and then seeing if it fits the evidence.
Science does not then discover natural laws but suggests models of the world,

although many scientists have thought they were in fact discovering natural laws, and
this may have been an essential part of there outlook.
o The process we have been discussing here in fact shows this process of creating new
models.
Bacon and Mathematics Bacon's great problem was that he never understood the importance
of mathematics, which is deductive not inductive since it proceeds from theorems to axioms
without empirical observation. Also, although experimentation became the watchword of
science, a lot of the breakthroughs in the Scientific revolution were in astronomy and
mechanics, and these were mental breakthroughs.
B. Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) and Deduction
Descartes was a great mathematician and philosopher for instance he showed the any algebraic
formula could be plotted on a graph. This was a linking of algebra, which was Hindu and Arab
mathematics, with Geometry, which was the great Greek contribution to mathematics. It was very
important in the future methods of science.
He also looked at what way to get knowledge. IE at the study of epistemology.






René Descartes (1561-1626)
Discourse on Method, 1637
He advanced the notion of DEDUCTION to get some certain knowledge (such as that you
know you yourself exist and work from there).
He stressed Mathematics was a general science, applicable to all other sciences which were
concerned with order and measurement. Note the Platonism here, the stress on Mathematics
as away to knowledge.
This was GOOD in that it stressed Mathematics in science, but BAD in that it seemed to
allow little room for testing ideas in the real world.
In fact Descartes was not totally against observation,but his emphasis was different from
Bacon.
VIII. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
A professor at Cambridge, Newton was quite possibly the greatest scientist who ever lived. He was
born the day Galileo died.



Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) and 2
Principia Mathematica, 1687 (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)
o It brought together Galileo's discoveries about motion on Earth, and Kepler's
discoveries about motion in the heavens.
o He also brought together the Baconian stress on generating laws by inductive arguing
from experience and Descartes' stress on deducing new ideas from things known well.
o To do this Newton had to invent calculus.
o Newton provided an explanation for heavenly motion that was tied to observed
properties of motion on Earth. (Galileo + Kepler)
o And he generalized laws from these observations, but based laws based on
mathematics. Newton had read Descartes and in fact attacked him, but uses his
mathematical approach. (Bacon + Descartes)
A Better Synthesis than Aristotle
o So at last there was a synthesis better than that provided by Aristotle. Newton
accounted for motion throughout the Universe.
o







Newton also had to attack Descartes view on a plenum of matter, with vortices
moving the planets.
o Newton's explanation was based on idea of Inertial Movement and Gravity.
o With the concept of inertia, you no longer had to explain motion, you only had to
explain change.
o All bodies moved as if every particle attracted every other particle with a force
proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them.
o NOTE THAT THIS IS NEVER THE CASE IN THE REAL WORLD. NEWTON'S
GENIUS WAS TO IMAGINE MOTION OUTSIDE THE REAL WORLD OF
IMPEDIMENTS TO MOTION, AND A WORLD OF VERY MANY PARTICLES,
AND TO IMAGINE A UNIVERSE WITH ONLY TWO PARTICLES, BUT TO
BASE THAT IMAGINATION ON OBSERVATION.
1672 Jean Picard, a Frenchman observed Mars from Paris and Cayenne, and worked out its
altitude. This helped Newton in his calculations.
Newton could not explain why gravity existed.
Newton still had room for God; and he was very pious .
The Three Laws of Motion
o 1. A body moves in a straight line unless impeded. (Inertia).
o 2. Every action has equal and opposite reaction.
o 3. Every body attracts every other body with a force proportional to the distance
between.
Note that motion is normal, and does not need explaining. Also force can be conveyed
without physical touching. It is still not clear if Newton was correct here.
Inertia drives out the angels and lets us get the view of the Universe a a large piece of
clockwork.
Newton also worked on Optics - Opticks - 1704
Newton was not, of course, "right". Einstein and Quantum Mechanics in the last century have shown
that, but his model was infinitely better than anything done before.
Alexander Pope wrote:
Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;
God said, "Let Newton be." and all was light.
IX. Other Sciences than Physics and Astronomy
Other sciences were less on the cutting edge. They were less mathematical, but do exhibit a can-do
attitude. Chemistry did not show advances until a century later.
A. The Development of Instrumentation



-Clocks
-Galileo and Telescope
-Leeuwenheok - microscope
B. Medicine
We saw it made little practical progress until late 1700s, but there was steady development in
knowledge that eventually overthrew the demonic view of illness. The rational views of Greek
medicine helped here - influence of Galen (2nd Cent. AD).



Vesalius A doctor at Padua.
o Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) and 2
o In 1543 he published a textbook on anatomy.
o 16th Century Anatomical Drawing
o A Surgeon in 1593
o Vesalius Image Archive [At Vesalium.com]
Archive of medical and anatomical images. Not for the squeamish.
William Harvey studied at Padua.
o 1628 - On the Movement of the Heart and the Blood
o Harvey explained notion of continual circulation of the blood. (da Vinci had know
this but not published a century earlier).
Malpighi (Italian)
o 1661 discovered Capillaries
X. Practical Effects of the Scientific Revolution
There were few practical effects on technology. It is important to realize that the Industrial
Revolution did not at first depend on this new scientific view of the world.




New mathematics and science did effect navigation, map making and artillery.
Better guns were another way Europeans came to dominate the world; they had better ways
of using weapons and better ways of knowing where they were.
The laws Newton discovered could be used to fire more accurately. This effect was felt soon
after Newton.
Science has innumerable practical ramifications: new guns, bigger armies, more taxes, social
discontent.
A New attitude to past was probably more important





Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790): Experiments with Balloons, 1783
With Newton modern civilization did something the ancients had not been able to do. It
explained motion and the heavens. There was now a sense of skepticism about beliefs held
on old authority.
The Powers of Reason This led to a new confidence in the powers of reason, and perhaps a
move away from faith, even if it was not rejected. We shall be moving on to the
Enlightenment proper, which built especially on Newton in next class.
Natural Law But note that old attitude of seeing a NATURAL LAW at work in Universe
was confirmed in the new Newtonian world view.
Can-do approach A can do-approach and the idea of progress had a part in the Industrial
Revolution.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
The Enlightenment was a cultural movement which applied the insights of the Scientific Revolution
to the wider world: to politics, to religion, and to art.
The Scientific Revolution involved some really deep thinking about the nature of the Universe.
Although it was important, there were probably not more than a few hundred people in all Europe at
the time who understood what was happening. The Enlightenment can be thought of as a process of
making the findings of the Scientific Revolution much more widely available.
The Scientific Revolution reached its high point at the end of the 17th century with the work of
Newton. It was the work of scientists from many different countries (Italy, Germany, Denmark,
Holland, Poland, England, France). The Enlightenment took place in the 18th century and was
dominated by France, which was also by far the most powerful state of the period.
One useful way of thinking about the Enlightenment is as a project to remake society in accordance
with the values of Reason, Toleration, and Natural Law. In one sense, as we shall see, the United
States can be considered an Enlightenment Project.
By the end of this section you should:








Know the main themes of the Enlightenment.
Be familiar with the philosophes.
Be able to discuss the social setting of the Enlightenment, especially the role of women and
salons.
Know about the work of Voltaire and Diderot.
Be able to explain why the Encyclopedia was important.
Be able to discuss Montesquieu's political ideas and their application to the United States
constitution.
Understand the contributions of Rousseau in the following areaso Theory of origins of property
o Theory of Civil society as opposed to Natural society
o Theory of the General Will and Popular Sovereignty
o Romanticism
Be able to discuss the main "Enlightened Despots".
Text
Kagan, 604-5, 609-38
Multimedia
Images







Voltaire (1694-1778) and 2, 3
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and 2
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762)
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
Sources
The Enlightenment is a period which produced many interesting ideas and source. There is quite a
wide selection for this section. But not all of these are equally important. Make sure to read the six
documents which are starred *. The two readings form Rousseau are the ones we will discuss most
in Caucus. If you want to read more see the Enlightenment page of the Modern History Sourcebook.













Voltaire (1694-1778): Letters on Newton
*Paris Salons in the 18th Century
*Voltaire (1694-1778): A Treatise on Toleration 1763
Voltaire (1694-1778): Candide 1759
Jean La Rond D'Alembert: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia
Joseph Addison: The Spacious Firmament
Voltaire (1694-1778): On Religion from the Philosophical Dictionary
*Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): The Spirit of the Laws
1748
*Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Second Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 1755
*Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): The Social Contract 1763
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Emile
*Condorcet (1743-94): On the Future Progress of the Human Mind 1794
Catherine the Great of Russia: Various Documents on Enlightenment and Government
Outline
[NOTE: For those of you interested in the history of Philosophy, there is an additional outline
available on The Development of Western Philosophy. The leading figures of the Enlightenment are
called "philosophes", a French word which means "philosopher". Men such as Voltaire and Diderot,
however, were not so much "philosophers" as "public intellectuals". They knew about the work of
scientists and philosophers, and discussed that work, but did not make any original contributions.
The outline on philosophy gives some background, but it is not necessary that you read it.]
I. Introduction
We ended the last section by mentioning the Enlightenment proper - a period of publicization of the
more austere thought of others by men known as philosophes.
II. Where, When, and Why?
A. England

Voltaire (1694-1778): Letters on Newton
Many of the most progressive ideas and developments had taken place in England in the 17th
Century.


Science: Newton,
Philosophy: Locke,

AND
Politics: 1688 the Glorious Revolution.
These developments had a real influence on the Frenchmen we discuss here 
Voltaire visited England and wrote letters in praise of it

Montesquieu based his views on the separation of powers in government on his
(mis)understanding of the English Government.
B. France
So far we have been wandering all over Europe but all these new ideas came together and were
popularized, especially in France.
III. Definitions
A. Enlightenment
The Enlightenment and liberal thought in general, with Voltaire and Diderot leading the way,
emphasized




REASON,
TOLERATION and
NATURAL LAW,
plus a confidence in modern man and his achievements - the idea of PROGRESS.

ABOVE ALL THEY PROMOTED THE IDEA OF CHANGE AND PROGRESS AS
GOOD THINGS. THIS HAS BECOME A VERY DISTINCTIVE MARK OF THE
MODERN WORLD.
*Condorcet (1743-94): On the Future Progress of the Human Mind 1794

B. Philosophes
The people who were the thinkers in France were known as PHILOSOPHES. They were not on the
whole original thinkers, but were great publicists of the new ideas.
C. Social Context

*Paris Salons in the 18th Century
The social context of the Philosophes was uniquely civilized: a Salon society presided over by
educated women hostesses. [Most of the men were anti-feminist but this was a time when
aristocratic women did have a lot of power in society.]
[See the movie Dangerous Liasions for an interesting representation of the society of 18th Century
France]
IV. Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet) 1694-1778


*Voltaire (1694-1778): A Treatise on Toleration 1763
Voltaire (1694-1778): Candide 1759
A. Life
1726-29 Visited England.
Spent the latter part of his life in exile near Geneva. He was referred to as the Roi de Fernay ["King"
of his estate.]
Voltaire was the most famous philosophe and he was not an aristocrat, rather a very rich bourgeois.
He was above all concerned with human action and attempts to improve human life. He was one of
the very best French writers; read him and you will see that he gets his ideas across in the most
charming and witty way possible: for example in Candide, an attack on Leibniz's philosophy that
"we live in the best of all possible worlds", is also extremely funny.
B. Works





Letters on the English 1733
Lettres philosophiques 1734
Elements of the Philosophy of Newton
Candide 1759
Dictionnaire Philosophique 1764
C. Thought





Voltaire promoted Free Speech, Civil Rights and Toleration.
He was extremely anticlerical. He used to write "Ecrasez L'infame" ["destroy the infamy" i.e. removes the Church from power in society] on all his letters. This anticlericalism was
inspired by the Calas case (a Protestant was falsely accused and killed for killing his son to
stop him becoming Roman Catholic.) This is important in explaining the extreme anticlericalism of the French Revolution. It was not present in English thinkers.
Voltaire was not a "liberal" in many ways. He praised Louis XIV and thought Enlightened
despotism was the best government, as a monarchy could keep down the Church and the
aristocracy.
He was also anti-Semitic, possibly due to equating Jews with the Church, possibly due to
problems he had with money lenders. Neither is an excuse.
He was powerful because he was such a good writer. Even today Candide is read for
pleasure.
V. Diderot and the Encyclopedia
Denis Diderot 1713-84
Jean le Rond D'Alembert 1717-83
A. The Encyclopedia 1751-72 17 vols.

Jean La Rond D'Alembert: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia
The Encyclopedia was a central institution of the Enlightenment thinkers. Its aim was to include all
knowledge.
All the leading philosophes wrote for it in signed articles and so it shows many different views: for
instance there is a debates on "luxury" - Voltaire thought it was good, but others, looking to ancient
Sparta thought it was contrary to virtue.
Volume 2 was banned - which only made it more popular.
B Publicity
The Encyclopedia shows Philosophes/Enlightenment as part of a process of publicity. They got their
ideas into all the reading public's mind. About 25,000 were sold, half outside France.
At Besancon [28,000 pop] 137 sets sold 


15 to clergy,
53 to nobles,
69 to lawyers, doctors, merchants and govt officials
The groups most criticized, nobles and clergy, actually bought it more than other groups.
C. Ideals


It promoted ideals of toleration, reason and progress, equality before the law (for all the 3
estates) It saw the state as the agency for progress, opposition to the Church and Faith.
IT DIFFUSED THESE IDEAS AROUND EUROPE.
V. The Enlightenment, Deism, and Religion
A. Introduction
This was not a great age for theology: there were it must be emphasized movements of popular piety,
pietism and Methodism, but religion did not hold the intellectual leaders as it had during the
Reformation.
B. Deism


Joseph Addison: The Spacious Firmament
Voltaire (1694-1778): On Religion from the Philosophical Dictionary
Deism was idea that God set up the Universe as clockwork and then just let it run. It proposed a nonritual religion based on REASON. In fact this was not as strong as Faith, as reasonable arguments
can be and are disproved.
Deists also attacked Christianity, especially Catholicism, as superstitious.
Deism was the belief of many philosophes and was actually made a state religion for a short while
during the French Revolution
C. Age of Reason?
Note the contrast: One age, the Reformation, has Christ suffering for humanity on the Cross as the
image of God, the next has God as a Watchmaker.
VI. Enlightenment Political Thought
One of most creative aspects of the Enlightenment was its use of new philosophy in a practical way
to discuss politics. One of the most commonly asked questions about the French Revolution is about
the influence of these ideas - their influence on American events is even more certain.
As mentioned in the last class the earliest of the new political thinkers were Hobbes and Locke. The
English political experience of the 17th century and the problems of the Stuarts were a starting point
for political thought.
A. English Thinkers - Absolutism, and the beginnings of Liberalism.
a. Thomas Hobbes 1588-1662
1. An Atheist - 2nd son of a vicar. He was a late maturer as a thinker. He was opposed to the
English Revolution and had gone into exile in 1640.
2. Leviathan 1651, is his masterpiece.
It was based on the New Science and observation. He thought his new subject of study was
on a par with the work of his friends William Harvey and Galileo. All he had to do was find
the right method.
3. He was, in the tradition of the Scientific Revolution, concerned with the natural state of
affairs. Machiavelli 1469- 1527, was an obvious influence. He was also influenced by
Thucydides. He had translated the entire Peloponnesian War.
4. His political science was based on reason not moralistic prescription - this was to be future of
this science.
5. The Hobbesian View of Men -see Leviathan chap 13 "The life of man is nasty brutish and
short". There is a need for a state to control, although the aim is the welfare of all. Absolute
power for a leader is needed.
6. His theoretical basis was absolute materialism. Hobbes thought that matter was all that
existed: men where just part of conflict in nature. For Hobbes the whole Universe including
politics is mechanical. Thus his ideas have a NATURAL LAW element.
7. Hobbes wants a tightly ordered commonwealth, not a Tyranny, ruled by law and order. His
work shows in detail what powers he thinks a state must have in order to do its job.
8. Note here: Idea of Reason of State vs. Divine Right. [Hobbes ahead of his time - Bousset and
Domat wrote later, but Hobbes was more influential in long run]
b. John Locke 1632-1704
1. Introduction
Locke is part of the central tradition of western liberal thought and even Republicans are
liberals in these terms. Locke + Smith = Classic liberalism.
2. Political Works
Two Treatises on Government 1690
This was more or less written before the Glorious Revolution of 1688, but is often seen as
justifying it.
Letter on Toleration 1689
Locke is less original than Hobbes but more influential. He opposed Hobbes but was also
influenced by Science, Newton, plus medieval ideas opposing absolute power and supporting
Natural Law. He referred to the theologian Richard Hooker a great deal.
3. Philosophical Basis of Locke's Views
Locke's psychology/epistemology shows his view of man: Man is rational, born equal (one of
implications of a tabula rasa at birth). What motivates people is pleasure and avoidance of
pain (This was not questioned until Freud). Government should try to mold behavior with
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
pleasure and pain: it should manipulate the environment, and use education to make better
people.
Theory of Government
Man's NATURAL state was of harmony with each other and equality. But without a
government there are "inconveniences": no law or judges.
People make a contract with government to protect their rights. THIS WAS A RATIONAL
NOT A THEOLOGICAL reason for government. The people have a natural(= Divine) right
to oppose governments that do not keep the contract: an argument used by American
colonists.
Natural Rights and Civil Rights
Because Man is born equal he has rights: government exists to protect these rights. Locke's
theory was that there were NATURAL RIGHTS - to "life, liberty and property"
His view was that people SHOULD have these rights to be fully human.
Natural Law is deduced, there was no empirical basis for it. Locke has a rationalist not an
empiricist approach to this aspect of his thought.
Locke and Equality
As well as natural rights, Locke also stressed equality. By this he meant not that all should
possess, or be, the same, but that all should be equal before the law. He doesn't really mean
anything more.
Slavery
Locke did not oppose slavery, just like the liberal founding fathers. This must fundamentally
be attributed to racism, since, for Locke, a slave is not fully able to realize his/her humanity,
he must have thought that black slaves did not require it in the same way as bourgeois
Englishmen.
The point to note that although his theories may be evaluated by us as good or bad they also
have a definite aim: to promote the interests of the middle class, and black slavery was at that
time profitable to the English middle class.
c. Adam Smith 1723-90 and Economics
The Wealth of Nations 1776
1. Smith founded the science of Economics,(cf. Hobbes and Political Science).
2. He wrote in opposition to Mercantilism: the theory that a positive trade balance should be
promoted by government intervention and tariffs.
3. He proposed an economic system that would be seen as "the OBVIOUS and simple system
of NATURAL liberty"
4. The Theory
General welfare depends on allowing the individual to promote his/her interest freely within
the laws of justice. In this way he will more effectually promote the interest of society than if
he actually tries to promote it. This worked by individuals rationally calculating their chances
in the MARKET.
5. Background
The background to this idea was Locke's idea that people are motivated above all by
pleasure. Smith from this base proposed the existence of laws of supply and demand. His
theory of economics is based on the idea of unintended consequences of actions. He explains
that all will be for the best with the idea of an invisible hand: there is an element of faith here
- the invisible hand fills the position of Angels in explaining unexplainable movement in
Middle Ages.
6. Laissez Faire
Because of these views he thought government should not interfere in the economy - This is
the idea of Laissez-Faire. He still gives government a place in in the Judiciary, the Army,
Navy and Police.
7. Nature and Economics
Smith's ideas were based on idea of exploiting nature to use it for man's enrichment. This has
been dominant theme in modern western history and theory, both capitalist and Marxist; now
we are faced with environmental problems.
8. Smith was more subtle than this summary: but often complex ideas get reduced to their bones
and have their influence in their unsophisticated form.
He was writing at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, but his ideas were adopted for
there theoretical usefulness to the exploiting middle class as well as for their undoubted
greatness: they gave the new middle class the opportunity to believe that greed was for the
benefit of society and so escape the guilt that Christianity had always attributed to greed.
C. French Thinkers
a. Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu

*Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): The Spirit of the Laws
1748
1. Life
1689-1755. Montesquieu was an aristocrat in south-west France and a president of the
Parlement of Bordeaux, a position he inherited from his father; so basically he was an
aristocrat who rejected Absolutism and looking back to old aristocratic liberties.
2. Persian Letters 1721
A way of dealing with censorship: censorship was less and less pervasive in France after
1750, but still tended to make French writer address things in an abstract, unconcrete manner.
There was by contrast very little censorship in England, although there was always some.
3. De l'esprit des lois 1748 The Spirit of the Laws
The Spirit of the Laws was written after 14 years study of laws and thinkers, including
Locke. It presents two main ideas.
---It classified governments not on basis of location of power but on the animating principle:
Republics - virtue, Monarchies - honor, Despotism - fear. No one system was suitable
everywhere. Montesquieu was less hooked on systems than other writers: he thought that
allowance should be made for the traditions, economy and religion of a country. He thought
that despotism was suited to hot climates where it was necessary to force lazy people to
work!
---More influential was his theory of separation of powers: executive, judicial, and
legislative. This was based on a certain perception of English government, with its King,
House of Lords, and House of Commons.
---He wanted to use this principle in the politics of France: he would give power to
parlements, towns, aristocracy to counter the monarchy. He was in many ways a political
conservative arguing in fervor of aristocracy: although he recognized that the aristocracy of
his day was corrupt, he thought this was due to the corruption of absolutism.
4. He influenced the framers of US Constitution 1787, more so than the Declaration of
Independence.
b. Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1712-78


*Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Second Discourse on the Origins of Inequality 1755
*Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): The Social Contract 1763
Rousseau was born in Geneva of a lower class background. His mother died as a result of his birth
and he had a lot of hang-ups: these are shown in his Confessions. He seems to have been paranoid,
and later in life he treated his five children very badly: he put them in an orphanage.
In 1741, he moved to Paris and became friendly with the philosophes. He became well know with
his Essay on the Progress of the Arts and Sciences in which he argued against progress as it
removed men from their natural state.
He contributed to the Encyclopedia.
2. Works




Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences 1750
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 1755
Emile 1762
On the Social Contract 1762
3. Foundations of Rousseau' Thought


The basic thrust of his thought was a concern with virtue. Adam Smith wanted people to be
prosperous, Rousseau wanted to make them good.
His view of property shows a horror of modern society, which he said began with the first
person put a fence around his land and people were stupid enough to believe it.
4. Political Vision of On the Social Contact







For Rousseau the Social Contract the basic law of society. Liberty is obedience to the law
you have accepted, and equality means all are equally dependent on society and not on any
other individual.
The Social Contact should be written by a legislator, Moses or Lycurgus, who should then
depart the scene - Forcing men to be free.
So Rousseau wants liberty and equality in society but denies these are natural. Rather he
wants civil liberty and equality, that is he wants them granted by the state. The rights you
have are the ones you have in the community, to which you give all your natural liberty and
equality when you joined it.
The social contract was not between government and people, but between
people themselves, therefore the best society was a participatory democracy, like ancient
Athens, Geneva, or New England towns.
Rousseau's society depends on public spiritedness, compared with Locke and Smith for
whom the most important part of life was private. In general Rousseau is out of tune with
individualistic liberalism and greed.
Sovereign Power and General Will
The people are the source of legitimate sovereignty. Sovereignty then resides in the people,
but how to express this in action. Rousseau came up with the idea of a General Will.
The idea of a General Will was the principle behind the validity of the Social Contract. It is a
very important concept: political society is seen as involving the total subjection of every
individual to the General Will of the whole. The problem is discovering what the General
Will is: for Rousseau it is NOT the same as the wishes of majority, rather it is what is in their
best interests. That is why Rousseau said some Legislator should point to the mandate of
heaven to get his law accepted. People should be "forced to be free": the aim was to create a
more virtuous human being.
4. Effects of Rousseau's Thought



He was not much read at first. He first becomes influential on the Jacobins and Robespierre.
He is very important in later political theorizing.
Rousseau's arguments for democracy and equality had a generally liberal effect in the US and
Britain
But the idea of the General Will, which is not the same as majority vote, has encouraged
those who believe in Vanguards of Revolution, and provides a framework for totalitarianism
in its modern sense. It has real totalitarian implications, especially the idea that the people
may not know their own will.
5. Rousseau and Romanticism

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Emile

Rousseau was also a forerunner of Romanticism, a sort of reaction to both empiricism and
rationalism that rejected reason as only criterion of truth and which exalted feelings.
This was Rousseau's greatest effect in his life time with Emile, which encouraged parents to
love their children, although of course Rousseau was no example of this.
There was a sort of cult around Rousseau chez women readers.He spread respect for feelings
and the common people and, despite way he treated his own children, people were inspired
by his writings to look after their own: in some ways he was the beginning of modern
humanitarianism.
Rousseau also promoted the idea of the Noble Savage, in Discours sur l'Origine de l'inegalite
parmi les hommes - 1755. This is. of course in contrast to his view in On the Social Contract
that you should try to make people better.
ROUSSEAU'S IDEAS VERY OFTEN DO NOT ADD UP. HE IS MESS OF
CONTRADICTIONS
--- DEMOCRACY & TOTALITARIANISM
---NOBLE SAVAGE & NEED FOR EDUCATION.




VII. Did Enlightenment thinkers effect the French Revolution?
Rousseau had an effect during the course - but in next lecture one of the things to look at is the
overall effect of these thinkers. Their long term effect is pretty clear, we shall be looking at short
term effect.
VIII. America and the Enlightenment
A. American Thinkers


Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Jefferson.
B. America - The Enlightenment Project
C. The Constitution used many of the ideas above.



Locke - "Life, Liberty and Property".
The idea of just opposition to despotism.
Montesquieu - The idea of separation of powers.
D. America was an example of practical freedom; the Goldene Medina. This had a definite effect on
Europe.
IX. Enlightened Despotism
As Enlightenment ideals spread through Europe, they affected a generation of monarchs. Raison
d'etat [reason of state] rather than Divine Right became the justification of their rule.
A. Austria
Maria Theresa 1740-1780
Joseph II 1780-1790
These monarchs centralized the state and put an and end to local diets. This was a non-national state,
but as yet there was little nationalism.
B. Prussia
Frederick the Great 1740-1789
Frederick had low view of people. He ran the state as a military regime. He seized Silesia for
"reasons of state". He was a great ruler, but left no trained successor and Napoleon was almost able
to destroy Prussia. However, Prussia was made so much stronger than any other German state that it
was to unite Germany in the next century, and impose a sort of Prussian patina to the country.
C. Russia
Catherine the Great 1762-96

Catherine the Great of Russia: Various Documents on Enlightenment and Government
A German princess who deposed her imbecile husband. Russia was still in most primitive condition
and she kept serfdom.
D. The Division of Poland
These three monarchs divided Poland between them in 1772,1793 and 1795.
The Absolutist states succeeded - and older states faded - Poland, The Holy Roman Empire, The
Ottoman Empire.
Web Exercise
The web project this week picks up on a theme of the Enlightenment - the Encyclopedia. Many
students like encyclopedias as handy reference tools, so this week we are going to evaluate what you
find in online encyclopedias about the people we have been reading, and compare that information
with what you yourself see after you have read something written by the same people.
Let's stick with three philosophes [you only need do the project on one of them]

Voltaire


Diderot
Rousseau
You can find information about them at:





The Encyclopedia Britannica [This should be accessible from computers at your schools. If
your from home, you can get a "trial subscription" for a week.]
Encarta [Concise version is free. Full version can be had for free for seven days]
The Columbia Encyclopedia
Compton's Online Encyclopedia [This also has a seven day trial subscription. For those with
AOL it is available already: the keyword is "comptons"]
Hutchinson's Encyclopedia [This one is only available on AOL. Use keyword
"encyclopedias", then choose "More Encyclopedias"]
Note: if you sign up for a "free trial" to access these online publications, you are under no
obligation to give your full name, full correct address, or even your main email address. If you do,
the companies will add you to their database. You have a right to protect your privacy.
Your job is to look up one of the philosophes in at least two of the encyclopedias.


Explain which encyclopedia is best for your subject, and why? Explain the strengths and
weaknesses of each encyclopedia.
What do you gain by looking at the original texts by the author rather than just looking at an
encyclopedia?
Discussion Questions
What were the major formative influences on the Enlightenment thinkers?
How did the Enlightenment change basic attitudes to reform, faith, reason and science?
What methods did the philosophes use to spread their ideas?
Why did the philosophes oppose religion?
What was the role of women in the thought of the philosophes?
Was Montesquieu's view of England accurate?
Did the Enlightened Despots really believe in Enlightenment ideals, or were they just using them as
propaganda?
Are Enlightenment ideals universally true?
Introduction: This Week's Goals
Most students are probably more familiar with the American Revolution than any of the topics we
have covered so far. In most cases the American Revolution is taught as part of American history
courses. Many such courses take the view that American history is "exceptional". In this section,
however, we want to look at how the American revolution functioned as an aspect of Western and
World History. By the end of the section, you should:-





Have a clear idea the main series of events leading to the establishment of the United States
of America.
Understand the political and philosophical roots of the ideas of the revolution.
Be able to discuss the specific American circumstances of the revolution.
Understand the debate about how radical the revolution was.
Be able to discuss the impact of the American Revolution on:o Africans in America
o Indian peoples
o Women
o Canada
o The World balance of power.
Text
Kagan, 579-602
Multimedia



















Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
George Washington (1732-1799 1st Pres.1789-1797)
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826, 3d Pres.1801-1809)
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
Map: European Powers in the New World 1713
Map: Immigrants 1770
Chart: Slave Trade: Carriers and Destinations
Death of Wolfe
A Colonial City
Fort Ticonderoga
Newspaper Headline: The Stamp Act
Paying the Exciseman
The Boston Massacre
British Cartoon: Boston Tea Party
Cartoon:-"Despotism vs. Liberty," 1776 1776
Gilbert Stuart: The Declaration of Independence
Cartoon: "Great Britain Mutilated" 1783
Town Plan: Washington D.C.
Poster: New Orleans as part of the United States
Sources
[note: all links are to off site texts.
Local versions will be available later.]






Governor Glen: The Role of the Indians in the Rivalry Between France, Spain, and England,
1761
J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (1735-1813): Letters From An American Farmer: Letter 3:
What is an American, 1782
Declaration of Independence, 1776
James Madison:Speech proposing the Bill of Rights, June 8, 1789
Bill of Rights and the Amendments to The Constitution
Alexis De Tocqueville: Democracy in America




Chief Black Hawk (1767-1838): Autobiography
Smallpox, Indians, and Blankets
Slavery
o Gottlieb Mittelberger, On the Misfortune indentured Servants
o Oladuah Equiano: The Life of Gustavus Vassa
OPTIONAL READINGS
o The Constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy
o Excerpts from Locke and Jefferson, side by side
o The Constitution of the USA 1787
Outline
I. Introduction
II. The European World Economic System



A. Central and Peripheral Areas
o Spain and Portugal
o France
o England
o Map: European Powers in the New World 1713
B. The Slave Trade
o Chart: Slave Trade: Carriers and Destinations
C: Conflicts Between European states - in Europe and abroad.
III. The English Colonies





A. Colonial Life
B. Colonial Government
C. Colonial Expansion
A Colonial City
Map: Immigrants 1770
IV. The Road to Independence




America and the Enlightenment
o American Thinkers
o Benjamin Franklin
 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)
o Thomas Jefferson.
 Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826, 3d Pres.1801-1809)
The French and Indian War 1756-1763
o Part of the world wide "Seven Years War".
o France vs. Britain.
o Only after Britain won did the colonists start to make a fuss about taxation.
o Death of Wolfe 1759
Colonial Discontent
o Trade System/Navigation Acts
o Extent of Regulation - Benign neglect no more
o Relations with Parliament
1768-1774
o
o
o
o
o
Tea Acts
Quebec Act
Intolerable Acts
Newspaper Headline: The Stamp Act
Paying the Exciseman
V. Rebellious Actions





1774 First Continental Congress
1775 Skirmishes at Lexington
Fort Ticonderoga
The Boston Massacre
British Cartoon: Boston Tea Party
VI. Opinion Changers



Thomas Paine, the writer of Common Sense, was also later to be involved in defending the
French Revolution.
Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
1775 Common Sense
VII. Great Men ?




Thomas Jefferson
Benjamin Franklin
George Washington
o George Washington (1732-1799 1st Pres.1789-1797)
Benedict Arnold
VIII. Declaration of Independence 1776





This drew heavily on liberal ideals; for instance in justifying the revolution, in its emphasis
on human rights, and the rights of property.
Self evidence?
Unfair view of George III.
Cartoon:-"Despotism vs. Liberty" 1776
Gilbert Stuart: The Declaration of Independence
IX. The War





1775 Lexington
1778 Alliance with France
1781 British Defeat at Yorktown
1783 Treaty of Paris
Cartoon: "Great Britain Mutilated" 1783
X. Revolution or War of Independence?

War of Independence?
o Elite classes remain in charge
o Poor whites not represented
o Blacks still slaves


Revolutionary Social Change
o Departure of Loyalists (60,000)
o Leveling effect of inflation
o Creation of a new mythology
A Country With a Mission
XI. The Governance of the New Country



States
Articles of Confederation 1781 - Loose Union
Problems
XII. The Making of the Constitution 1787

Why?
o
o


For economic reasons (Charles Beard)
For Democracy
Philadelphia 1787
New Notion - Federalism
o cf. Confederation (Joint citizenship)
XIII. The Constitution






Rationale
o Freedom from government
[Discussion: What does government do?]
o Built in Gridlock
British Models
o English Institutions
-Bicameral legislature
-Single executive
-Common law rules
o John Locke
Government as a contract.
French Models
o Montesquieu - Separation of Powers
o Rousseau - Popular Sovereignty
American Experiences
o New England town meetings
o Colonial assemblies (unlike anything in England)
o State constitutions (e.g. Virginia)
o Example of Iroquois Confederation?
Separation of Powers
o Executive Presidency (=King)
o Congress (=Parliament)
o Judiciary (=Judges)
American Originality
o Formalizing of Arrangements
XIV. Federalists and Anti-Federalists

Federalists:
o
o

Alexander Hamilton
Strong government
Anti-Federalists:
o Thomas Jefferson
o Limited government
XV. The Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights was written to defend individuals against state power.
XVI. The Party System




Early Intentions
George Washington
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson and the Republicans (i.e. Democrats)
XVII. America - The Enlightenment Project

The Constitution used many Enlightenment ideas.
o Locke - "Life, Liberty and Property".
o The idea of just opposition to despotism.
o Montesquieu - The idea of separation of powers.
o Creation of a New Society
o Civil Religion of the United States
o Overwhelming cultural importance given to notion of the Individual [ But who was
an individual?]
XVIII. America: A City on a Hill?



Town Plan: Washington D.C.
Poster: New Orleans as part of the United States
America was an example of practical freedom: This had a definite effect on Europe.
Web Exercise
This week's web exercise is another "search and assess" mission!
Locate two web sites on slavery. You can find these on American Slavery, Ancient Slavery, or
slavery in the modern world.
Explain how you found the site. Try not to go to the first ones you come across in Yahoo. I
recommend trying to find a site dedicated to the history of slavery, and then checking out that site's
links.
Compare the approaches of the two sites you choose. What is the underlying "mission" of the site?
How does the creator document his or her sources? What conflicts can you see about how we
interpret the history of slavery?
Discussion Questions
What was "mercantilism" and why did it encourage European countries to develop overseas
empires? What were the four main stages of these empires?
Compare the experiences and potential hopes of an "indentured servant" from Europe and an
enslaved African in the New World.
Discuss the conflict between European powers in the mid 18th century? Why might the "Seven
Years War" of 1756-63 be thought of as the first "world war"? What were the effects of this war on
who controlled the North American colonies.
To what extent was the American Revolution a "European" event? Try to be specific and explain
what ideas from English Common Law, French political philosophy, etc., played a role. What do you
think was most important?
What were the major economic issues that lead to the onset of the Revolution?
What was the role of propaganda in creating support for the Revolution? What methods were used to
spread revolutionary ideas?
Discuss the relationship between the Declaration of Independence and the thought of John Locke.
Discuss the role of France in supporting the American revolutionaries? Why was France, officially
an absolutist monarchy, so keen on supporting a revolution?
What united the American colonists in 1776? What divided them?
Why didn't the American revolution end slavery?
Introduction: This Week's Goals
The French Revolution marks a crucial phase in the creation of the modern world. The Revolution
swept away the Ancien Regime, which despite its modernizing methods of government, based
political power on rule of a monarch, and replaced it with a series of governments that tried to apply
political principles derived from the Enlightenment. The Revolution also led to a 25 year period of
war and conflict in Europe, a period that was both destructive and innovatory. In this section you
should:





Be able to identify the causes of the Revolution, and the progressive unfolding of events.
Be able to explain the sources of ideas in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen.
Be able to explain what was attempted during the Republic of Virtue and the Reign of Terror.
Discuss the emergence of new conservative ideals in the work of Edmund Burke.
Assess the role of the "great man in history" with respect to Napoleon.
Text
Kagan, 641-79
Multimedia
Images








Louis XVI (b.1754-r.1774-1796) and 2, 3 (alive) and 4, 5 (dead)
Marie Antoinette (1755-1796) and 2 (about to be dead)
Jean Paul Marat (1743-1795) and dead
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) and 2
Napoleon (1769-1821, r. 1799-1814) and 2, 3, 4, 5
Horatio Nelson (1758-1805)
Duke of Wellington (1769-1852)
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) and 2
Sources













Cahier of the Third Estate of Dourdan, March 29, 1789, [At Clinch Valley College]
Abbé Sieyes: What is the Third Estate?
Reading Guide - Early French Revolution
The Tennis Court Oath, June 20, 1789, [At Clinch Valley College]
Declaration of the Rights of Man, 26 August, 1789, [At Yale]
Decree Abolishing Feudalism, 1789, [At Hanover]
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 1790, [At Hanover]
Proclamation of the Duke of Brunswick, 1792, [At Hanover]
The Marseillaise
Maximilian Robespierre (1758-94): On the Festival of the Supreme Being, 1794
Maximilian Robespierre (1758-94): Terror and Virtue, 1794
Reading Guide
Olympe de Gouges: Declaration of the Rights of Women, 1791
Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1791, extended
excerpts
Napoleon Bonaparte: Account of the Situation of the Empire, 1804, [At Hanover]
Outline
I. Introduction
So far we have looked at people and ideas, at social history and intellectual history. Not at what a lot
of you might have expected as history, but we are looking at how the modern world came about in
all its complexity.
Now however, we are going to look at the series of events which make up the French Revolution. To
begin with we are going to look at causes and origins, at how previous intellectual, social and
political elements all contributed to it.
There is a lot of information here, so keep the following central points in mind:
Why the the French Revolution was important



It brought the People to the forefront of politics
set the model for later revolutions, and
changed the political map of Europe forever.
Chronology - Sketch of Events





1788-89 French State undergoes a massive revolution in politics but also in society and the
way people think. The calling of the Estates General in 1789 was the catalyst for the
Revolution.
1789-1792 - Liberal Revolution
1792-1794 - Radicalization
795-1799 - Ineffective Reaction
1799-1815 - Napoleon
II. The Causes of the French Revolution



Intellectual
Social
Political
A. Intellectual Causes
[See classes on Enlightenment!]
The Enlightenment: scientific and philosophical thought had been generalized in the 18th Century.
There was now a much larger intellectual class with the political ideas that the Enlightenment had
spread around Europe.
What was later called Liberalism was popular.



Liberty - Human Rights/Natural Rights.
The sovereignty of the people.
Equality - meant equal rights for all under the Law.
Liberals also wanted freedom from a state-controlled economy. Property was seen as sacred. These
were middle class property owners by and large.
Assessment of Intellectual Causes
Intellectual causes are difficult to quantify in terms of their effects, but they are nonetheless
important in effecting actions and ideologies of participants.
After Montesquieu, a republic as regarded as at least theoretically noble and possible.
Rousseau had an effect during the long but, as we shall see, most of the unrolling of the Revolution
came in response to events; actual actions were often intensely pragmatic.
B. The American Revolution
The economic effects will be discussed later. Be aware here of the mythic effects of a free republic.
France had helped Americans vs. Britain and many Frenchmen, such as LaFayette, were to be
important in both revolutions. Victory for the new USA was in 1783.
C. Social Causes
We have very good sources for the social problems before the Revolution: the Cahiers des doleances
[Notebooks of Grievences] of 1788.
The Problem of the Estates System



First Estate: The Clergy
1% of pop, with 10% of land.They had wealth, land, privileges and they levied a tax on the
peasantry, the tithe, which generally went to some remote bishop or monastery rather than
the local parish priest.
The First Estate was perhaps 100,000 strong. But note that there were many poor clergymen
in this Estate, and they were going to support the Revolution.
Second Estate: The Nobility
2-5% of pop, with 20% of the land. They also had great wealth and taxed the peasantry:
There was a "feudal" resurgence in 18th century.
400,000 people.
The great division among the Nobility was between the Noblesse d'epee, dating from the
Middle Ages, and the Noblesse de Robe: later nobles whose titles came from their possession
of public offices.
Third Estate: Everyone Else
95-97% of the pop.
There were some few rich members, the artisans and all the peasantry. These were also class
divisions.
In the modern world we only consider the Third Estate. Its Victory has been total.
Subdivisions of the Third Estate
1. The Bourgeoisie
8% of the pop, about 2.3 Million people, with 20% of Land. They often bought land and
exploited the peasants on it. In Third Estate, the most important group politically was the
Bourgeoisie. The Bourgeoisie had been growing throughout the century, to some extent
encouraged by the monarchy. By 1788 it was very important and its members were well read,
educated and rich (fivefold increase in trade 1713 -1789). But this important group had no
say in running the country.
2. The Peasants
with 40% of the land, formed the vast majority of population. There was population growth
in this period: perhaps 3,000,000 people added over the century. Peasants paid the most tax:
aristocrats did not pay. Peasants alone paid the taille. They alone had to give labor service to
the State. They also had to pay the tithe, in kind, to the clergy.
As well as these taxes, peasants had to give services to their Landlords: this is sometimes
called `feudal' service. They also pay dues to their feudal (seigniorial) lord when they sold
land that was in all other ways their own. Poverty was intense, but varied by region.
Peasants farmed the land, and regard it as their own, but it was not legally theirs. What they
wanted was to own their own property. This was radical only at to start with. Later it was to
be a conservative desire.
Note: Bourgeois leaders of the Revolution at first wanted to keep labor services etc. as they
thought they were a form of property for the landlords.
3. The Urban Poor of Paris
Artisans - factory workers, journeymen. They very poor were probably less involved in
politics. Artisans had different interests than the bourgeoisie. but they played important role
at several points. They were the most politicized group of poor people, possibly due to high
literacy.
[Note: Literacy was comparatively high amongst all classes in northern France. This had the
effect that everybody could imbibe the new ideas that came out in pamphlets.]
Assessment of Class Division as a Cause
Despite the class divisions and tensions outlined here, the Revolution actually began as an
aristocratic revolt against the monarchy, but two main groups of poor people did affected the
revolution decisively.
D. Political Causes - The Run-Up to 1789
1. Successors to Louis XIV and The Weakening of Absolutism
Under Louis XIV flaws in theory of absolutism had been apparent: now they become obvious; the
misuse of power, kings who couldn't rule.
2. Louis XV 1715-74
Succeeded at age 5. He was poorly educated and spent a life devoted to his mistresses.
The nobles began to regain some of the power they had lost to Louis XIV under the regency of the
Duc D'Orleans, but in general the nobles proved incapable of governing.
In the Parlements nobles continued to struggle with the monarchy until the Revolution, a struggle
that seriously weakened it.
Madame de Pompadour 1721-64 - for 20 years exercised her political intelligence for Louis XV.
Madame du Barry - just as ambitious, less clever
His famous lines was - "apres moi, le deluge"
3. Louis XIV 1774-1792


Louis XVI (b.1754-r.1774-1796) and 2, 3 (alive) and 4, 5 (dead)
Marie Antoinette (1755-1796) and 2 (about to be dead)
Virtuous - but uninterested in government. [In his Diary July 14, 1789, he wrote: "Nothing", he
meant he caught nothing hunting that day.]
4. Conflict with Parlements and Ruling Classes
Parlements were courts, not an assembly like the English Parliament. They had the power to register
laws from King
There were 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the Parlement of Paris was the most
important.
They began to claim, with no really good reason, a right of veto. Traditionally a King could always
override Parlements with a lit de justice.
The Duc D'Orleans had actually given the Parlements a veto during his regency. But Parlements had
been abolished by Rene Maupeau (1714-1792) in the 1770s under Louis XV.
Louis XVI revived them 1774, in an attempt to be popular, when his new minister Maurepas thought
they were a good thing since he had been a minister decades before when Parlements were less
powerful.
This move was to prove fatal, given the financial problems Louis XVI faced later, when Parlements
became centers of resistance to the King.
5. Louis XVI's Government
Louis XVI's government was not an old fashioned ancien regime. There were some reforms, that
lead people who dislike the French Revolution to think that things may have turned out very
differently.
One Example: In 1776 there was an edict commuting the corvee (labor service) under Minister
Jacques Turgot (1721-81).
E. Problems with State Finances
This was what eventually presented the greatest problem to the French Monarchy.
1. Economic Weakness
The Revocation of Edict of Nantes 1685 had struck a blow at French commerce. The
Economy tottered for the next hundred years. Financially the origins of the Revolution go
back to Louis XIV {but not because of the cost of Versailles].
2. Taxation Problems
The Richest were not taxed: i.e. the Nobles and Clergy. Taxes were indirect on poorest part
of population.
-the taille on peasant produce
-the Gabelle - on salt
-various trade tariffs
The basic problem was that in a rich country there was not enough income for the
government to do its job.
These taxes increased. It has been calculated that there was a 28% increase in some parts of
country in Louis XVI's reign alone. But of course this affected the poor the worst.
3. Dependence on loans
The banking system was not able to cope with the fiscal problems. It was the need for King
to raise taxes that led to the calling of the Estates General.
4. Cost of Mid Century Wars
The Seven Years War 1756-63 cost a lot.
The American Revolution: France had more or less paid for the American War.
5. The Cost of Versailles and the Royal household etc.
Was NOT a big factor by the end of century - it used about 5% of revenue.
6. Bankruptcy of the State.
By 1780s the government was nearly bankrupt. Half of government income was going on
paying debts (annual deficit 126 Million Livres.)(debt was almost 4 Billion Livres). But this
was not greater than in UK or Holland.
The problem was the government could not service the debt.
7. Several ministers did try to put it back on a sound basis. France was not after all a poor
country.
Efforts to Fix Fiscal problems failed
1. Jacques Necker 1732-1802 was one such minister. The problem was that he had hidden the
real problems, and made it difficult for later ministers to explain why higher taxes were
needed.
2. 1783: Charles Alexander de Calonne 1732-1802, Finance minister, raised loans to pay
debts. By 1786 he did not think Parlements would register another loan.
III. Events Leading to Calling of Estates General
This began as an aristocratic attempt to get more power from the king.
A. Calonnne's Plan
Louis XVI and Calonne had an economic reform plan to tax landed property. It was based on
provincial assemblies and allowed no evasion by nobles.
[Note that monarchs were the modernizers until the French Revolution only afterwards did they
become archaic, and supported by their hitherto enemies, the nobles and the clergy]
B. Opposition
This was opposed by the noblesse de Robe in the Parlements - they just did not want to be taxed.
C. Assembly of Notables 1787
An "Assembly of Notables" was called to outflank the parlements. It was not the same as Estates
General. But the notables in criticized Calonne's plans and demanded a greater role for the
aristocracy in government.
The Assembly of Notables also said the government had no right to demand new taxes, and that an
Estates General (last called 1614) must be called again.
The King was forced to dismiss Calonne.
Plus, he had problems as the parlements had felt threatened by the calling of the Assembly of
Notables, which was originally a way to get round the objections and blocks that the Parlements had
been raising. They also demanded an Estates General.
The new minister Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne (1727-1794) Archbishop of Toulouse spent a year trying to get the Parlements to accept change without an Estates General.
D. 1788 Coup d'etat of Parlements
The Parlement of Paris rejects Kings attempts to force change, so King abolishes Parlements.
The King said registration of laws now to be in a plenary court for the whole of France.
There was anarchy/revolts throughout France. This forced the calling of an Estates General.
So the E.G. was called as a response to nobles' rejection of a modernization plan.
IV. The Calling of the Estates General
The representative body of the Three Estates was the Estates-General.




Called in July 1788 (last met 1614), to meet in 1789. This was the crucial step: the end of
absolutism
Parlements were recalled and asked on how the Estates General should be conducted (Sept
25 1788), said it should be done in the same way as in 1614.
This disgusted the Third estate, who would only have 1/3 of votes.
Royal Council - Dec 1788 - said Third Estate would twice as many reps as the other two.
This was the catalyst for a lot of political excitement.
V. Political Developments in Fall 1788- Spring 1978
There was a rapid discussion of ideas, more radical than anything in the Enlightenment. The weeks
after 25th Sept 1788 saw most radical change of all.
The most famous pamphlet was by the Abbé Sieyes 1748-1835- "What is the Third Estate?"
-Everything
-What has it been until Now? - Nothing
-What does it ask? - to become something
The ideas feed on themselves. This is part of the structure of revolutions: a long period of
preparation, then developments at an intense speed leading to conclusions none of those at the
beginning could have envisaged.
At just the moment it thought it was victorious, the nobles faced a real and new revolution which
would sweep it away.
Cahiers des Doleances
A national survey of people' opinions was compiled between the calling of the Estates General and
its assembly.
Objections to current system from Parish of St.Vaast, March 1789
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lettres de Cachet (i.e. wanted due process)
Nation should agree to its own taxes
E.G. every 4 years (i.e. objected to no consultation)
Taxes equally on all classes, inc. Nobles and clergy
Third estates to have justices in the Parlements
NB NO call for a republic in any Cahier But some reports of peasants already believing that they
were free of manorial dues.
The Estates General Meets May 5th 1789
Third Estate probably ready to strengthen hand of King vs. nobles and clergy
But:There is a background of rising bread prices from 1788-89 - people in Paris being radicalized
by this at just the right moment (leads into next lecture…)
VI. Historians' Debates about the Causes
A. Traditionally Bourgeoisie seen as having vital role + promoting its economic interests.
B. Revisionists claim Bourgeois interests did not differ from those of the upper class. [explain
revisionist/traditionalist approach in historiography]
C. There were liberals and conservatives among the nobles + But in 1789 still no republicans in
France. but all were looking for a way to control power of monarchy.
Evaluation of Causes



Finances the immediate cause of calling of Estates General But not the whole story - social
conditions - bad, but not so bad the people could not act + for first time in modern Europe an
ideology which gave a place to the people.
You must decided : Could the revolution have succeeded without the energies of the masses
demanding bread? Could it have succeeded without the ambitions of the middle class ? Could
it have been successful without the ideological underpinning of the philosophes?
All these were more important than the immediate causes, but that should not be
underplayed.
VII. The Liberal Revolution
A. The Estates General May 1789 - July 1789
King still in Charge
Estates General met May 5 1789 at Versailles




Third Estate had twice as many Reps (agreed in Dec)
Its reps were largely lawyers and Govt officials
Still disputes over voting - e.g. should all estates meet together or separately.
The Third Estate kept being slighted - it refused to sit alone.
The other Estates invited to join with it on June 1st.
B Events
1. The Third Estate Declares itself National Assembly June 17th
Tennis Court Oath June 20th 1789
2. The king opposed it but majority of the clergy some nobles joined it.
3. June 27th the King capitulated.
4. National assembly takes name NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
National Constituent Assembly July 1789 - 1791

A Nominal Absolute Monarchy


State Church with Priests paid by State
CREATES A LIBERAL REVOLUTION
C. The King's Fatal Decision
1. Louis tried to re-assert his authority - with an army near Versailles - 18,000 troops-Marie
Antoinette advised him to attack it.
2. -King acts stupidly - tries to undermine NAT. ASS but not effectively - creates anxiety
amongst its supporters 3. The King abandoned the bourgeoisie, which monarchs had supported for a century and now
supported the nobility
4. Now to revolt against the nobility the Third Estate also had to revolt against the King.
5. But Two Mass Uprisings of the Masses saved the Nat. Assembly
D. Revolt of the Poor of Paris
1. Rising bread prices 1788-89 - riots already in the spring of 1789
2. Paris politicized by the elections to the E.G. - had continued to meet after elections.
3. Paris mob storms the Bastille - JULY 14 1789
Basically a prison, but not used very much by 1789 -raided to find weapons for revolutionary
militias growing up in Paris
4. troops fired into crowd, killing 98 - crowd storms fortress - kills troops
5. Symbolic importance: First re-direction of the Revolution by pop of Paris
-Also caused similar disturbances in other cities
6. Militias take name NATIONAL GUARD - led by Lafayette
Take Tricolor as flag (Blue and red for Paris, white for the bourbon king)
E. Revolt of the Peasants - revolts from Spring 1789
1.
2.
3.
4.
In July - Massive revolts throughout France
-The Great Fear - fear of royal troops
-Destruction of lots of medieval documents
Forced the National Assembly to abolish "feudal" dues
-August 4th 1789
-there was a sort of carnival of self-sacrifice amongst the nobility + the rich bourgeoisie
-all feudal dues, rights and tithes
5. After this the Peasantry had a very quite and almost conservative role - it had what it wanted
- LAND.
6. But it was the economic conditions that had made the Revolution take on such vast
proportions.
F. Ideological Actions of the National Constituent Assembly
1. August 4th Laws All French now subject to the same laws.
Abolished the "feudal regime" + Tithes + hunting rights + venal offices (explain)
Peasants supposed to pay compensation - but this requirement was abolished under radical
rev. in 1793.
2. Declaration of the Rights of Man - August 27th 1789
[Discuss in Class - Where did the Ideas in it come from]
Printed in 1000s of leaflets and distributed around France.
IMPORTANCE OF PROPAGANDA
3. Ideals
-equality before the law
-due process (art 7)
-natural rights - liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression (art 2)
-sovereignty resides in the Nation (art 3)
-law is an expression of the General Will (art.6)
-freedom of religion (art 10) [Jews as well, for 1st time)
-free speech (art 11)
-separation of powers (art 16)
-Enlightenment ideas + American declarations of rights (e.g. Virginia in 1776)
G King and Government Move to Paris - October 6th
1. Forced by the Poor Women of Paris
2. Made government function under threat of mob violence but
3. France was now to peaceful for almost 3 years
VIII. The National Constituent Assembly's Governing
It faced massive problems of control. It would not repudiate the state debt (since many of its
members were men of property and were owed money). It also had to find a way to rule France now
that the power of the monarch was in shreds.
A. Administration - the Reforming of France


Provinces replaced by 83 Departments
Same sort of courts and laws applied throughout France.
B. Economic Liberalism



Gets rid of tariffs - unlimited economic freedom
Suppresses guilds and forbids workers associations Chapelier Law (6/14/1791) -remained law in France for 3/4 of a century.
C. The State Debt






The solution was to attack the Church - (ref. Voltaire and philosophes): the nationalization of
Church lands
Problem was many people loyal to Church and this action made the Revolution unpopular in
many quarters.
this was a serious blunder
the émigrés begin to leave
Also a split between anticlericals and pro-clericals has been at center of French life ever
since.
Printed bonds - assignats based on value of Church land - became used as money.
D. The Church: Civil Constitution of the Clergy July 1790


Made bishoprics same as departments
Priests and bishops to be elected + paid by state (anyone could vote - including atheists Church seen as part of the state - i.e. no separation of Church and State)



As well as all this, religious orders were abolished.
The Assembly required an oath from the clergy - to oppose the pope - only half did so + 7
bishops
The Pope condemned the Revolution,liberalism, & the Rights of Man - began attack on
liberalism for next century.
E. Constitution of 1791
This was what the National Constituent Assembly was for.




One Chamber House
Only men paying tax could vote
Only 50,000 would qualify to be elected
i.e. less than the number of the nobility
Members of National Assembly not eligible for election.
The King's Actions Destabilize the Liberal Revolution
The King was becoming more and more impotent.
June 20 1791 - Louis XVI tried to flee, but was stopped at Varennes and brought back June 24 a
virtual prisoner.
The attitude of the King made the constitutional monarchy of the 1791 Constitution impossible
to work. There was no strong executive provided for apart from the King's ministers.
The Legislative Assembly



Constitutional Monarchy:
War is promoted to solve domestic problems:
Still a state Church
Took over October 1 1987.
It was to prove ineffective. This eventually led to a radicalization of the Revolution.
IX. Reaction to Revolution Abroad
A. Intellectuals

Most Intellectuals and philosophes praised it: Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, Beethoven
B. Conservatives opposed it




Edmund Burke (1729-1797) and 2
Edmund Burke - Reflections on the French Revolution 1790 (i.e. before the Terror).
This is interesting as the foundation of modern conservatism is also a result of French Rev.
Burke is not a supporter of tyranny or despotism, rather he says in opposition to liberals people are not good - they are what they are and you cannot make things better over night
Populism should not be trusted



Good government is going to come about through long experience and should not be
overthrown
Government is complicated and simple schemes can never be satisfactoryThere also a longing for how things were that goes with all conservatism
C. Thomas Paine: The Rights of Man 1791 - response to Burke
D. Mary Wollstonecraft Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1792 and Olympe de Gouge The
Rights of Women 1791 in France]
French Rev did not really address rights of women. e.g. voting was only for men.
E. The Revolution also upset other monarchs
although they were not unhappy to see France weakened. But they did not want revolution to spread
This was the end of Enlightened Despotism. There were attempts all over Europe to stop reform
movements
1793 & 1795 - Poland was dismembered
X. The Wars Begin
A. 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz August 27


- threatens invasion by Austria and Prussia
- not really a threat as GB would not join in
B. War Period - Begins April 1792


This was beginning of a long period of war which forms a background to everything for the
next 30 or so years.
In retaliation to Dec. of Pillnitz the French Deputies (in Assembly) declare war on Austria 20th Apr 1792
1. There was pressure from democratic exiles from other countries
2. Radicals thought a successful War would bring them support.
3. Louis XVI supported the war - he hoped a loss would restore his position - as did many
monarchist members of the Leg Assembly.
4. [Robespierre opposed the war as he saw danger of defeat]
C. The French armies were soon retreating - this caused radicalization at Home.
XI. The Radical Revolution


Music: Ca Ira
Music: The Marseillaise
A. Political Infighting in the Legislative Assembly
Idea of left and Right - origins in the meetings of the Legislative Assembly.
Different Factions



-Monarchists - inc. Lafayette
-The Jacobins - a sort of elitist political club
-wanted a republic - met in a Dominican priory (Jacobin a name for OPs)
One group of Jacobins - known as Girondists assumed leadership - (at first led by JacquePierre Brissot 1754-93. sometimes known as Brissotins)
April 20 1792 -declared war on Austria thinking that it would bring most radical revolutionaries to
power. -- BEGINNING OF THE RADICALIZATION OF REVOLUTION
B. The Second Revolution


Jean Paul Marat (1743-1795) and dead
Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) and 2
The Revolution became much more radical in 1792. Losses in the war radicalized the pop of Paris
and the rest of France.
A number of things contributed to this - apart from the unpopularity of defeat.
C. The War, the Monarchy and the Press



The Prussian Army pushed into France as far as Verdun -in July the Duke of Brunswick
issued a threat to Paris if the King was hurt.
The Girondists themselves blamed the monarchy and Marie Antoinette for secret intrigues
and this put the monarchical constitution under strain.
There was absolute freedom of the press - and this waged a campaign of denunciation vs. the
government Marat and his Ami du Peuple was prominent as a radical here.
D. Process of Radicalization
This popular agitation was transformed into something powerful by two factors.


-The arrival of volunteer National Guardsmen from all over France in July (8th) [volunteers
from Marseilles come singing the Marseillaise]
-The political organization of Paris into a Commune and 48 Sections - all centers of
insurrection.
E. Events
1. August 10th 1792 Attack on Tuileries Palace
People of Paris + Vol attack the Tuileries Palace
King had to take refuge with the Legislative Assembly.
He deserted his Swiss Guard - 800+ killed.
2. September 1792 September Massacres
1200 prisoners are murdered in Paris jails as counter-revolutionaries.
F. The Sans-Culottes [The "KMart Crowd"?]



Paris artisans, shopkeepers, wage earners and factory workers.
Name comes from the fact they wore long trousers not the knee breeches (culottes) favored
by the middle and professional classes. They wanted immediate relief from hunger, resented
all social inequality, and were suspicious of representative government. They also opposed
the unregulated economy so beloved of all the m/c revolutionaries, including the Jacobins.
They compelled the Legislative Assembly to agree to call a new assembly to write new
democratic constitution - this body was to be called the Convention.
XII. The Rule of the Convention - 1792-95
A. Creation
This was elected by universal male suffrage - but only 7 1/2% of electorate voted. (not best
atmosphere for a free election)
It first met September 21 1792 and declares France a Republic as its first act
The Girondists were still major voice but gradually lost control over next few months to another
group of Jacobins known as The Mountain (because they sat high in Convention Hall) - They were
prepared to work with the Sans-Cullottes. Maximilien Robespierre one of leaders.
Political groups here were



the Girondists [or Brissotins] (name from region deputies supposed to have come from)
the Mountain, (name from their seats high in the Assembly Hall)
the Marais - the plain.(name from their seats low in the Assembly Hall)
There were now 9 months of political struggle in the Convention.
B. Fighting the War
The War with Austria and Prussia which had radicalized the revolution was still going on.
The revolution was saved by the slowness and weakness of Prussian and Austrian preparation - they
could certainly have won at first. They were too busy in the East digesting Poland.








Aug 1792 - LaFayette defects to Austrians - sees no point in fighting monarchist cause in
France.
20th September 1792 - Battle of Valmy
General Dumouriez - beats the Prussians - effectively gives the Revolution breathing space.
[Make it clear I am going ahead of domestic developments here. ]
Valmy was the effective start of the French Revolutionary Wars - the attempt by France to
spread the Rev across Europe. When successful it provided loot for the government.
Autumn 1792 - Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) is attacked By November Brussels is in
French hands
November 1792 - Savoy is annexed
November 1792 - the Convention offers to help all revolutionary groups in Europe.
Dec 15 1792 - The Convention abolishes feudalism in occupied territory - beginning of
restructuring of Europe.
January 1793 - Danton proclaims the doctrine of Natural Frontiers - ie the Rhine, a la Louis
XIV.




Feb 1 1793 - growing Anglophobia reflected in declaration of war vs. England and
Netherlands.
By March Spain was also dec. an enemy.
March 1793 - By now France was at War with all of Europe
April 1793 - Dumouriez defects to Austria - aware he could not restore monarchy in France.
C:. Domestic Politics In the Convention
Now return to what was going on in France and the move to the control by the radical Committee of
Public Safety
1. The Convention at first had no strong leadership.
2. Condemnation and Execution of the King
This was necessary consequence of August 10th, and the King's treachery over the war - The
Mountain had found Louis XVI's correspondence to Austria.
The condemnation of King also put Girondists in a bind - if they supported it they lost
moderate support, if they opposed it they lost patriot support. Robespierre saw this.
The King was tried as Citizen Capet - [should have been Bourbon.]
Vote to Condemn 28 absent, 321 other Penalties, 13 Death with a respite, 361
Death now a maj. of 1.
No one thought Louis was innocent.
King executed 21 Jan 1793
3. Counter Counter-Revolutionary Activity
By March 1793 there were counter-revolts going on esp. in conservative Catholic areas,
especially in the Vendee. [see Map Handout]
There was a great concern in the Convention, still under Girondist control, about counter
revolution.
-it strengthened laws against émigrés.
-Revolutionary Tribunals were set up
-A decree was passed condemning to death all rebels taken in the act.
-March 21 1793 - Watch Committees set up in every area
The point here is that the moderates had in fact set up the structure of the Terror by
Spring 1793.
D. The Committee of Public Safety 6th April 1793
Set up to supervise, for Convention, the executive. It was given its own funds:
-100,000 livres to pay agents
-100,000 livre for secret purposes
At first middle men were elected - Jacque Danton (1759-1794)
E. Committee of General Security
was also set up to fight the War abroad.
F. The Mountain Takes Over





The population of Paris was still not happy - there was inflation due to war + paper money.
This was made use of by the Mountain - whose main difference with the Girondists was that
they would work with the mob.
May/June 2 1793 New insurrection - the mob demanded the expulsion of the Girondist
members.
The Mountain seizes control in the Convention. They passed a new Democratic Constitution
- June 22 - in cold storage until the war was over.
They appointed a new Committee of Public Safety- June 1793
This body was to rule France for the next year.
XIII. The Rule of the Committee for Public Safety July 1793-July 1794
A ruthless and effective government - Convention and ministers official government, but CPS had
all power.
The Committee of Public Safety
- from the Mountain





Herault de Sechelles - a noble
Jeanbon Saint-Andre - Protestant pastor
Saint Just - wanted a Spartan state
Couthon - a follower of Robespierre
Prieur, of the Marne
- from the Marais


Barere de Viezac
Robert Lindet
added in July

Maximilien Robespierre (1753-1794)
-he was not a dictator - a lawyer from Arras - "he believed everything he said" - for him principles were everything, Men nothing. Influenced by
Rousseau and his ideas on virtue.
added in August


Lazare Carnot (1753-1823) - in charge of military
Prieur, of the Cote d'Or
added in September


Billaud-Varrenne
Collot d'Herbois - the only mob orator
-both were known as men of blood
A. Problems Facing the Committee for Public Safety
The Counter revolt and the war with Europe



i.e. same as before June takeover
It dealt with the war - by military effectiveness and the internal revolt with the terror
But there was more - this was a dedicated group - it aimed to restructure society in the most
revolutionary manner.

The War and the Terror must be seen in this light as a national mission against evil inside and
outside France.
B Total War
The CPS dealt with military threat by first use in modern times of total war - the whole country was
put on a war footing (cf. small ancien regime armies)
Carnot led the effort






23 August 1793 the levee en masse - conscripted males into the army
There was a planned economy to supply the war + to aid the poor and keep their support.
September 17 Maximum price rules established.
Assignats stopped falling in value in year of CPS control.
By Spring 1794 an Army of 800,000 - the largest ever assembled, until then, by European
power.
A citizen army, fighting for ideals, as opposed to its opposing armies, which were often made
up of serfs.
C. The Reign of Terror or the Republic of Virtue
Revolts around France - esp. Vendee, Brittany and Normandy







July 13 1793 Marat, a radical killed by Charlotte Corday - made revolutionaries feel
threatened.
Height of Terror from Fall 1793 to July 1794
Marie-Antoinette + Royal Family, then aristocrats, then Girondists, then 1794 moves to
provinces and includes peasants and sans-cullottes, then in Spring 1794 even includes
republicans like Danton
The CPS also opposing even more extreme groups from among sans-cullotes - known as
Hebertists
June 10 - Law of 22 Prairal
conviction without evidence was now allowed
Large increase in numbers killed in last month of Terror.
Terror fiercest in those areas of rebellion + Paris
circa. 25,000-40,000 killed/300,000 arrested
It was intentional, not unplanned
D. The New Culture
1. Fashions
- followed Roman and/or sans-cullotish style.
2. New Calendar
Convention began dating form Year One when it abolished the Monarchy.
A system of new months adopted on November 10th 1793
Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor, Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire, Nivose, Pluviose,
Ventose, Germinal, Floreal, Prairal
-beginning from Sept 22, 1792, Day after monarchy abolished.
-every 10th day as rest day (not good for workers)
-Aim was to blot out the cycle of Sundays and Saint's days
It was part of dechristianisation effort.
3. New Religion
Revolution had been anti-clerical from the start
-ref. Enlightenment- Civil Const. of Clergy.
-In November 1793 - The Convention outlawed the worship of God (where is tolerance ?)
-Notre Dame made a Temple to Reason - ceremonies were conducted by the Commune of
Paris.
-November 10 Cult of Reason begun - alienated Christians Made direct efforts to close
Churches throughout France.
-[Dechristianisation opposed by Robespierre - toleration of Catholics was ordered by CPS
under his orders.]
-Robespierre thought this not sufficient as effective religion.
-May 7 1794 Cult of the Supreme Being proclaimed -Deism + cultic festivals celebrating
republican virtues - humanity, liberty etc.
-June 8 Rob. leads a massive public Festival of Supreme Being.
Emphasizes the attempt to restructure the whole civilization.
XIV Reaction and the Rise of Napoleon
A. The Thermidorean Reaction (1795-1799)



A. The Reign of Terror
Was not popular in the long run -It was genuinely terrifying - it got out of hand and malicious
accusations were made. -episode of the rafts at Nantes and 2000 killed
B. -also politicians feared for their own heads when Robespierre made a threatening speech
on July 26th. -also should note that Robespierre's fascination with the new religion did not
endear him to many in the Convention.
C. Robespierre - Condemned to the Guillotine in the Convention - 9th of Thermidor (July
27th 1794) -executed July 28th 1794
B. The New Government - The Directory





A. The Directory
The Directory was a 5 man executive body - aim was to avoid dictatorship and excessive
democracy.
This was a four-year period of lack of strong government and a series of coup d'etats. The
leaders were not strongly ideological, but did not want to turn the clock back.
B. The new people in control were again rich bourgeois liberals - chief aim was to perpetuate
their own rule.
-Girondist deputies allowed to take seats
-Paris Commune outlawed
-Law of 22 Prairal revoked
-People involved in the Terror were now attacked
-the White Terror
-economic liberalism revived + inflation
C. A frivolous culture came into being - fashions etc. Salons re-opened
(recall - story of relatives of terror victims going to parties wearing red scarves around their
neck)
D. There was also a revival of Catholicism
-although cult of reason and the new calendar were kept.
E. 1795 August 22 - Constitution of the Year III
-The first formally constituted Republic.
-But this was a totally different world from only six years before (1789)

-property and wealth, not birth were now important.
-France now had great national consciousness - no more could "L"etat, c'est moi" ever be
said.
-Peasants now were a major landowning group in society.
-The Sans-cullottes were removed from political life.
Riots by the poor were now put down - October 1795 - a Paris mob was put down. (note one of the organizers was black.)
-Napoleon commanded the cannon.
The Poor had been victims of the Terror so some loss of fervor for revolution.
F. Political pressures on the Directory
-There was continuing pressure from the left, from the old Jacobins + there were food riots.
-There were strong movements to have the Monarchy restored
The Monarchists actually won a majority in the election of 1797 - The Directory staged a
coup against them, supported by Napoleon - Coup of 18 Fructidor/Sept 4, 1797
-The problem for Monarchists was when Louis (XVII), the young son of Louis XVI died.
The new legitimate heir to the Throne, was an unrepentant conservative who wanted to
restore the 1789 constitution - not acceptable to the Peasants (who had gained land), or even
the moderate Middle Class.
-It was also not acceptable to Napoleon who had his own ambitions.
-To keep control Directory increasingly depended on the Army - opens way to Napoleon.
C. Expansion and Empire


The Military expansion begun under the convention continued, with help of CPS's war
economy - great new generals had been brought to the fore in eight of Napoleons marshals.
-March 1795 - Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and
Austria. So Directory dependent on the military for stability
Napoleon waits.
XV. Summing Up the French Revolution
Before going on to look at Napoleon lets sum up the French Revolution
A. Three Periods



Liberal Revolution 1789-1792
-Estates General - Nat. Assem. - Nat. Const. Assem - -Legislative Assembly
Radical Revolution 1792-1794
- The Convention - + Comm. Pub. Safety
Thermidorean Reaction 1794-1799
-The Directory
B. Achievements of French Revolution


Liberal Rev.
- end of Feudalism
- Made the people important in politics
- The old order was never re-established
Radical Rev.
- National army, Idea of a Nation at war
-Metric system (Convention) + Abolishes Slavery in Colonies (Nap. rescinds)

In General
- In idea of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity,
Fraternity was new - leads to nationalism
C. Problems of French Revolution



-It did not produce a stable government
-The Reign of Terror
-Rad. Rev - led to ideas of totalitarian democracy
XVI. Napoleon and Romanticism



Napoleon (1769-1821, r. 1799-1814) and 2, 3, 4, 5
Horatio Nelson (1758-1805)
Duke of Wellington (1769-1852)
Music

Ludwig van Beethoven: Third Symphony (Eroica)
Biog: Born at Bonn, from 1792 worked at Vienna 1770-1827 Significance: Full development
of the classical style in music.
A. Napoleon enters the scene


One of most successful Generals was Napoleon - he was in 1799 center of a plot to overturn
the weak Directory.
He was named First Consul in 1799
B. Military Successes under the Directory



Under the Directory we see that the military expansion begun under the convention
continued - with help of CPS's war economy - great new generals had been brought to the
fore - inc. 8 of Napoleons future marshals - as old officer class went into exile.
-March 1795 - Peace concluded with Prussia and Spain but war continued with GB and
Austria. So Directory was dependent on the military for stability at home and success abroad.
One of most successful Generals was Napoleon.
-First Triumph in defending Toulon in 1793
He appealed to many, disgusted with the Directory, who looked for authority from above.
One of these people was Abbé Sieyes (wrote What is the Third Estate in 1789), who
concocted a plan for a coup. Sieyes had idea of "Confidence from below, power from above."
D. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Napoleon's Life and Rise to Power


A. Origins - A Noble Corsican Family
-Trained in armies of Ancien Regime -commissioned 1785
-He was in favor of the Revolution.
B. Character - He saw himself as a man of Destiny
-A rationalist and an opportunist: a real man of his time.
-A Romantic Streak - he compared himself to Alexander the Great and Caesar.
-Was devoted to his family - he made them important all over Europe.
E. Coup of 18 Brumaire - Napoleon Named First Consul 1799



The Coup did not go well.
Napoleon Addressed the Assembly - he was shouted down and got apoplectic with anger
He was saved by his brother Lucien calling in the army, who shooed away the deputies.
Napoleon's account of this later was distorted - he failed not mention that Lucien saved him.
Napoleon become one of three consuls. (Refer to use by all parties of classical names and
ideas)
-presents himself as saving the Republic
New Constitution of the Year VIII
-it appealed to republican theory (Checks and Balances)
-it included a Council of State (ref. Louis XIV)
-it actually made Napoleon ruler
-approved by plebiscite (3,011,077 to 1,567)
This may be regarded as then end of the French Revolution
- Declaration to that effect in 1799
-but in reality the rev. was over at Thermidor.
F. Napoleon's Rule in France (1799-1814): The Consulate (1799-1804)




Napoleon maintained order in the state by his policies.
[The point of this whole section]
B. Liberal Policies - He worked out important compromises between competing groups
-a. He employed people from all political groups. (e.g. Talleyrand)
-b. The gains of the peasants were confirmed
-c. He granted an amnesty to nobles
-d. Decreed improved education.
-e. He signed the Concordat of 1801 with Pope Pius VII - gave Catholics freedom of
worship. It said Catholicism is Religion of most Frenchmen. State named bishops and paid
priests. The Church gave up its claims on property. Clergy swore loyalty to the state.
C. Conservative Order
-a. Central government control of the Provinces.
-b. He stopped the free press and free speech 1800
-c. Ruthless in crushing opposition secret police developed. Murdered the Bourbon Duke of
Enghien 1804
-d. He stopped free elections - especially when he declared himself emperor
D. CIVIL CODE 1804 = Napoleonic Code
-Granted the Middle class equality
-Safeguarded property rights
-Abolished all Privileges of birth
-Made state officials be chosen by merit
-Gave men control over their wives
-Labor unions forbidden
Set the tone of all later French life
-legally egalitarian, socially bourgeois, and administratively bureaucratic.
G. Napoleon's Rule in France (1799-1814): The Empire (1804-1814)



Napoleon used fears of a Bourbon comeback to get him self crowned Emperor. Yet another
new constitution: also approved by plebiscite.
Pope came to do it but Napoleon crowned himself
-Story of Charlemagne in 800AD being crowned by pope and then having to support him.
Restoration of a Quasi-nobility: Legion of Honor.
1809 Napoleon married Archduchess Marie Louise - as a more fitting wife for an emperor
than Josephine, (supposedly she was sexually to much for him).
H. Assessment Napoleon's Rule in France


-The Code was very worthwhile - applies French Roman Law throughout Europe.
-He is often seen as a sort of Enlightened despot, rather than a successor of the Revolution.
-He was accepted and supported as he kept order for the propertied class - perhaps tired of
revolution.
I. Military Conquests and Nemesis
Basic point is this - that the conditions that made his army fight well, when absent led to its
defeat






A. Italy 1797 - N. defeats Austrian and Sardinian Armies.
It was success here that made him popular at home. Despite the government by Directory already at this stage he was making his own treaties, e.g. with the Pope and with Austria.
B. Egypt - expansion to India envisaged - England seen as main foe. French here laid basis of
Egyptology with a mapping of Egypt. But the expedition was not successful - Napoleon left
for France in 1799 for the coup - and the army was not successful - the British controlled the
sea.
C. Military Methods
Napoleon was a military genius - but as he said after 60 battles he didn't know anything that
he had not known before. His great skill was in the execution of warfare.
He Built on
-Improvements in military theory made during the Ancien regime in response to France's
defeats in the Seven Years War - an emphasis on flexible formations in battle rather than
fixed ones.
-forces were divided into moderate sized units -each unit lived off the land/traveled lightspeed and maneuver were used to bring hostile armies into battle - it was vital to time the
uniting of the various bits of his army just right.
-The great citizen army that was motivated to fight well, put together under the Comm. of
Pub. Safety, and kept going by the Directory.
-700,000 strong army
D. Conquest of Europe
1801 - Austria defeated
1802 - Peace with GB
1803 - William Pitt the Younger (1759-1806) decides Napoleon must be stopped -puts
together Third Coalition
E. War against Third Coalition (Aus. Russ. Swed. GB)
-Lost Naval dominance to Britain at Trafalgar 1805 (Lord Horatio Nelson killed)(21 Oct)
-Britain now had the dominance of the seas it was to keep for the next century.
F. Napoleon Dominant in Europe
1805 Austerlitz (Dec 2)(just after Trafalgar) -Napoleon gains Italy
1806 Jena defeats Prussia (supposedly best army in Europe).
1807 Treaty of Tilsit - Signed by Napoleon, by Alexander I of Russia (secretly) - who







becomes part of continental system. -French Territorial gains confirmed - and Russia reduced
in size.
G. The Grand Empire and the Continental System
French controlled all of Continental Europe (achievement shows unrealized possibilities of
France under the later Ancien Regime).
-a. -1806 The Holy Roman Empire dissolved. Germany re-organized July 1806 as The
Confederation of the Rhine.
-b. A French Empire set up including land up to the Rhine and beyond.
-c. New Kingdoms set up - Spain, Italy, Holland, Sweden - All with Napoleons family or
followers on the throne. One relative became a Cardinal.
-d. All the other state were, for the time being allies.
-e The Napoleonic Code was imposed everywhere. -end of Feudalism + Local town
oligarchies
H. Continental System
- Attempt to destroy GBs Trade dominance - Instituted in 1806 in the Berlin Decrees.
Napoleon claimed he was liberating Europe from the English (a Nation of Shop keepers)
-But GBs trade with America and The East meant it could survive. The system actually hurt
European countries.
[USA tries to take advantage in 1812 and take Canada - fails]
I. Problems Begin
-Spanish Revolt 1808 - over deposition of its Bourbon dynasty (still ruling in 1988) and
opposition to the Church - the Peninsular War was to sap Napoleon's strength.
-British Blockade
-March on Moscow
1810 Russians withdrew from the Continental system. and resume contact with GB.
1812 Napoleon Attempts to march on Moscow, as his major continental opponent. Defeated
by the Cold and snow and lack of supplies - part of his method had been for the army to live
off the land - here there was nothing to live off- Russians used scorched earth policy.
He was also defeated by the resistance put up by the entire Russian people - from the Tsar to
the serfs.
-also Tsar did not allow for any one decisive battle which was Napoleon's forte (Borodino
1812 not decisive)
J. The Retreat from Moscow - 1812/1813
Napoleon was unable to get together another army for six months. About 100,000 out of
600,000 survived. -still able to raise 350,000 in six months.
K. The Opposition Becomes Effective - 1813
-The Fourth Coalition, (Russia, Prussia, Austria, GB)
-Prussia after defeat at Jena reorganized and modernized - some land reform. end of serfdom,
calls to patriotism. 42,000 men trained each year - by 1813 it was strong again - army of
270,000.
-The war is seen as a German War of Liberation.
France defeated at the Battle of the Nations 1813 - at Leipzig in Germany
-Allies take Paris in March 1814
-Napoleon Abdicated 1814 - Exiled to Elba
L. Congress of Vienna 1814
- to redraw Europe - will return to it - as Napoleon disrupted it by escaping from Elba.
M. Elba, Waterloo
Napoleon escaped from Elba 1815
-Period known as the Hundred Days
Battle of Waterloo 1815
-Defeated by the Prussians and English

-Duke of Wellington leads English/Field Marshal von Blucher the Prussians
-Hardened the Peace Settlement for France
N. St. Helena
Napoleon sent to exile in St. Helena
-note how he was treated by British. -died 1821
J. Napoleons effect on his Contemporaries and on History




A. Personal Impact
A hero to half of Europe a traitor to the rest. (Old Boney)
Reaction of Beethoven - changes name of his 3rd Symphony to the Eroica
Bonapartism [Class discussion]
-in Paris his campaigns are celebrated e.g. Gare d'Austerlitz, Avenue Wagram + His body is
at Les Invalides
Many people yearned for a leader - Why ?
B. Spread of French Revolutionary Ideals
-French Soldiers were committed - liberal and French Rev. ideals were adopted by many.
-Napoleon got rid of Feudalism in the countries he conquered.(But did not give the land to
the peasants)
-Abolished Established Churches + Monasteries.
-The Code carried many of these ideas on after Nap.
C. Nationalism
But there was also a reaction to French Dominance as it became clear Napoleon's policies
benefited France. There were also objections to his family becoming Kings and Queens all
over Europe.
-growth of Nationalism in other countries but based on French ideals (mention again idea of
Fraternity in French Rev).
-This was especially the case in Germany, where weakness was blamed on political division.
D. A Changed Political Map of Europe
-Holy Roman Empire Goes - Austria now its own thing 300 German States reduced to 39.
[More Catholic states than Protestant ones disappeared - no Habsburg would again be elected
emperor]
-France becomes less important for 30 years
-Britain's mastery of the seas now total - there is for first time no other maritime power for
her to compete with (no Spain, Netherlands, or France)
K. Summing-Up Napoleon

A Great Man? Whole Question of Great man in History ?
[Great men or social forces? Does the hero actually change history?]
Was Napoleon Admirable? Did he bring war and kill millions of people to satisfy his ego?
Betrayer or confirmer of the French Rev.? Did he spread revolutionary ideals?
Liberator of Europe or Tyrant?
Web Exercise
Locate on the world wide web modern [i.e. relating to the last three decades] a revolutionary groups
or a revolutionary statements issued by such a group. Try to make sure that the sites you find are
maintained by revolutionary groups.
Try to assess what ideas are important to these groups, and to what extent the group's ideas drawn
from the tradition established by the French revolution. You will find a lot of Marxism mixed in, but
try to get behind that. For instance, what idea of the "people" is used? Does the group justify
violence, and if so, how? Finally, what is different about modern revolutionary groups.
Hint: try search words such as "zapista," "shining path," "revolution," etc.
Discussion Questions
The crucial goal here is to sort out what are the most important issues in understanding the French
Revolution. There are lots of details, but they only make sense if you can see the bigger picture.
What was the most important cause of the French revolution?
How did the French Revolution reflect the ideals of the Enlightenment?
What were the significant social conflicts in France before the revolution?
Why did the French Revolution fail to establish a stable government, while the American Revolution
was successful in this?
What did the French Revolution offer to women or to the working class?
How important are individual men in history?
Introduction: This Week's Goals
So far, in considering what makes up the "modern world", we have looked at:




The creation by absolutist monarchs of "modern" state structures such as "national
sovereignty," "standing armies," and the committee structures of government.
The establishment of the intellectual dominance of scientific thought during the Scientific
Revolution and the Enlightenment.
The emergence of political Liberalism during the Enlightenment and the American and
French Revolutions.
The promotion of the "people" as the basis of the state during the American and French
Revolutions.
But, for most of us who live in the modern West, the greatest change in how we live compared to
how people lived in the early modern past would probably me in terms of material culture.
"Material culture" refers to how we work, what we eat, what we wear, and where we live. All these
aspects of our lives are part of the "economy."
Thinking in these terms, the first great transformation in human history was the "agricultural
revolution" of the Neolithic period (it occurred in a number of different places around 8000-4000
years ago). That was when human stopped "collecting" food by gathering and hunting, and began
"producing" food by agriculture and animal husbandry. The second great transformation was the
"Industrial Revolution" of the 18th and 19th centuries.
The Industrial Revolution was a combination of new methods and new technology: in particular, it
adopted machine power to manufacture. This led to entirely new ways of working (factories),
living (big cities), transport (trains, steam ships, cars), and family arrangements (the family was now
a unity of consumption not production). Our goals this week are:






To explain why the Industrial Revolution happened in Britain in the late 18th century.
To identify what happened.
To explain how the Industrial Revolution spread to the rest of Europe and the United States.
To discuss the effects on the lives of workers.
To discuss the effects on the lives of women, and on family structures.
To understand how this gave Europe the possibility of establishing a world hegemony in the
19th century.
Text
Kagan, 553-575, 761-776, 835-54
Multimedia
Images







Thomas Newcomen: The Newcomen Engine, [At Exeter.ac.uk] [Sketch picture]
James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769, [At Museon.nl] [Picture]
James Watt (1736-1819) and Matthew Boulton: An Industrial Steam Engine [with a 64 inch
bore!], 1820, [At Kew Bridge Steam Museum] [Picture]
James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769 [Picture]
Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859): The S.S. Great Britain, 1839, [At
Digiweb][Picture+text] or Another Picture [At wlihe.ac.uk]
The first ocean-going steam propeller ship.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)
Henry Ford (1863-1947)
Sources














Accounts of the "Potato Revolution" 1695 - 1845
Leeds Woolen Workers' Petition, 1786
Attacking the effects of machinery.
Leeds Cloth Merchants' Letter, 1791
Defending machinery.
Observations on the Loss of Woollen Spinning, 1794
Table: Spread of Industrialization,
Table: Spread of Railways in Europe
Life of 19th Century Workers In England [At Alderson-Broaddus College]
Edwin Chadwick (1803-1890): Report on Sanitary Conditions, 1842, [At Brown]
Friedrich Engels: Industrial Manchester, 1844
From The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844.
Harriet Robinson: Lowell Mill Girls, 1834-1848
Andrew Ure (1778-1857): The Philosophy of the Manufacturers, 1835
Elizabeth Gaskell: North and South, 1855, [At Clinch Valley College]
George Friedrich List (1789-1846): National System of Political Economy
Robert Franz: The German Banking System, 1910
Outline
I. Introduction




Old Ways of Living
Western
Uniqueness of the Industrial Revolution in the West.
Industry is an ATTITUDE (not necessarily a good one)
Compare with China. [science fails to develop - Mandarin class has attitude of superiority there is a clamp down in 15th century on "progress"]
Industrialization and Capitalism
Industrialization arose within Capitalism but is not the same thing. In the 20th C. there have
been many examples of state industrialization in circumstances when there was no possibility
of the developments in Europe being followed.
Time Frame
England 1780 on
Europe from 1830 on
II. The Origins of the Industrial Revolution
There was no single cause of the Industrial Revolution. Rather a number of different factors came
together.
But we can make certain assumptions about what we need to explain.


Primarily, we know that working people are quite conservative about work -- it required a
high degree of social mobility on the part of the population to even allow the Industrial
Revolution
Secondly we know that people with money had to be willing to invest in new ventures -- we
need to know where this money came from, and why people were willing to invest.
We will find that stable government, economic freedoms, available capital and mobile labor - all
encourage growth and all came together in 18th-century Britain.
In sum:





We need to explain
[1] the mobile labor force
[2] the availability of money for investment
[3] the growth of demand
We will do this this by looking at
[1] effects of the "Agricultural Revolution" of the 17th century.
[2] the growth of internal and external commerce
[3] population growth
And we will also take into consideration
[1] the need for innovative approaches, especially in the area of power
[2] the special geographical and political circumstances of Britain.
-all these things were interconnected - came together to produce Industrial Revolution
Stable Govt, economic freedoms, available capital and mobile labor - all encourage growth
and all came together in 18th-century Britain.
A. The Agricultural Revolution
In the 17th century, there was a transformation in Agriculture that made it much more efficient. This
is traditionally seen to precede the Industrial Revolution - but was important in its own right.







Holland
Agricultural. improvements started in Holland due to
- pop pressure/urban growth (Amsterdam grows from 30,000 to 200,000 people in 17th C.)
- commercial concerns of the people - there was no tied peasantry, and farmers began to
think about how to profit from their land rather than just produce food. It was more
profitable, for instance, to import wheat from Poland and use Dutch farms to grow flax (for
linen) or tulips.
- new methods include : enclosed fields, new rotation, heavy manuring, new crops
England
-Dutch techniques were copied in England
-Charles "Turnip" Townsend (1674-1738) a landlord from Norfolk. began work in 1710s
Encouraged new crop rotation.
- Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
encourages horses over oxen plowing. promoted seed drill.
Crops
End of the medieval three field and fallow system, which allowed one field to "recover" each
year.
-use of soil enriching root crops - wheat, turnips, barley, clover
-increases food for animals - more manure - better crops - a beneficial circle was established.
-The potato becomes increasingly important.
-- Accounts of the "Potato Revolution" 1695 - 1845
Livestock
- breeding techniques for better bigger animals.
Enclosures
English landowners have a craze for improvements in 1740s - Enclosure acts after 1760 took
public land and put it under private control. (but much of England already enclosed in 17th
C.)
-Enclosures - harmed small farmers/landowners
-probably did not harm landless laborers
-actually gave them more wages to earn - and they were the majority.
-So now in England you had a large mobile wage labor force. [If factories paid more, the
workers would go and work there.]
Long Term Results of Agricultural Revolution
-Smaller and smaller proportion of pop. engages in agriculture in the West - frees them to
engage in Industrial work - which creates commodities and realities impossible in a purely
agricultural economy.
By 1870 England produces 300% more food than in 1700, but only 14% of population
worked on land by 1870.
Short Term effects
A period of bountiful crops 1700-1760 meant English people had some income to spend on
more than just survival. They probably lived better than any other poor people in Europe
outside Holland.
Also most people in England were wage laborers rather than tied to land like free peasants or
serfs - i.e. people would go where the jobs were.
B. Population Growth

A. Population Increases in 18th C.
Europe:
England



1700
100/120 mil
6 mil (1750)
1800
190 mil
10 mil
Population as deterministic?
There is a big debate as to whether increased population lead to the Agricultural and
Industrial revolutions, or those revolutions permitted the increased population.
Malthusian Controls
- Rev. Thomas Malthus had predicted a disaster with rising population..
-His theory was that population could rise "geometrically" while resources could only rise
"arithmetically." At some point population would overtake resources. At that point
"Malthusian Controls -- war, famine, disease -- would kick in to reduce the population.
-It was, at least for a few centuries, avoided by industrial and agricultural revolution.
Agricultural Revolution and Population
-a. Increased pop. capable of being fed - more people survive.
-b. Enclosures send people off countryside to live in Cities
C. The Power Crisis





Human and Animal Muscle
Main power sources up to 18th C.
relation to wealth - Poverty caused by limited output per person.
Use of Wood
Europe was once covered in forests
Wood - heat/smelting Iron
England out of Wood by 18th C. (Lord Nelson was so worried about implication for the
Navy, he went around Acorns in his pocket.)
Coal
Provides the solution.
Used for Heat in London before 1700
was to be used for steam.
But was very hard, and expensive, to extract.
Water power - used first
Results of Power Crisis
-led to search for new sources of power - and was to use it - Very important in Industrial
Revolution
In some respects it was the application of new forms of power that defines the Industrial
Revolution. (steam, coal, electricity)
D. Politics of England



After a period of unstable government, stable government - there was a one party state run by
the Whigs. Relatively little government interference with economy.
No Feudalism - there was no large privileged "feudal" class to hold back change or
population movements.
Very large class of free landless laborers.
E. The Commercial Revolution.



Pre Industrial Capitalism
-The Putting-out system/ties in with population -mostly wool until late 18th C. The
production of cloth was done largely in the home, not in workshops or factories.
-Free Trade area in England - largest in Europe
Internal Trade Growth in 18th C.
Internal - more important in economy
- England not poor - peasants did have some surplus income (due to Ag. Rev.)
- pop. growth accentuates this demand.
External Trade Growth - Navigation Acts
-Mercantilism - government efforts to keep a positive trade balance.
-Navigation Acts - gave Britain a trade monopoly with its colonies
-1652, 1674 - vs. Dutch
-there were also other struggles vs. The French culminating in Seven Years War.
-march of trade and empire led to Industrial Revolution
-Other countries put up similar barriers but English new markets in America and Caribbean
kept up demand.
-led to London as a large trading center and a lot of CAPITAL to invest.
-The West Indian trade did not provide the money for the Industrial revolution. (Research
has shown that the people who invested in the new factories in the north of England were
distinct from those who made money in trade with the West Indies.) But it did contribute to
the amount of capital that was swirling around England, and to the creation of a society in
which some rich people were looking for ways to make money apart from just buying land
(which was what the rich had almost always done in the past).
Graph: Total UK Exports compared to
Exports to North America, W Indies,
West Africa, Spanish America [mostly Caribbean.]





Supply and Demand.
Explain notion of Demand.
There was both HOME and FOREIGN DEMAND FOR ENGLISH GOODS.
Trade socially acceptable in England.
-By time of Industrial Revolution England had an experienced business class, and fairly
advanced economic structure.
Climate and Geography of England also Helped
o Transportation (tied to trade)
Natural waterways in England - nowhere more than 20 miles from water.
Canal system built up before Industrial Revolution -from 1770s
o Coal resources (tied to power needs)
o Damp climate
- good for cotton
Scientific Revolution's Effects
-A. Practical
Early inventions not `scientific' - but science soon comes to play a role.
-B. Different World View
Change in attitude - the can-do approach to innovation was approved of.
India and Cotton
-It might have been India and Cotton which gave the final push.
-A. Seven Years War 1756-1763
France and England
England gains control of India
-The East India Company
B. Cotton
Advantages as a textile
Cleaning/wearing/
F. England First Nation to Industrialize



All the above strands come together in the mid 18th century
demand/free trade area/scientific attitude/geographical possibilities/new textiles
-emphasize Ag. Rev and Commercial Growth
-led to creation of factories and a new social and economic world.
England had to face new situation - and evolve new social and economic and political system.
II. What Happened During the Industrial Revolution?
The term was only used at the end of the 19th Century -so this is revolution in an odd sense of the
word :



Factories
Urbanization of the population
Massively increased production
This is was we are going to look at now.
A. Industrial Technology



Introduction
o Think of of Industrial Rev. as a Process.
-one invention leads to another, which leads to new situations which call for yet other
changes. Once the economy gets bigger, it also becomes more diversified. For
instance, big factories begin to require payroll clerks, and canteen workers. The
whole process is like a snowball running down a hill.
o Why textiles were first?
Demand-led growth.
In pre-modern economies people buy only a few things: food, housing, and clothes.
Because producing all these takes so much effort, many aspects of the modern
economy are either miniscule, or do not exist at all.
Clothing was very hard to make, and so was the area in which, if you could come up
with a new cheap method, there would be a real demand for what you produced.
o Why Steam engines quickly became essential
Rapid growth - need for iron and power.
The initial use of water power could not keep up with demand.
Move of population and industry to the North of England.
o Investment
By merchant capitalists at first. Later most money came from expanding areas
themselves.
-profit promoted search for new methods
-only an already rich country like England could afford the first machine age.
King Cotton and Manchester
o Cotton Machines (one Machine leads to another)
Cotton was first industry to change - It was still new in 1760. There were many
putter-outers looking for a more efficient way to produce cotton.
 Flying Shuttle 1733 - John Kay -led to a demand for more yarn
 Spinning Jenny 1765 - James Hargeaves
 The Water Frame 1769 - Richard Arkwright -led to a need for more weaving
 The Mule 1790 - Richard Compton
-combined best features of other two -demanded more power than humans
could provide - led to factories by water. Weaving still done by Hand - high
wages now paid for weavers.
o -These machines revolutionized industry.
-By 1790 10 times more yarn was being made than in 1770. By 1800 it was main
Industry in UK.
-Spinning was now done in factories.
-First modern factories grow up in Eng. textile industry.
o Other Machines: Looms and the Cotton Gin
 Power Loom 1785 - Edward Cartwright invents a power loom - but these
were not perfected until about 1800 -led to need for more cotton
 Cotton Gin 1800 - Eli Whitney -Led to economic revival of the Old South.
[A bad effect was that it made slavery economically viable for another 65
years.]
Lancashire - Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution
o Weather - damp climate for cotton spinning
Manchester - entrepot
Growth
1811-1821 - 40%
1831-1831 - 47%
o
o
o


-cotton towns/spinning - Rochdale
-cotton towns/weaving - Burnley
Wool Machines
Wool old industry of England still important
Yorkshire/Other side of Pennines - Drier weather
The new cotton machines were soon adopted in the older woolens industry.
Power Machines
o Recap power shortage
-the Mule made need for more power acute.
Early Machines dependent on water power -located near rivers.
o Thomas Newcomen's Engine 1702 - highly inefficient
Use at Mines - but coal was the solution to the power problem.
 Thomas Newcomen: The Newcomen Engine, [At Exeter.ac.uk] [Sketch
picture]
o James Watt (1736-1819)
1760's Studied steam engines [Story of the Kettle]
Steam Engine 1763 - saw principal while repairing a Newcomen Engine.
-to make something better he need precision tools.
Steam engine is the fundamental technological advance of the Industrial Revolution.
Matthew Boulton and Watt - apply steam engines to textile machines 1769
- begins to produce Steam engines (need for Sci. Rev. knowledge here)
 James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769, [At Museon.nl]
[Picture]
 James Watt (1736-1819) and Matthew Boulton: An Industrial Steam Engine
[with a 64 inch bore!], 1820, [At Kew Bridge Steam Museum] [Picture]
 James Watt (1736-1819): The Steam Engine, c. 1769 [Picture]
o "Steam is an Englishman"
-absolutely fundamental to the Industrial Revolution
-united Industrialization and Urbanization
-there were a series of Great Engineers who extended the simple steam engine to
railroad engines, steam ships, and hundred of other uses.
 Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859): The S.S. Great Britain, 1839, [At
Digiweb][Picture+text] or Another Picture [At wlihe.ac.uk]
The first ocean-going steam propeller ship.
o Results of Steam Power.
For first time virtually unlimited power available to people. Was to be used in
Factories first, then in Transportation.
Steel and Sheffield
o Iron Furnaces
 a. Need for intense heat - Charcoal or coke.
 b. Steam power made coking process available.
1780s - Henry Cort improves pig iron making.
 c. Development of Steel.
1740 17,000 tons
1788 68,000 tons
1796 125,000 tons
1806 260,000 tons
1840 3,000,000 tons
 d. Heavy industry - concept
o Sheffield
Manchester located due to its usefulness in cotton manufacture (west coast/damp etc)
Sheffield - in middle of a coal field + near iron ore, + lots of cooling water.
o
What is Steel used for ?
Machines, railways, ships, iron buildings
B. The Factory System - The Social Effects of Industry

The Factory System
o Move to factories demanded by Machines
-Water power - Country factories
-Steam power - allows growth of Cities
-Rapid urbanization of a new type.
o Early Stages
Whole families work/Use of child labor
Kinship ties preserved.
o Factory Discipline
Rural Life - set own pace, but do not idealize it. Discipline made factories hated
-Hours were long
-had to eat at set hours
-Monotony of Factory work
o Factory Acts - 1830s
Humanitarianism
ended child labor, and limited women's hours to 12.
o Worker Response
 Leeds Woolen Workers' Petition, 1786
Attacking the effects of machinery.
 Leeds Cloth Merchants' Letter, 1791
Defending machinery.
 Observations on the Loss of Woollen Spinning, 1794
o The Ideology of the Manufacturers
 Andrew Ure (1778-1857): The Philosophy of the Manufacturers, 1835
III. Spread of Industrialization
A. Introduction - Other Countries Compared to England






England got a massive head start. France had begun to copy by 1780's but revolution stopped
it.
Napoleonic Wars, and reaction afterwards held Europe back. They also damaged the
economy and killed millions of potential workers.
By 1815 England was way ahead - other countries did not even understand the technology.
Steam power made big initial investments needed in a way that had not been the case in
England to start with. Britain tried to retain its technology: until 1843 it was illegal to export
textile machinery
Other countries had advantages:
--They could avoid England's mistakes
--They could copy the latest techniques without having to go through all the trial and error in
development.
--They had strong governments to promote industry.
Other governments made conscious efforts to acquire this know-how - industrial espionage.
B. Sketch Chronology of Industrialization
1760-1850 - England
1830- - Belgium
1840- - France, Germany, USA
1890- - Austria, Russia, Japan


Table: Spread of Industrialization,
Table: Spread of Railways in Europe
C. Railways: The Essential Invention for Industrial Expansion









Invention in England
Rail used in mines - with animal power.
There were steam powered cars in early 19th C. - too noisy.
Rail capable of supporting a locomotive by 1816.
George Stephenson - The Rocket (1825) - 16 mph
Stockton and Darlington 1825 - first commercial steam railway.
Manchester-Liverpool line 1830 - first passenger line. (Also first fatality: the British trade
minister Canning fell off the platform into the path of a train, and was killed.)
England's Railway Rush (1830-1850)
First line 1830. By 1850 almost all UK rail network in place - competing lines, and even a
speculative bubble.
6125 miles of railways built.
Importance of Railways
1. Economic effects
o Lower Transportation costs, Larger markets = cheaper goods.
o Created a "beneficial circle" of expansion.
2. Social effects
o Population movement to cities.
o Railway created strong demand for unskilled labor - often came from country side but did not return.
o Seaside vacations became possible for the working class.
o Navigators - immigrants to cities after finishing work on railroads.
o Outlook of society of the world changed.
o In Art - the sight of the moving landscape.
D. Spread of Industrial Revolution in Europe
Railways and Industrialization the Continent.







Belgium has railways 1835
France 1832 - serious construction 1840s
Germany - 1835
By 1850 you could travel from Paris to Berlin by rail.
Makes water transport less important
Cuts down geographic advantages of Britain.
Free Enterprise was NOT the model outside Britain and Germany.
o George Friedrich List (1789-1846): National System of Political Economy
o Robert Franz: The German Banking System, 1910
Belgium




First European state to industrialize
British Input: John Cockerill - established 1817 a large plant in Liege which produced
machinery,steam engines and later locomotives. Skilled British workers came illegally to
work for Cockerill.
A lot of information from this plant spread across Europe.
1830s - two Belgian banks pioneer financing industry
France

Banks lead the Way - all over Continent -- Credit Mobelier of Paris
Germany



Early Failure - need for Govt. Support: Fritz Harkort from 1816-32 tried to build up industry
in Ruhr. Failed as he could not invest enough + lack of infrastructure.
Prussian government introduces tariffs, builds roads + finances railways.
1834 - Zollverein -- Goods can move freely in Germany, Tariffs against others leads to
German economic unification.
USA

From 1840
Russia

Late 19th century on.
Japan





Forcibly opened by Cmdr Perry 1853
Unequal treaties + humiliation of the Shogun
The Meiji Restoration 1867 -- a political coup d'etat (a non-violent take over of government)
leaders were modernizers: they saw what happened to China and so copied German and
American Industry very deliberately. Also copied German authoritarian Government in
1880s Japan becomes an industrial power - first non- European nation to do so.
War with China 1894-95
War with Russia 1905
IV. The Second Industrial Revolution 1870The "first Industrial Revolution" took place roughly 1780-1830 in Britain. Between 1850-1870
Industry comes of age in much of Europe. From about 1870 there was a second Industrial
Revolution. It is so called because rather than textiles and railways, a whole new range of industries
grew up, and financial institutions become much more important.
New Industries




Chemicals
Steel
Electricity
Oil

At end of century cars invented (1885)
1860 - GB, Fr, Belg, + Germany together produce 125,000 tons of steel,
1913 - 32,020,000 tons of steel
1881 - first electricity plant (UK)
What was New








Banks not individuals determine investment priorities - as nowadays.
The Second Industrial Revolution was no located in one country: UK, Germany and USA all
took the lead.
Germany's emergence as a major economic power was also a major political fact after 1870.
Industrial Revolution II built on the society and industry created by Ind. Rev I.
More emphasis on science and technology - scientific research comes to play a role.
Big firms becoming more important
Growth of number of white collar workers
Invention of the production line in early 20th century by the Ford Motor Company.
V. Social Results of Industrialization
A. Population
There had been an increase in 18th C. but a veritable explosion in 19th C.
1800-1850 40% pop. increase -- leads to more industrial growth
Europe peoples move to Americas, Australasia (destruction of aboriginal peoples - Amerindians,
Tasmanians)
Europeans dominate in other countries - about 1/2 go to US.
1850-1900 pop, increase 266mil to 401mill (50% inc.)
Europe made up 25% of world pop - the most it ever has.
B. Urban Existence
Urbanization was the great social result of the Ind. Rev. Formerly the vast majority of people lived
on the land. From now on the City was to be the way of living.
Cities are places were new ideas flourish, where creativity is increased, education becomes possible
for all. They are also places that can dissolve social bonds, and lead to alienation.
Country gives way to Town
In England 50% of people live in Cities by 1851
Later in other countries
The Urban Environment
City conditions were bad before the Ind. Rev. but new pop. pressures and industry intensified the
congestion filth and disease.
Dirty - Sanitation problems - open sewers: millions of people lived in shit. Cholera arrives 1830s,
affects middle class as well
1840s - Public health movements - made necessary by Ind. Rev. (House of Commons had to be
closed in the 1840s because of the stink from the Thames) -- this lead to a much greater role for
government.




Life of 19th Century Workers In England [At Alderson-Broaddus College]
Edwin Chadwick (1803-1890): Report on Sanitary Conditions, 1842, [At Brown]
Friedrich Engels: Industrial Manchester, 1844
From The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844.
Elizabeth Gaskell: North and South, 1855, [At Clinch Valley College]
Edwin Chadwick - a commissioner to administer relief to paupers. His report in 1842 spurred
government action. (He applied the principle of "the greatest good for greatest number."). First UK
Public Health Act 1848
It was believed public health/cleanliness would help everybody. Sanitation by sewers, etc., weremethods adopted all over Europe.
Medicine
1860s - breakthrough in preventive medicine as idea of germs showed need for cleanliness
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). finds bacteria 1868.
Vaccination vs. Rabies 1885.
Joseph Lister (1827-1912) - began sterilizing wounds - helped stop death from Septicemia
Decline in death rates was enormous from 1870's onwards.
Housing
To begin with houses were very crowded, and badly built - little sanitation (Row houses had 200
people to to 1 toilet). Built on rural model not suitable for cities. Houses had to be crowded near
factories due total absence of public transport.
After Mid 19th C. - Urban planning and public Transport - people could live away from work.
Paris was model under Napoleon III - it was transformed into a modern city by Baron Georges
Haussman.
1890s - electric trams (streetcars) - real revolution in public transport.
Late 19th C. Urban life improved in quality - still slums, but a good experience for many.
C. Class Structures
Class continued to be a part of European life. Despite increase in general wealth there continued to
be great disparity of wealth - usually the richest 5% got 1/3 of nat. income, the richest 20% got 50 to
60%.
There continued to be complicated class systems - not just two opposing classes as Marx had
predicted. But some classes declined in power and numbers and others became more important.
Losing Ground


Rural Aristocracy - gradually lost power in Britain, France and Low Countries, but retained
power in Russia and Germany until 20th C.
Peasants - As population moved into the towns, peasants became more and more marginal.
But this movement took place at different paces. In France, for instance, peasants remained a
politically important group until the second half of the 20th century.
New Social Classes Created by the Industrial Revolution


The Factory Owners
Perhaps the first people to think of themselves as a class in the modern sense. They were
locked into a highly competitive system.
There was a lot of mobility in early Industrial Revolution -no need for massive investment
But by mid 19th C. - move to assimilate with old ruling classes - buying titles and sending
Kids to private schools - less mobility.
Origins of the Industrial Working Class (Proletariat).
Movement into cities
-Factories destroy old communities but new ones come into being.
-by 1850 - awareness that Ind. Rev was creating riches
-aim was to get it for the working people.
-origins of trade unions (will be discussed under lecture on Socialism)
But the class system was more complex than just these two groups. There was a complicated system
of rankings within the middle and working classes.



New Urban Middle Classes (20%)
o The Capitalist Bourgeoisie (5%): Tried to ape aristocratic lifestyles after its early
liberal period. e.g. it bought and built country houses but engaged in constant battles
to cut their production costs and stay rich.
o The Professional Middle Class: Merchants, lawyers, doctors: increases in power and
importance as knowledge based skills come to the fore in society - Medicine,
engineering.
o The lower middle class - shopkeepers, white collar workers (a new class) - often
identified with middle class even though they were no wealthier than workers dentists, teachers, nurses all rise into the lower m/c from w/c status in 19th C.
Middle Class Culture
o Lot of money spent on food
o Use of servants
o Well housed - apartments in Europe, houses in Britain
o Values: Hard work, education, religion
o Insecurity about social and economic position.
o This was to lead to many of 20th C's political problems.
The Proletariat/Working Class (80%)
As textbook makes clear only textiles were industrialized at first - but factory methods of

production did spread to other industries. Other new industries were not factory jobs -e.g.
construction jobs. But factory like discipline was imposed. Proletariat - means workers for
wages, who do not own the means of production.
o Aristocracy of Labor (15% of w/c) - highly skilled/ craftsmen - printers, masons,
foremen developed stern morality/Methodism. Tended to see itself as leaders of the
w/c. It was always under pressure from new technology making its skills redundant.
o Semi-skilled workers - bricklayers, pipefitters, some factory workers.
o Unskilled Workers - dockers, helpers etc, + domestic servants (1/7 of workers in UK
in 1911)
Working Class Culture
o Characterized by middle class writers as all about drinking; sport - soccer, racing;
music halls.
o BUT ALSO: Working men's institutes/education; political activity - Chartism in
England.
o Religion more or less irrelevant to the working classes, although many continue to be
baptized. [Compare USA where churches thrived as a way of asserting ethnic
identity - not an issue in Europe where churches were seen more as preserving the
status quo]
D. Family Life and Sex
Here we are talking about all classes, and generalizing somewhat!
Marriage: the idea of romantic love triumphs.




There was an increase in pre-marital sex and illegitimate births up until 1850 - after 1850 a
decline in illegitimate births as working class stabilizes. Probably just as much sex
but contraceptives available + a tendency to get married when a woman got pregnant.
Economic factors still played a role in middle class marriages.
Marriage and kinship ties stayed strong for both middle and working class people - for
working class people they were a source of support and welfare - industrialization does not of
itself destroy the family.
But the family ceases to be a unit of production - it becomes a unit of consumption. Also as
production rises you get a situation where often only the adult male in the family works idea of breadwinner - and this reinforces male power in the home.
Sexuality
Cannot deal with this issue in full, urbanization not the only factor.




Urban middle classes develop a distinct sexual ideology: ideal of separating family from rest
of life; ideal of order and naturalness; the cult of domesticity.
But this succeeds in making everything is made exciting - trouser legs, for instance, were
rude to mention. Women's were not supposed to show ankles. At the same time there was a
a use of restrictive clothing -- bustles, girdles -- which emphasized the sexuality of women.
There was a a habit in the middle class of Medicalizing sexuality (rather than seeing it as sin)
o Masturbation - obsession with Children's activity.
o Homosexuality - from sin to sickness.
Men and Sex
o Prostitution was very common - 30,000 plus prostitute women in London in Late 19th
C.
o
o
o
The reason was that the poverty of so many meant that rich men found it easy to buy
sex. The ideal of wife and mother, often left single women with no easy means of
support.
Sexist attitudes to women continue - women blamed for venereal diseases (cf. Aids)
1864-1886 - Contagious Diseases Act in UK.
E. Women
Work






Pre-Industrial pattern of working middle class women disappears - less need for their labor
with new machines.
Women excluded from many good or responsible jobs - idea grows that women cannot work
as effectively as men.
Teaching and later nursing were open to some lower middle class women.
Some working class women continued to have to work, but even in that class many begin to
stay at home.
If they do work it was often on the land (France) or in domestic service.
o paid lower wages.
o demoting of women's work - women often very good at dexterous jobs.
Women had strategies to deal with these issues.
o Harriet Robinson: Lowell Mill Girls, 1834-1848
Ideals
Idealization of women's place always being at home, cooking and providing for men. The Home
increases in emotional importance (Home Sweet Home - 1870).
In some families it was the wife who made all domestic decisions and gave her husband "spends."
New emphasis on Children
Loving parent-child relationships. Many rich and m/c women would now breast feed their own
babies.
There were less children as time went on + lower death rate - each child valued more.
The birthrate fell - in order to maximize economic position.
But Children were controlled by parents and repressed.
Women's Sexuality
Seen as either Mother or Whore: although some French marriage manuals allowed that a women had
a right to an orgasm.
Always the case but particularly evident to men in big cities who had his wife and many prostitutes
available.
Women's Politics
Women excluded from all male politics But middle class women later in 19th C. began to question
their subordination - -e.g. led action in GB vs. Contagious diseases Act. [See the section on
Liberalism for more on this]
VI. Industrialization and European Economic Global Dominance
Industrialization gives Europe power - in Military production and Transport
Global Economic System - Comes into being from 17th C.
India, Americas, East Asia, Africa -- all become part of a system dominated from Europe.
A Lopsided world of Rich and Poor Nations
It was only in 19th C. that "Third World" fell behind Europe in Standard of living.
The debate has been whether the West caused this gap by exploitation
Trade and Foreign Investment



Britain plays a key role in enormous growth of world trade: imports raw goods (cotton) from
poorer countries then used poor countries as its market.
Suez Canal, Panama Canal foster intercontinental Trade
Europeans from 1840s invest huge amounts abroad - in the US and in Russia
New Colonies and Emigration


Britain and France expand overseas
Half migrants go to the US
Economic Colonies




Opium Wars with China 1839-42, 1856-60
Hong Kong and Shanghai become western entrepots
Japan 1853 - opened by Perry (Meiji Restoration)
Railroads, steamships, refrigeration: all intensified this trade pattern - e.g. Argentina becomes
a British economic colony in late 19th C.
Economic Dominance was accompanied by political and military control. There was also an
immense spreading of European ideas - this included nationalism.
Reaction of the Colonized
As we have seen European ideas and practices were very easy to copy, e.g. Britain to France. Now
they were copied, and developed, by the subject lands.
20th Century would see the rolling back of European dominance, but the continued spread and
dominance of ideas and inventions that originated in Europe.
VII. Was the Industrial Revolution Good for People?

Introduction
By 1851, Great Exhibition, UK was workshop of the world
o - 2/3 of worlds coal,
- 1/2 its Iron and Cotton.
o Production
1780-1800 Doubled
1800-1851 rose 3 1/2 times
o Population
1780 - 9 Million
1851 - 21 Million
o Was it all worth it?
The Industrial Revolution was necessary to cope with rising population, if that
population was to have any standard of living.
Ireland did not industrialize - no infrastructure - dependence on potato - pop increase
3 to 8 Million from 1725 to 1845 - famine in 1845, 1846, 1851 - led to 1.5 M dead +
massive emigration - economy remained agricultural and impoverished - this was the
alternative to Industrialization]
o The debate on Good or Bad has gone on since Industrial Revolution
-Poets such as Blake and Wordsworth protested the treatment of workers. Novelist
joined in the attack -- Dickens, Disraeli, and Zola.
-Others such as Ure and Chadwick claimed life was improving. The answers
sometimes depend on what sources you look at.
o Rural Life
Rural life was not always happy - it too could be dirty and oppressive.
-Movement off the land had already led to filthy cities before the Ind. Revolution

Marxist Views - Oppression of Workers
o -F. Engels: The Condition of the Working Class in England 1844
"At the bar of world opinion, I charge the English middle class with mass murder,
wholesale robbery and all the other crimes in the calendar"
o -Blue Books
The first generation was sacrificed to the Ind. Revolution. Conditions worse in
England than elsewhere as later industrializing countries followed English social
improvements.
o -Child Labor
o -Slums
o -hours of labor increased.
Revisionist Views - Material standards did rise.
T.S. Ashton and Hartwell
Use statistical methods.
1750-1790 Conditions improve
1792-1810 Conditions decline as prices rise.
1815-1850 Wages rise again.
-Material Standard of living goes up
-meat, sugar, teas consumption all rises.
-wages also rose. or stayed static while prices decline.
-wages increase from #13/ 1801 to #24 /1850
-it seems, then, that eventually there was substantial improvements
Other Revisionist Ideas -Child Labor a result of economic improvement as more children lived longer - also due to
labor shortage as men resisted working in factories to start with.


-The idea of poverty being bad is new - only Industrial Revolution makes idea of abolishing
poverty possible.
Quality of life Issues
Counter Attack on Revisionists - Eric Hobsbawm
Industrial worker was like a slave - but not looked after like slaves in old age. Number of
hours worked increases. (Its strange to see Marxists repeating arguments made by Southern
slave owners)
Stress on loss of workers independence and idea of Alienation. - nostalgia for village life.
Questions about the Readings
Sadler Committee




What industry ? What is Flax ?
What do you think about the hours kids and women worked?
Does the argument for rising wages compensate for these conditions?
Do you think regimentation was a necessary part of industrialization.
Engels and Gaskell

What were conditions of life in the new towns?
Ure









Where does Ure work?
What does he blame workers for ?
Do you think workers had reason to protest?
Do you realize from Ure that Unions were hardly legal, and could not force membership?
Why might workers want unions?
What incident is Ure describing here?
What do you think of Ure's view of child labor? Is it realistic ? Does he mention how much
they were paid?
What about his comments on the inactivity of factory life ?
Why do you think Ure writes as he does?
Web Exercise
The Industrial Revolution is still happening! All the social problems that one finds in Europe and
America in the 19th century - child labor, disruption of rural communities, very rapid economic
transformations of society, vast new cities, pollution - can be found in the modern world.
Your task this week is to find information in reliable newspapers on the Net, and post to caucus the
article you find, along with your comments on it, about "Industrial Revolution" type problems in a
modern industrializing country. You can use American online newspapers, such as the New York
Times or Washington Post, but I would be really much happier if you found information in one of
the English language newspapers that are on the net, but published in the new industrial countries.
Yahoo has a good list.
Here are some countries to look at (only do one):

Mexico





Brazil
India (see the Times of India)
Pakistan
South Africa
Thailand
Discussion Questions






How does the potato fit into the history of modern population growth? What other important
plants were first domesticated by inhabitants of the Americas? [This is a general knowledge
question]
What do you think was the most important cause of the Industrial Revolution?
Why was the cotton industry the first one to begin its expansion?
What affected life the most -- the French Revolution or the Industrial Revolution?
Was the effect of the Industrial Revolution the same on men and women?
How did the Industrial Revolution support Western political expansion into
other continents?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 9: The Conservative Order Transformed
Introduction: This Week's Goals
This week we begin our consideration of the 19th century. This was the century in which Europe's
lead in Industrial growth enabled it to establish political and economic control of much of the
world. But it was also a century in which intellectuals and politicians outlined a series of
ideological systems that continue to have some importance. In the next few weeks we shall look at
these: liberalism, nationalism, socialism, Darwinism, and so forth.
But the 19th century also saw the emergence of new types of conservative thought in the wake of
the French Revolution.


Some political leaders tried to reassert the traditional claims of monarchy and dynasty.
We can call this "reactionary" politics.
Others who disliked the ideal of radical liberalism, outlined a political philosophy that
admired order and restraint, but admitted that change should and could take place. We can
call this "conservatism," and we will look once again at the writings of Edmund Burke.
[We skipped over him rather too quickly in the French Revolution section]
The century's dominant ideology in the arts was romanticism. Some Romantics were political
liberals, but as an intellectual and aesthetic movement it validated the claims of tradition above
all. Romanticism exalted feeling over thought, loved to invoke emotion, and rejected the
Industrial revolution.
Both political conservatism and romanticism remained important throughout the 19th and 20th
centuries.
In this section then, we seek:




To understand the post-Napoleonic international political system.
To be able to identify "reactionary" political leaders and their goals.
To understand the themes of "conservatism."
To trace the rise of romanticism, and identify its major figures in the arts.
Text
Kagan, 699-717, 721-51
Multimedia














Louis XVIII (1755-r.1814-d.1824)
Alexander I (b.1777-r.1801-d.1825)
Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837)
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) and 2
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832)
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)
Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805) and 2
François René, vicomte de Chateaubriande (1768-1848)
William Blake (1757-1827)
Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834)
Jane Austen (1775-1817)
Robert Southey (1774-1843)
English poet laureate (1813-1843)









Thomas de Quincey (1785-1859)
Lord Byron (1788-1824)
Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
Alfred Lord Tennyson (1809-92)
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
Robert Browning (1812-89)
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-61)
Charles Kingsley (1819-75)
Robert Hugh Benson
Sources







Prince Klemens Von Metternich (1773-1859): Political Confession of Faith, 1820
The Carlsbad Decrees, 1819, [At Hanover]
Joseph De Maistre: The Divine Origins of Constitutions, 1810
Conservative political thinking.
Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1791, extended
excerpts
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Emile
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Faust, 1808, [At Clinch Valley College]
William Wordsworth (1770-1850): Tintern Abbey
Outline
I. Introduction: The 19th Century: Power and Ideology
We begin again at 1815, even though we have gone ahead in the section on the Industrial
Revolution. Here we are looking at wide developments rather than political minutiae. The 19th
century was relatively peaceful in Europe - no large scale wars, but many overseas conflicts as
new kind of empire is built up. We have already looked at how Europe was changing due to the
effects of the Industrial revolution. This is always in the background.
The main political developments.





The spread of political ideologies, derived somewhat from the French Revolution.
o Liberalism
o Nationalism
The unification of the Italian and German states.
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the destabilization of South Eastern Europe
The growth of great European overseas empires, and the emergence of Britain as the
world's greatest power.
A new political force/ideology that arose from the new classes unleashed by
industrialization - Socialism (Trade unionist and Marxist)
This section is called "Power and Ideology" because the nineteenth century witnessed many
struggles where the outcome was determined by military or industrial might, both within the
European world and outside it. But it was also a century in which a series of competing and
conflicting ideologies for political action were worked out. These ideologies built on the Industrial
Revolution and on the French Revolution.
One focus of both a "brute power" and an "ideological" explanation of the period is the year 1848
during which a series of revolutions which affected all of Europe took place. They provide a focus
for us to transfer our attention from the post-Napoleonic Europe, to one where these ideologies
begin to bear fruit.
II. The Political Settlement in 1815: The Congress of Vienna and Metternich
The Congress of Vienna Sept 1814-Nov 1815
Four Powers dominate - Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia.
Key People



Viscount Robert Castlereagh (GB) 1769-1822
Prince Klemens von Metternich (Aust) 1773-1859
Talleyrand (France)
Principles
1. No one power should dominate
Britain and Austria stopped Prussia and Russia getting upper hand - and all of Poland and
Saxony.
The concept of Balance of Power in Europe: No one European state would be allowed to
dominate the continent.
2. Restoration of legitimate monarchs.
The old royal families of France, Spain, and the Italian states were restored. (Germany was
"rationalized": its earlier 300 statelets were reduced to about thirty).
3. France should be contained.
Holland was made strong with by being given the old "Austrian Netherlands" (i.e.
Belgium), Austria was given North Italy, and Prussia given the Rhineland (which now
made Prussia a Western European power for the first time).
4. There was a non-vindictive boundary settlement with France. France could keep the
boundaries of 1792 - so it in fact lost nothing because of the war.
The "Concert of Europe"
There were plans to maintain order by having frequent meetings - continued for a few years - the
so called Concert of Europe, but soon disagreements made this redundant. However, there was no
major general war in Europe for a hundred years. The Balance of Power worked.
III. Reactionary Politics in Europe 1815-1830
After the French Rev, Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) a real effort was made
to restore the conservative political and social order in Europe. The international peace created by
the Balance of Power enabled states to established string internal controls.
Many of the old institutions had great staying power: monarchies, the landed aristocracy, and the
Church.
But there was something new. In the Old Regime (i.e. before the French Revolution) the
monarchy, the aristocracy and the Church had often been in conflict. But now there French
revolution had shown new dangers, and so there was a new self-conscious alliance of throne,
land and altar. All stood against the new ideas launched by the French Revolution.
A. Austria


Prince Klemens Von Metternich (1773-1859): Political Confession of Faith, 1820
Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)
The Austrian Empire dominated central Europe. Austria was a cosmopolitan state, existing
because of its Habsburg dynasty. Nationalism and liberalism worked against loyalty to one
dynasty, and against the existence of the state. Its great political leader was Prince Klemens von
Metternich epitomized reactionary conservatism. Anything else would destroy Austria.
Metternich also opposed moves to constitutionalism in German states - since Austria was a part of
Germany, and calls for a united Germany would pose a danger to Austria.
B. Prussia
The ruling class in Prussia - a landed aristocracy known as Junkers were allied with the army and
King Fredrick William III and opposed German nationalism. They were interested in preserving
the political power and social prominence of their class.
Fredrick William III had almost taken chance to be a constitutional monarch, but backed down in
1817.
C. Events in the German Speaking Lands

The Carlsbad Decrees, 1819, [At Hanover]
Carlsbad Decrees 1819
Showed the fear of the state for nationalism and liberalism. These decrees banned student
associations [Burschenschaften] - which advocated replacing local loyalties with loyalty to a
united German state. Secret police went into operation in many German states. Censorship was
imposed in universities.
Progressive industrialization
Despite efforts at a political clampdown, industry was transforming Germany, especially Prussia's
Rhineland. New political forces were transforming the reality on the ground. In particular
economic predominance was moving from landholders to industrial capitalists.
D. France
The Bourbon Restoration


Louis XVIII (1755-r.1814-d.1824)
Joseph De Maistre: The Divine Origins of Constitutions, 1810
Conservative political thinking.
The Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1815.
The first new king, Louis XVIII (a brother of the Louis XVI who had been executed) was a fairly
mild ruler in fact.
He issued The Charter 1814. It permitted religious toleration, but made Catholicism the official
religion. It did not disturb property changes since 1789.
The next king proved to be a problem - Charles X in 1824. He was too conservative, tried to
overturn the Charter, after liberals scored a victory in Elections to Chamber of Deputies.
Revolution of 1830
Charles X faced a revolution in 1830 (this is the one featured in Les Miserables). Primarily a
political revolt. But once again Paris workers - following an economic downturn after 1827 - took
to the streets.
Middle class deputies seized moment to bring about a constitutional monarchy - they did not want
another radical revolution - fear of workers.
The revolt in July 1830 revolt brought King Louis Philippe (a distant relative of the Bourbon
dynasty) to throne. He accepted The Charter as a right of the people.
The Liberal "July Monarchy"
Louis Phillippe's rule, from 1830-1848 is known as the "July Monarchy". He paid tribute to the
French Revolution. For instance France now adopted the Tricolor as its flag, Catholicism was no
longer the state religion, but seen as religion of the majority of the people. Louis Philippe built the
Arc de Triomphe and brought back Napoleon's body.
But this monarchy basically ruled in favor of the rich upper middle class. Peerage abolished but
landed oligarchy maintain power.
E. Britain
Return of the Tories
Following the defeat of Napoleon, a very conservative "Tory" government takes over in Britain.
Its goals were to support the interests of the traditional country landowner. But this was against
the massively shifting social and economic background of the Industrial revolution.
The Tories tried to clamp down.
Political and police coercion was used. Famously at Peterloo in 1819 a peaceful political gathering
was attacked by troops.
Economic conservatism in favor of landowners. The "Corn Laws" ("corn" in England means
"wheat" not "maize") kept foreign bread out and increased wealth of landed class. (An antibourgeois measure)
Some loosening in late 1820s.
In the North - Manchester - political campaigns for reform of Parliament and economy. Free
Trade.
The Rise of Liberalism - 1832
1832 - Great Reform Bill - compromise with the middle class prevents revolution. It was not
democratic - middle class did not have majority but it sets a trend.
From 1832 on, British politics was essentially "liberal". This is not the "liberalism" of today, but a
political ideology which promoted market economics and efficient government. "Liberals" were
the party of business interests.
In 1846 they even repealed of Corn Laws - and British Politics spent the next 30 years in a period
of realignment.
Britain alone is changed by reform rather than revolution. Contributing factors:



The very size of the industrial and commercial class
A strong respect for civil liberties in the British tradition.
A tradition of liberal Whig Aristocrats.
British Conservatism

Edmund Burke (1729-1797): Reflections on the Revolution in France, 1791, extended

excerpts
Edmund Burke (1729-1797) and 2
Resistance to liberalism in England was diffuse. There was no place for "reaction" since Britain
was already a constitutional monarchy. But many groups were unhappy with the coldness of
liberal politics. Eventually political leaders such a Robert Peel, and (most importantly) Benjamin
Disraeli evolved a new form of conservatism. in doing this they drew on the work of Edmund
Burke.
F. Russia

Alexander I (b.1777-r.1801-d.1825)
The most reactionary country of all.
After the blows dealt by Napoleon, the Russian monarchy opposed all change. It also gained a
reputation as great military power.
Extreme reaction occurred under Tsar Nicholas I who adopted a policy of "Official Nationalism,"
with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Aristocracy, and Nationalism."
He opposed liberals, kept serfdom, and resisted any change. This had the effect of alienating
almost all thinking people from the regime
IV. Challenges to the Conservative Order
Metternich's basic system was to last until 1848, later in some places, but was to be blown away
by Liberalism, and Nationalism. There were some early warnings.
Wars of Independence
A number of countries changed the 1815 settlement quite early.
Greece broke from Turkey in 1821. (Led by Ypsilanti).
Belgium, a Catholic region given to Calvinist Netherlands in 1815, took advantage of the July
days in France 1830 to fight for independence. Its army defeated the Dutch - becomes a neutral
state 1831. [That was to be the official cause of WWI, when Germany invaded and Britain entered
the war to defend Belgium]
Latin America - from 1810 on, broke with Spain and Portugal.
V. Romanticism


Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Faust, 1808, [At Clinch Valley College]
William Wordsworth (1770-1850): Tintern Abbey
The Enlightenment and Classicism
The dominant themes of much Enlightenment discussion included a belief in "cosmopolitanism" -i.e. all human beings were considered to be part of one society; the absolute value of reason over
emotion; and an admiration for the restraint and perfection of ancient Greek and Roman art (i.e.
"Classical Art").
Romanticism rejects all three themes in favor of particularism/individualism, "feeling," and
emotion in art.
Rousseau and Romanticism
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78): Emile
Rousseau was the real forerunner of Romanticism, a sort of reaction to both empiricism and
rationalism that rejected reason as only criterion of truth and which exalted feelings.
This was Rousseau's greatest effect in his lifetime was with his novel Emile, which encouraged
parents to love their children, although of course Rousseau was no example of this.
There was a sort of cult around Rousseau among women readers. He spread respect for feelings
and the common people and, despite way he treated his own children, people were inspired by his
writings to look after their own: in some ways he was the beginning of modern humanitarianism.
Rousseau also promoted the idea of the Noble Savage, in Discours sur l'origine de l'inegalite
parmi les hommes - 1755. This is. of course in contrast to his view in On the Social Contract that
you should try to make people better.
The Gothic Phase


Neo Gothic Architecture
Strawberry Hill, London
German Romanticism


Goethe
Fichte
English Romanticism



De Quincy
Coleridge
Wordsworth
Romanticism and Music



Beethoven
Brahms
Rachmaninov
Romanticism and Nationalism
Web Exercise
[This exercise assumes your have a sound card on the computer you use. If not, you could do this
with regular CDs.]
Find on the WWW some classical music sites which allow you to hear music. These can be MP3,
WAV/AU, RealAudio or MIDI sites.
Locate and listen to a piece of music by either Mozart or Haydn. Post the URL and try to explain
what makes this music "classical."
Locate and listen to a piece of music by Brahms, Dvorak, Rachmaninov, or Tchaikovsky. Post
the URL and try to explain what makes this music "romantic."
Discussion Questions
1. What is the difference between "reactionary" politics and the "conservatism" of writers such as
Edmund Burke?
2. What were the advantages and disadvantages of the "balance of power" ystem of international
relations?
2. What is the difference between "romance" and "romanticism." Find and give examples of:




Romantic literature/ Non-romantic literature
Romantic buildings/ Non-romantic buildings
Romantic painting/ Non-romantic painting
Romantic philosophy/ Non-romantic philosophy
Try to explain in your own words what was the core appeal of Romanticism.
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 11: The Nationalist Dream
Introduction: This Week's Goals
Nationalism challenged Liberalism as the political ideology with most impact in 19th
century Europe, as well as in North and South America. In the 20th century, it has remained
one of the most potent of all political ideals. Our goals this week are:




To understand that Nationalism comes in many forms:
o Cultural
o Liberal
o Triumphal
To understand which groups in society promoted Nationalist ideals, and which
groups were receptive to those ideals.
To examine and understand the contribution of Romanticism to the ideological
foundations of Nationalism.
To identify the roots of Nationalism in Liberal constitutional theory.


To have a clear idea of the political impact of Nationalism in the 19th century:
o In Germany
o In Italy
o On Austria and the Ottoman Empire
To examine the myth-making that is essential to the Nationalist dream.
Text
Kagan, 734-42, 744-49, 801-22, [828-32], 857-58
Multimedia

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and 2, 3
Intellectual progenitor of nationalism.




Emperor Franz Josef I and 2 (young), 3 (old) (b.1830-r.1848-1916)
Ludwig II of Bavaria (young) and 2 (old)
Otto von Bismark (young) and old (1815-1898)
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
German composer.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) and 2
Italian nationalist - soldier.


Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
Founder of Zionism

Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865, Pres. 1861-1865)
Sources

Voltaire (1694-1778): Patrie, in The Philosophical Dictionary, 1752 Voltaire's attack on
national chauvinism - and his views than people should be citizens of the world. It was this view that
was rejected by nationalists.


Nationalism and Music
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (17621814):, Addresses to the German Nation, 1806
Political nationalism as a response to Napoleon.




Giuseppe Mazzini: On Nationality as a Key to Social Development, 1852
Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847): Justice for Ireland, Speech to House of Commons,
Feb 4, 1836
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904): On the Jewish State, 1896
John L. O'Sullivan: On Manifest Destiny, 1839, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Outline
I. Introduction
This section looks at Nationalism. We are going to try and get an idea of why it was most
successful creed of the 19th Century, and also look at its most dramatic effects - the creation
of two major European states - Germany and Italy. We are also going to take special note of
how nationalism changes and spreads.
In an important sense Nationalism represents a reaction against Cosmopolitanism, the
Enlightenment ideal that all human beings belong to one family.

Voltaire (1694-1778): Patrie, in The Philosophical Dictionary, 1752
Enlightenment culture had emphasized:



A common language - Latin and French (e.g. in Russia much of the nobility took to
speaking French)
The universality of Reason.
The common intellectual world of the educated middle class and nobility.
II. Music and Nationalism
Nationalism and Music [work your way though this document]
Music is one way to think about the various stages of Nationalism. Different "nations" went
through different stages at different times, and sometimes all three stages intermingled. Still,
we can see a certain progression in thought.
The music below illustrates the way nationalism tended to develop over the 19th Century.
But the development was not uniform. It began in France, moved quickly to Germany. Only
later in the century did it spread to Slavic countries, which had been dead as nations for
centuries, with languages surviving only as peasant tongues - Czechs, Norwegians, Poles,
Rumanians. Smetana, for instance, could not speak Czech at first.
A. Cultural Nationalism


Jean Sibelius - Finnish
o Finlandia, Opus 26, 1899 -- banned in 1917.
Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884) - Czech
o Vltava [The Moldau] from Ma Vlast [My Fatherland]
These tunes both illustrates the cultural nationalism -- or promotion of the significance of a
culture as valuable against the "international culture" -- that was original to German and
Italian nationalism.
Later on in the century spreads to other nations, and was especially seen in Music:




Norway - Edvard Greig
Poland - Chopin
Czechoslovakia - Smetana, Dvorak
Russia - Mussorgsky, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsokov
Associated movements revived old folktales
B. Liberal Nationalism

Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), "Va, pensiero" o "Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves" from Nabucco 1842
The "Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves", Va Pensiero, from Verdi's opera Nabucco (1842)
attained great political significance. Va Pensiero became the Italians' song of liberation, for,
in the oppressed Hebrews, they found a symbol of their own longing for reunification with
Lombardy, which was occupied by Austria. The unison chorus (one of the few da capo
choruses in all opera) became the underground "national hymn", a sort of National Anthem,
with people yearning to be free of the Austrian domination of the country. "Viva Verdi"
[="long live Verdi," a typical cheer at the end of an opera] became "Viva V.E.R.D.I" [=
"Long live Vittorio Emmanuale Rei de Italia," a reference to the King of Piedmont-Sardinia,
to whom Italian Nationalists looked as a potential unifier of Italy] -- a political thing to
shout in Milan's La Scala opera house.
This is a more obviously political message than Smetana's.
C. Triumphal Nationalism


Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)
o "Triumphal March" from Aida 1871
Edward Elgar
o Pomp and Circumstance March No 1, Adopted, with the help of Marie Lloyd
as "Land of Hope and Glory"
Aida was written 30 years after Nabucco and we can hear a change in nationalism. It is no
longer cultural, or even a yearning to be free. Now it is triumphalistic, exalting one people
over another - this was not necessarily Verdi's own view of the matter.
[Aida written in 1871 to celebrate the opening of the Suez canal, became the model for a
choral opera. Aida is a work in the grand style, a tragic love story against a freely- invented
plot about a war between Egypt and Ethiopia. The `triumphal act' depicts Egypt's victory
over Ethiopia, whose prisoners are lead in chains across the stage. The trumpets, one and
half meters long, were specially designed for this opera. Although Verdi, as well as being a
great composer, was a famous liberal, the triumphal scene well illustrates the attractions of
overbearing nationalism.]
III. Origins of Nationalism
A. What is a Nation?


-not a state
-not a political entity
Usually thought of as combining:




-common history
-common language [problem in Eastern Europe]
-common religion
-self-awareness of group status
B. The Impact of the French Revolution: Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
French revolutionary ideas stressed the rights of the people. The people come to have their
own significance as a unit.
C. Reaction to French Revolution
The French spread their ideals all over Europe. But they dominated the other countries.
People in these other countries took up the ideals of the French Rev. and applied them to
their own situation, especially in Germany. The last part of the war against Napoleon was
known as the War of Liberation in Germany. There had never been a united German state,
but Germans saw what power a united France had achieved.
D. Romanticism
An intellectual reaction against the Enlightenment emphasis on reason. Looked more to
emotion and feeling as sources of truth. This had been growing up in Germany in the late
18th/early 19th Century.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - in Emile in 1762 had already begun to long for the natural man.
Feeling for one's country was promoted by romantics, along with feeling for birds, trees and
nature.
II. Cultural Nationalism
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and 2, 3
Oddly enough one of the earliest people to promote cultural nationalism was a German
philosopher - Herder. He, however, was inspired by the culture of the Letts (Latvians).
Herder lived in Riga a German town in Latvia.
He was interested in Lettish culture. He argued that each nation had its own "nature" which
should be respected.
Herder also applied these ideas to his own German culture - in opposition to cosmopolitan
French Culture. The Grimm brother were his followers. Collecting Fairy tales was
to preserve Germany's true nature.
Two German Romantics


Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) - Germany's greatest poet.
Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814)
German Philosopher - German Idealism saw the world as a creation of subjective egos. - i.e.
the world is created by humankind. The world is like it is because strong willed people make
it like it is (GREAT MAN IN HISTORY IDEA).

Johann Gottlieb Fichte (17621814):, Addresses to the German Nation, 1806 - by the
will of the people Germany could rise as one great nation.
Cultural Nationalism goes hand in hand with romanticism, and is a huge middle class
movement.
Examples:



Scotland: Sir Walter Scott, Ossian
Germany: Grimm's Fairy tales
England: Folklorism
Russia: Use of peasant music.
III. Liberal Nationalism


Giuseppe Mazzini: On Nationality as a Key to Social Development, 1852
Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847): Justice for Ireland, Speech to House of Commons,
Feb 4, 1836
Nationalism was initially linked with Liberals who, especially in Germany and Italy lead the
call for unity versus the old rulers. The idea of the people making up the nation and
nationalism can go well together - idea of popular sovereignty. Liberals in Germany
especially tended to stress the power of the state to unify - more than English liberals.
Failure of Liberal Nationalism in 1848
Nationalist Liberals lead all 1848 revolutions but none obtained their goals - 1848 marks,
especially for Germany and Italy the beginning of a new sort of nationalism. Unification of
Germany and Italy was supported by the liberals, but it was Kings, not the "people" who
eventually bring it about.
The failure of 1848 marked a break between liberalism and nationalism but one that perhaps
is inherent. The main concern of Liberals was with constitutional government: Nationalists
were, it turned out, much more committed to the unification of the "nation" by any means.
IV. Political Unification: Italy
A Story of three men:



Giuseppe Mazzini - the publicist
Camillo Cavour - the statesman
Giuseppe Garibaldi - the soldier.
Until 1850 Italy was dominated by Austria, and a battle ground for the great powers. 8
States. Italy was a geographical expression. Between 1815-1848 - many Italians began to
want national Unity - but many more apathetic. The Kingdom of Sardinia/Piedmont, only
Italian dynasty was the natural leader. The Pope opposed nationalism, but some wanted him
to unite Italy.
Nationalist ideas spread in the early 19th century. The Carbonari -- a secret Italian
republican society -- led revolts in 1820 and 1831.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was the "Prophet of Italian Nationalism". He founded a
group called Young Italy to drive Austria out, and was involved in the Roman Republic of
1848-49. He used the Tuscan dialect as the "Italian Language" - harking back to Dante. This
is a classic case of Nationalist invention - at the time perhaps 2% of the Italian population
spoke good Tuscan and Mazzini needed a translator to speak to the Italian crowds!
Unification came by Military and Diplomatic means.
Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1864) was the semi-liberal minister of Kingdom of Sardinia.
1851 to 1861. He built Sardinia into a modern and economically sound state.

Camillo Cavour (1810-1861)
Cavour's aims:


To Bring Northern Italy under Sardinia's control
To show Piedmont as a serious power - e.g. he entered troops in the Crimean War.
Not concerned with the South
His methods were as much diplomatic as military.




Cavour used France to engineer a war with Austria in 1859 - War of Independence
[Battle of Salferno - leads to the Red Cross]
Got hold of Lombardy and smaller Northern states
Also got most of papal states, but not the area around Rome. (1860)
New Kingdom of Italy proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel I in 1860 - but without
Rome and Venice.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) and the Red Shirts With British Help landed in Sicily and
then swept through the old Bourbon kingdom of Naples.(1860) So despite Cavour, Southern
Italy becomes part of the Italian state. This Garibaldi forced on Cavour, but Garibaldi had to
accept a Monarchy.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) and 2
Italian nationalist - soldier.
Italy took advantage of Austro-Prussian war of 1866 to get hold of Venetia - due to a
previous agreement with Bismarck. The Final Act was in 1871 during the Franco-Prussian
war. France, which was protecting Rome for the pope, had to withdraw troops from Rome.
Italian state troops move in and take Rome - united Italy.
Italy United but Divided



North and South
Pro-State and Pro-Pope parties: the pope becomes "Prisoner of the Vatican," and
issue not solved until 1929 and the Concordat with Mussolini.
Huge class divisions
V. Political Unification: Germany
A Story of three wars.
After 1848 Prussia was strongest state in Germany. If Germany was to be united it would
have to be by Prussia.
William I (1861-1888) had a problem of controlling the Prussian Parliament and getting
money - he recruited Bismarck. 1862. Had been Ambassador to Russia and France. (and in
1848 to Frankfurt Assembly)
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)



Otto von Bismark (young) and old (1815-1898)
Ludwig II of Bavaria (young) and 2 (old)
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
German composer.
The most remarkable political leader of late 19th century. He ruled Prussia from 1862, and
Germany from 1871, to 1890, as Chancellor.
Blood and Iron - Speech to Parliament 1862 - Bismarck saw Germany would not be united
by the liberals who had no power base, but rather by blood and iron. But we should be
aware that his unification policy also was away of deflating the power of liberals in the
Prussian state. He fulfilled their goals better than the did. He did it by ignoring the law when
it suited him.
Debates about him:


Did he intend to pursue the course of actions which led to the unification of Germany
when he began, or did luck play a part?
Did the manner in which Germany was united seriously pervert the German nation
and political character, and lead to Germany's history in the 20th century?
Steps in the Unification of Germany




Zollverein [A customs union] 1834: Pushed idea of non-Austrian Germany.
1848 - Frankfurt Assembly debated issue of Klein [little] or Gross [big]
Deutschland. In other words, should Austria be included. The Problem was that
Austria contained many other nationalities than Germans
Three Prussian Wars
o War with Denmark 1864
 Schleswig-Holstein - cause of the dispute.
 Austria supports Prussia.
 Prussia becomes leader of Germany.
o War with Austria 1866 - lasts 7 weeks
 Austria isolated from France and Russia
 Victory meant Austria gave up its role in Germany.
 North German Confederation established in 1866. It established the
structure of Bundesrat and Reichstag which was later used when the
Southern German states were added five years later..
o War with France 1870-71 - Over Spanish Marriages.
 Bismarck doctors the Ems telegram to insult France.
 Brings Southern Germany into war with France, claims AlsaceLorraine
 Prussia Wins - 1870 - Battle of Sedan.
The German Empire [Reich] 1871
o Empire proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles in 1871.
o
o
o
o
All German state, maintaining some independence agree to join a German
Empire.
United German Parliament: the Bundesrat, lower house called the Reichstag.
Germany is united by semi-authoritarian nationalism.
This was the "Second Reich." [The first was the "holy Roman Empire" of the
middle ages; the "Third" was to be Nazi Germany.]
The manner of Germany's unification effects the kind of state it is. Not a liberal democracy,
but a slightly limited monarchy, still dominated by the old ruling class, and not the
bourgeoisie as in other countries. German political history for the rest of the century was to
be about the attempts to keep control of the state by that old Prussian ruling class.
The new German Empire is the most important new political fact in Europe from 1871 on. It
transforms the balance of economic, military and international power. The remarkable
growth of industry soon enables it to challenge Great Britain's leadership.
VI. Austria-Hungary

Emperor Franz Josef I and 2 (young), 3 (old) (b.1830-r.1848-1916)
After 1866 and the defeat by Prussia there is an internal crisis in Austria. . Solved by the
Ausgleich [Compromise] of 1867. The Austrian Empire becomes Austria-Hungary. The
Hungarians achieve virtual independence -the so called Dual Monarchy. But Hungary
covered larger than the area covered by Magyar speakers - so there were still ethnic tensions
in the Habsburg lands as other groups began to make their nationalist claims.



Slavic Nationalism in Poland
Slavic Nationalism among the Southern Slavs (Serbs, Croats, etc.)
Growth of Anti-Semitism in Austria
o Jews were presented as not part of any nation
o Jews were presented as cosmopolitan
o Anti-Semitism grows especially in Vienna, where anti-Semitic political
parties began to be created.
o One result is the growth of Jewish Nationalism -- Zionism -- under the
leadership of an Austrian journalist called Theodore Herzl.
o Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
Founder of Zionism
o
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904): On the Jewish State, 1896
VII.. Effects of Defeat of 1870 in France



Fall of Louis Napoleon
The Third Republic - lasts until 1940.
Liberal Nationalism still important - given Frances lack of conflict over selfdefinition.
VIII. Nationalism in the Late 19th Century


John L. O'Sullivan: On Manifest Destiny, 1839, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865, Pres. 1861-1865)
By 1875 the idea of the nation-state had triumphed. Governments now looked for citizen
participation as a factor in their effectiveness. Major sources of future discontent would arise
from the demands of labour to be admitted to the political process, and the demands of small
nations that wanted to be but were not yet nation-states. Major sources of danger would
come from nations attempts to promote their own interests.
US and Nationalism. Often US history is discussed as if it had nothing in common with
European events. Although he is not usually thought of in this way, perhaps Abraham
Lincoln can be seen alongside figures such as Mazzini and Bismarck.
In the older nations - Jingoism, or triumphal nationalism.
A new imperialism after 1848, esp. after 1870, often had a triumphal nationalism aspect.
[See section 13]. This idea also had American echoes - see the text on Manifest Destiny.
Web Exercise
This exercise is by far the most important part of this week's work!
There is no use pretending that current events in the Balkans are not driven by nationalism.
Some of the same currents can be seen in the Israel/Palestinian conflict. Your project this
week, then, is to examine competing websites of modern nationalists, and to evaluate them.
If one student has already looked at one set of sites, make sure to choose another.




Locate two websites which adopt the following points of view:
o Serbian Nationalism
o Kosovar/Albanian Nationalism
Or you could look at websites for the following pairs of views:
o Jewish Nationalism (Zionism) || Palestinian Nationalism
o Turkish Nationalism || Kurdish Nationalism
o Indian Nationalism || Pakistani Nationalism
o Turkish Nationalism || Greek Nationalism
o Macedonian Nationalism || Greek Nationalism
When you have located two websites that represent opposing nationalisms, find
within the site the discussion of the given nation's history. [Nationalism almost
always depends on some account of history.]
Compare the account of history given by the pair of websites you have chosen:
o What periods in history does each side emphasize?
o How does each side seek to "prove" a point?
o Can you see any false [i.e. factually untrue] claims or fallacious [i.e. illicit or
invalid] arguments made by each side.
o What aspects fo Romantic nationalism does each side appeal to? And what
aspects of Liberal nationalism?
o How does each website treat the other side?
Discussion Questions
1. What was the appeal of Nationalism to early 19th century Germans?
2. How did Liberalism and Nationalism complement each other?
3. What separates Liberalism and Nationalism?
4. What was the challenge of Nationalism to the Austrian Empire?
5. Why was the Creation of a united Germany so important?
6. Are some nationalisms better than others?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 12: The Socialist Analysis







Introduction: This Week's Goals
Text
Multimedia
Sources
Outline
Web Exercise
Discussion Questions

Test Yourself!
An online quiz for this section.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
The third great political force that emerged in the 19th century -- after liberalism and
nationalism -- was based on parties and ideologies organized around the industrial working
class.


In the guise of labor parties and trade unions, working class politics fundamentally
altered the way in which western states functioned.
Ideological parties based on working class politics -- Communists and Maoists -succeeded in establishing control over a significant area of the world in the 20th
century.
In this section we shall try to:


Understand the origins of working class politics
Assess early efforts "socialist" politics.



Grasp the contribution of Karl Marx.
Trace the evolution of socialist and Communist ideas after Marx.
Understand the meaning of terms such as "socialism," "communism," "labor party,"
and so forth.
Text
Kagan, 776-87, 859-65
Multimedia






Georg W.F. Hegel (1770-1831)
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and 2
Friederich Engels (1820-1895)
Venn Diagram: The Relationship of Socialism, Communism, Trade Unionism and
Labor Parties.
The Red Flag (with sound files)
The Internationale (with sound files)
Sources





Crib Sheet: Socialism, Marxism, Trade Unionism
Early Socialism
o Chartism: The People's Petition, 1838
o Louis Blanc (18111882): The Organization of Labour, 1840
Marxism
o Karl Marx (1818-83) and Frederich Engels: Communist Manifesto, 1848,
extracts, [At WSU]
Versions of Socialism
o Edouard Bernstein (1850-1932): Evolutionary Socialism
o William Morris (1834-1896): Why I Am a Socialist, 1884
Socialist Culture
o Anne Maier: Autobiography, 1912
o Albert Einstein: Why Socialism, 1949
More texts can be found on the Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Socialism page.
Outline
I. Introduction: The Origins of Socialism


Crib Sheet: Socialism, Marxism, Trade Unionism [A quick summary]
Venn Diagram: The Relationship of Socialism, Communism, Trade Unionism and
Labor Parties.
What is Socialism? What is Marxism ? What is Communism?
These words are all related, but do not mean the same thing. They refer to ideas, political
parties, and workers organizations. Try by the end of the section to distinguish them.
A. Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a necessary prelude to working class politics, since it created
the working class, but also suggested new political opportunities.
The oppression of the working class
Industrialization and population growth created poverty on a new and much more visible
scale. But industry also created wealth on a scale hitherto unknown. This created a new
possibility -- that poverty might actually be abolished if only we organize society better.
Socialism is a response to working class oppression, based on the belief there is enough
wealth to eradicate poverty.
This was a new possibility. Before the Industrial Revolution, there was not, in most societies,
enough wealth to eradicate poverty even if it had been distributed equally.
The creation of class consciousness
As the Industrial Revolution progresses working people come to be conscious of themselves as
a class. Middle class people shared the intense class consciousness of the 19th century -newspapers of the time are quite explicit in their discussion of class.
The existence of class consciousness created the possibility of working class political action,
from the 1830's on.
B. Judeo-Christian ideas of Justice
All forms of socialism drew on beliefs about justice and oppression of the poor. Many of these
beliefs had roots in Jewish and Christian traditions which condemned the wealthy and favored
the poor.





The Jewish Bible (Old Testament) condemned usury (taking interest on a loan) and
oppression of the weak.
"Blessed are the poor": Jesus' condemnation of wealth seekers and his option for the
poor.
Apostolic Community - In Acts all the disciples of Jesus live, selling all they own for
the community.
Give the laborer his due: One of the Catholic "Four Sins crying out to heaven for
vengeance" was "depriving a laborer of his wages."
Medieval theologians condemned the profit motive.
[The Jewish and Christian idea that history has a goal was also and important analog to certain
ideas within Marxist thought.]
C. Liberal Politics
Liberals opposed the domination of society by the old landed elites, and made arguments
about the rights of "all men." In practice, though, political liberalism supported the goals of
the industrial and professional middle classes. The French Revolution, for instance, did not
include granting workers' rights, and protected the rights of property. It supported Lassiez-faire
economics, and opposed trade unions. These ideas were carried on by Liberals in the 19th
Century.
The political reality, however, was that a new industrial working class was coming into
existence, a class which was not served by Liberalism.
II. Early Socialists
A. French Utopian Socialists
These thinkers all tended to promote a system of greater economic equality organized by the
government.
1. Count Claude Henry de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
Planned economy - he believed modern society requires modern management. Government by
a board of directors. He was not keen on wealth redistribution, but of making all not-poor by
good management. He had followers known as Saint-Simonians who organized a little cult
around him.
2. Charles Fourier (1772-1837) - Socialist Communities
He dealt with problem of tedium in work by suggesting that each worker have several jobs and
wander around from one to another so as to avoid tedium. He proposed that special industrial
communities be set up. There were called Phalansteres or Phalanxes. They were communities
on about 200 acres of land with 1500 people. There was one set up in the US - Brook Farm,
Mass, 1842-1847. The only place this sort of socialism has ever worked is Israel - the kibbutz
is an example of a Phalansteres.
3. Louis Blanc (1811-1882) - (Not really a Utopian.)

Louis Blanc (18111882): The Organization of Labour, 1840
He was leader of industrial workers in the Paris region. He was actually part of the French
Cabinet (main government committee) in France in just after the Revolution of 1848. He
argued that the state should promote socialist programs and guarantee employment through
"National workshops." These were set up for a while, until liberals managed to displace Blanc
from the government.
4. Pierre Joseph Proudhon (more an Anarchist)
He claimed that the worker was source of all wealth, and so would be able to use it. In his
book What is Property (1840) he argued that "Property is theft." Despite this radicalism, he
ended up working for Louis III Napoleon.
Why Utopian?
These Utopian Socialists do not talk about class struggle. They see something is wrong, but
feel paternal action is the appropriate response. They also lacked any meaningful political
following. However they propose certain ideas that remained common to socialism

An interest in eradicating poverty.



A belief in industrialization, and its proper use to eradicate poverty.
A profound disbelief in the liberal idea that person is basically an atom in society.
Socialists always look at a person's place in a community. (some link here with
European conservatism).
Many of their ideas continue in European socialism, which is never only Marxist.
III. Early English Socialism
Sometimes English working class political are lumped in with Utopian socialism. But English
socialism was distinct from European movements. It had a much larger following early on, and
tended to be less doctrinaire later on.
A. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
Own was born poor, but became an important and successful factory owner. He was
committed to improving life for workers. In his industrial center at New Lanark - a small town
in Scotland - he adopted several methods to do this. He:



Built houses and schools for children.
Did not pay workers off during a depression.
Made a Profit.
He later organized an unsuccessful copy in the US at New Harmony.
Owen's Aims:



He thought people could be made better by better conditions (goes back to Locke).
Shows no need for bad conditions or low wages.
Basically paternalistic.
He ended his long life as a spiritualist
B. The Grand National Consolidated Trade Union
The GNCTU was a mass union founded by Owen in 1830s. It tried to unite all workers into
once huge union. But it suffered a collapse in the 1830s. Nevertheless, the idea that workers
should be organized in unions was central to later British socialism.
C. Chartism

Chartism: The People's Petition, 1838
In the late 1830s, Britain acquired a mass working class movement organized around a
"People's Charter" - Chartism. The movement began when in 1836 William Lovett (18001877) formed London Working Men's Association.
The Charter had Six Points - all connected to how Parliament was run. It called for:



Universal male suffrage
Annual elections
Secret ballots



Equal electoral districts
Abolition of property qualifications for MPs
Payments of members of parliament.
[All but number two are now accepted]
The movement was radical and quite sophisticated. Its most renowned orator was Fergus
O'Connor, who made speeches all over the country.. There was a also a Chartist press.
It was note entirely united as a movement - some would not accept violence. Once conditions
improved in late 1840s it lost some of its force. But at once stage it had the support of 1/2 the
people.
It is a unique example of a mass working class movement before Marxism.
IV. Marxism
Marxism was never the only political philosophy of working class politics, but it is without
doubt the most influential.. Even today it remains one of the major philosophies in the world
rated by number who live under its influence.
All modern political science, sociology and history effected by its ideas, either by adopting
them, rejecting them, or looking at questions in an entirely new way.
A. Karl Marx (1818-1883)\

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and 2
German. Born in Trier in Rhineland. His Father was Jewish convert to Lutheranism for
employment reasons. Marx himself was often anti-Semitic. He was married to an aristocrat's
daughter. He went to Universities of Bonn, Berlin and Jena. He published radical papers in
Koln and Belgium, [Rheinische Zeitung] until 1849 when he came to live in London for many
years. When he died, he was buried in Highgate Cemetery in London, where even today each
Sunday pious people come and lay red carnations on a grave tomb which reads "Philosophers
want to explain the world, but the thing is to change it".
B. Friedrich Engels(1820-1895)

Friederich Engels (1820-1895)
He was German manufacturer's son. He lived in England and managed factory in Manchester.
He was always politically aware and interested in the plight of the workers. His Condition of
the Working Class in England (1845) remains a classic account of the poverty in early
industrial Manchester. He was Marx's only real friend. They met 1844 after which Engels
supported Marx for many years.
C. The Communist Manifesto 1848

Karl Marx (1818-83) and Frederich Engels: Communist Manifesto, 1848, extracts, [At
WSU]
Qualifies as a "Great Book" both for its rhetoric and its later impact. To some degree it was a
work of fiction since there was no actual communist party at the time.
Das Kapital, written from 1867 on was probably Marx's major work.
D. Marxist Theory
Marxist theory drew from three main sources: German philosophy, English Economics and
French History
German Philosophy

Georg W.F. Hegel (1770-1831)
The greatest German philosopher of the early 19th century was Hegel. Hegel had concentrated
on the meaning of history, and proposed that history was guided by unseen -- or "ideal" -forces. He proposed that each age had a dominate Idea (thesis in Greek) which would
eventually give rise to its opposite (or Antithesis), and that the interaction between the two
would lead to an new dominating idea idea which drew from both (a synthesis):
Thesis - Antithesis
|
Synthesis
Hegel, in other words, emphasized the importance of history, and of great forces in history
which created change. He especially emphasized the idea of a "dialectic" in history.
English Economics
Marx was impressed by Hegel's view of history, but reject the proposal that immaterial ideas
were important in history. Instead he stressed the importance of material reality [this is why
Marx's philosophy is sometimes called "dialectical materialism."] The material reality he
though was most important was the reality of economic.
He largely followed Adam Smith/ David Ricardo's ideas of how economics works. So called
"Marxist" ideas, such as the Theory of money and the labor theory of value derive from these
classical liberal economists.
French Politics - French Revolutions
In addition to his Hegelian view of historical change, and English view of economics, Marx
was affected by the idea that a revolution could bring about change in a few days. This was a
lesson drawn from the history of France after 1789, which was a history of repeated
revolution.
What Was New?
Marx acknowledge his intellectual debts, but claimed that he was new in his proof that the
creation and power of social classes were bound up with the development of new modes
of production.
His philosophy -- dialectical materialism - claimed both that history has meaning, and that the
future could be worked out through materialistic analysis. For Marx, spirit and consciousness
are simply products of matter.
Marx's Theory of History
Economics is at the heart of history. All ideologies and actions are structured by the time in
which they take place. Theses structures are based ultimately on the economic basis of society,
although they do not lack reality. The economic basis of society is the organization, ownership
and control of the means of production. By means of production, Marx stresses that different
means are important in different periods: in agricultural society, who owns land is most
important; in industrial societies, it is the ownership of factories.
For Marx then, all significant history is necessarily a history of class struggle. For his own
period he used the Labor theory of value to show how workers were exploited: he argued that
workers produced surplus value which was collected by capitalists.
Marx's View of Past History
This was an example of the application of thesis/antithesis theory:
Original society was relatively equal, but at some period inequality was established. Starting
with the middle ages, Marx argued that:
Feudalism (thesis) -created its own opposite (antithesis) in the bourgeoisie
[The bourgeois class grew up, according to Marx, because agricultural society required
markets in which to sell goods. Eventually the bourgeoisie were as powerful as the old landowning nobles, and rose up against them during the French Revolution. The Bourgeoisie then
establish Capitalist society.]
Capitalism (synthesis = new thesis)
- has created its own opposite in the industrial working class (or proletariat)
[The proletariat were the opposite of the Bourgeoisie because workers, who owned nothing,
had no investment in the system.]
Marx predicted that history required that the proletariat would realize its own position, and rise
up and overthrow Capitalism. At that point, and after a period of transition, the workers would
establish a stateless Communist society.
It is important to realize that Marx's reading of past history, although insightful in some
respects, can also be shown to be wrong in many other respects.
Marx's View of Current (19th Cent.) Events
Marx argued that capitalism contains seed of inevitable destruction because of:



Overproduction
Its tendency to create just two classes who would eventually have to fight each other -the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat.
The Proletariat (workers) were deprived of ownership of the means of production, and
so had no reason to maintain the oppressive system. Deprived of any reason to keep
society, they will change it.
Marx does see current society as evil, but it is also inevitable, and equally it will change. It
should be noted, however, that both Marx and Engels were both effected by the changes that
took place in their lifetime, and later thought that socialism may be established through
democracy.
E. Marx and the First International 1864-1876 (The International Working Men's
Association)
Marx worked to unite all the socialist organizations it one international co-operation. It
included, Trade unionists, socialists, anarchists, and polish nationalists. He made an
accommodation to the evolutionary trends in Socialism. Marxism emerges as the single most
important strand of socialism all over Europe after this, especially amongst German socialists.
F. Russia
Marxism was written for Germans, by a man living in England. But the ideas were picked up
in Russia - where they were to have there greatest effect. Lenin significantly developed
Marxism. We will look at this in the section on Russia.
G. The Appeal of Marxism
It is important to note that Marxism was very appealing to many in Europe.



Authority as a Science: Marxism claimed to be "scientific." Marx said he had proved
his doctrines. There was the belief what he said would inevitably come about.
o Albert Einstein: Why Socialism, 1949
o Compare Karl Popper's attack on historicism and Marx's claim to be scientific.
Popper argued that:
1. Marxism is not a science as it does not propose a model to be tested by
experience, but tries to fix experience to its model.
2. Technology effects history. Technology is based on knowledge. We
cannot predict future technology, since future technology is based on
future knowledge, which by definition we don't yet have. Therefore we
cannot predict the future course of events -- an example would be the
impact of TV on politics)
Emotional Appeal
o Marxism decried ethics, but had an emotional appeal, especially when it talks
about oppression.
o Also Marx tacitly assumes the Proletariat are better than other classes - more
altruistic and deserving.
Analogy with Christianity: In a number of ways, Marxism came to represent a sort
of secular religion.
o Prophet (Marx)
o Holy Book (The Manifesto/Das Kapital)
o
o
o
o
o
Chosen People (Proletariat)
Clergy (Intellectual Leaders)
Church (Communist Party)
The Sinful (The Bourgeoisie)
The Promised Land (Communist society)
H. Marxism and Socialism as a Culture




William Morris (1834-1896): Why I Am a Socialist, 1884
Anne Maier: Autobiography, 1912
The Internationale {with sound files)
The Red Flag
For many workers, and their intellectual or middle class supporters, an entire socialist culture
evolved.
V. Alternative Forms of Socialist Philosophy
A. Edward Bernstein and Revisionism

Edouard Bernstein (1850-1932): Evolutionary Socialism
Edward Bernstein (1850-1932), was involved with the German SPD (Social Democratic
Party), which as we shall see was both a Marxist party, but one which did not in practice
advocate revolution.
In Evolutionary Socialism 1899 -- i.e. 50 years after the Communist Manifesto -- Bernstein
noted that Capitalism did not seem to be about to collapse, and change might even
theoretically be brought about by parliamentary action. He called for more democracy and
reform. This approach -- to have the same goals as Marx, but to reject revolution, was called
"Revisionism." [NOTE Marx had accepted this idea for Britain and the US, but it was not
clear it would work in authoritarian Germany.]
B. Fabianism 1884
A British form of socialism was promoted by the Fabian Society. [The name is from a
(mythical) Roman general whose techniques had been to avoid conflict to avoid defeat - i.e.
gradualism. ]
British intellectuals were prominent: George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950), Sidney (1859-1947)
and Beatrice Webb.(1866-1946).
The aim was gradual social change, backed up by accurate arguments. Fabian were keen on
state control of means of production.
VI. Practical Working Class Politics: Trade Unions
It could be argued that, for most workers, real change was brought about not by any thinker,
but by trade unions. Trade unions can not be seen as entirely distinct from socialist political
ideologies or parties, however, since many trade unions created and supported political parties
(labor parties) which adopted the various philosophical approaches.
A. Emergence of Unions
Generally the working class becomes stabilized after 1850/1870. But it continues to grow in
numbers and importance as the 2nd industrial revolution takes hold.
Unions organize to get better conditions for members. At first they face Anti-Union Laws.
There were some very long strikes. But in general no violent uprisings.
In fact workers begin to have a stake in society. Marx was wrong. Workers conditions did
improve. Workers have some possessions. Many are quite conservative.
B. Britain - From Chartism to Craft Unions
After the failure of the Grand National Consolidated Trade Unions and the failure of Chartism,
the unions in Britain organized from the bottom up. Gradualism was the way. The failure of
the overblown attempts prepared the way for the smaller union to evolve. Less political
agitation and more practical work.
Unions become legal 1871 with the repeal of Combination Acts. In 1875 protection was given
to Trade Unions by Parliament under Disraeli. They were allowed to picket. [Disraeli was the
leading figure in the Conservative Party, which was far from socialists, but which often argued
that workers should be treated fairly: one result was that about 1/3rd of the British working
class regularly voted Conservative throughout the 20th century.]
The first successful unions were Craft Unions - because their members had valuable skills
and the ability to negotiate with employers. Eventually, less skilled workers begin to organize,
miners, railway workers. dockers (longshoremen). Before WWI they never include a majority
of the labour force, but were able to get some real improvements in pay and conditions.
Increasing place for Workers in Britain
The Reform Bills of 1867 and 1884 - extended the franchise [again, a pro-worker move by by
Disraeli and the Conservatives.]
The Liberal Party moved to a social welfare position, esp. in the 1906-1914 Government: Old
Age Pensions, Free Schooling, National Insurance. But before the Liberals could collect
worker's votes, they were overtaken by the new Labour Party.
C. European Trade Unions
Germany
Trade Unions flourish as German Industry grows after 1870. Only fully legal after 1890.
France - Syndicates
Unions were legalized in 1884. The model followed was one of big national unions - the
Confederation General de Travail - 1895. French unions were influenced by anarchism - and
uninterested by political socialism. The great ideas was that of syndicalism - to have a general
strike, to generate unity and workers power.
VII. Practical Working Class Politics: Labor Parties
Working class political parties came to the fore in the later 19th Century.
It was after the 1848 revolutions especially, when Liberals in both France and Germany
abandoned the working class, that the need for working class parties became clear to many.
They depended on a broad male suffrage. There was tendency in the late 19th Century for the
socialist movements within each country became different from one another.









Not quite universal in GB 1867, 1884
Universal in Germany in 1871
France, 1871
Switzerland 1879
Spain 1890
Belgium 1893
Netherlands 1896
Norway 1898
Italy 1912
A. France - Third Republic
The Paris Commune 1871 - -The Internationale was its great song -- was famous as the acme
of Western revolutionary socialism. But it frightened many people. This was last time Paris
dominated France. Had 5 socialist parties, but not strongly organized. France was still a much
more rural country, and the rural people voted for more conservative parties. The Communist
Party after 1918 was to be the party of French workers. Same in Italy.
B. The SDP [SPD] in Germany and Bismarck
The SDP [SPD in German] was officially both a Marxist party, and a real mass party of
German workers. It was by far the strongest such party in Europe. Founded by Ferdinand
Lasselle in 1875. Another main leader was the Marxist Auguste Bebel (1840-1913). The party
was composed of radicals who advocated, revolution, reformists, and Marxists.
It faced a great difficulty due to the keeping of power by the Junker class in Prussia, and a
voting system which gave 1/3rd of seats to 5% of the taxpayers.
Bismarck tried to outlaw socialist parties. 1878-91: Attacked meetings, newspapers and
organization. He also tried to outflank them by introducing an impressive social welfare
system -- in fact the first such system in Europe. But the SPD still gained more support.
William II dismissed Bismarck to stem rising tide of socialism, but could not stop it.
Repression did not work - more and more SPD deputies got elected. Eventually the Social
Democratic Party becomes largest party in Reichstag, but it is nationalist not revolutionary,
although it professes to be so. Lenin despised it.
C. The British Labour Party
First socialist in Parliament - Keir Hardie 1892, representing the Independent Labour Party
In 1901 the Taft Vale Decision said the Unions can be sued for damages by employers after a
strike. In response, British Trade Unions (through their national organization -- the Trades
Union Congress] launched the Labour Representation Committee. With a few years this
became the Labour Party
This was a militant party calling for the betterment of workers conditions. It was officially
socialist, but the theoretical side was left to individuals, and the Fabians. The Labour Party
rank and file were more concerned with practical actions.
VIII. Why did Socialism Not Catch on in the United States?
Socialism is much more important in the history of Europe than of the US. Why was this case,
given that workers were treated just as badly in the US as in Europe?
The first thing to note is that there were active socialists in the US in the later 19th and early
20th centuries, and they were important in organizing American unions. They face quite
distinct problems. however:





Trust of immigrants for American system
- America was much better than many of the countries the immigrants came from - it
was a democracy from an early period. So why complain?
The myth of "getting on."
-The idea that if one is poor, one is still potentially rich rather than a member of the
working class [this is despite statistics which show perhaps 15% of people ever change
their class.]
America was much wealthier than Europe.
- Socialism is a response to poverty and the belief society must be and can be
organized better.
In a profound/real sense America was and is less class-ridden.
- Accurately or not, many people though of themselves as "middle class".
Franklin Roosevelt.
Roosevelt was a patrician liberal who dispersed quite strong socialist feeling in the
middle part of the 20th century - by New Deal policies designed to safeguard
capitalism.
Web Exercise
It is often said in the US that socialism is dead -- and if that is the case, why should we study
it. I suspect, however, that rumors of its death have been exaggerated, and whether we accept
socialism or not, it might be a good idea to understand it. There is then a real WWW "research
project" this section!
Try to find out, and list, which countries in the modern world have governments which are
officially socialist or communist. In other words, which countries are governed by "Socialist,"
"Labor," or "Communist" parties.
To make it easier, each student should take one region of the world:

North America and the Caribbean







Central and South America
Western Europe
Eastern Europe
North Africa and the Middle East
South and East Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
Australasia and Oceania
You could try to find this information by going to the government page of each country. But
good researchers often find an easier way. Why not try the Democratic Socialists of America
web site for a good list of socialist parties; or the CIA World Fact Book [on many websites];
or some of the sites set up by political scientists.
Whatever way you do it, list the countries of your region, the ones with socialist[etc.]
governments, and your source of information.
You might then want to comment on the role of this type of politics in the modern world.
Discussion Questions
What were the social and economic issues which were addressed by socialists?
What was distinct about the socialist approach -- for instance in comparison to Liberal
politics?
What is the difference between socialism and communism?
Can socialist solutions be applied to modern problems? What sort of problems might interest
socialists, and what sort of solutions would they offer?
What were more successful in the 19th and early 20th centuries: labor parties or trade unions?
The Communist Manifesto
Some of you may want to read the entire Communist Manifesto -- it is online at many
websites, and is not very long. Probably the easiest version to cite is the Communist Manifesto
at Warwick University.
What does Marx mean by "bourgeoisie"?
What is Marx's assessment of the achievements of the bourgeoisie? Is he entirely negative
about it?
Marx claims that the modern democratic state is merely a facade for the power of the
bourgeoisie. Can you think of any aspects of modern American society which would back him
up on this? How about any aspects which would refute him?
What is the role which Marx ascribes to the Proletariat?
Marx claims to abolish all "eternal truths" and "morality." When you read him, or other
socialists such as Anne Maier or Einstein, does it seem that they do in fact abandon the
language of moral outrage? If there is no morality, what would be wrong with exploiting
workers?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 13: The Imperial Project







Introduction: This Week's Goals
Text
Multimedia
Sources
Outline
Web Exercise
Discussion Questions

Test Yourself!
An online quiz for this section.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
By the mid-19th century all the various transformations we have studied in this course -especially the Industrial Revolution -- had made Europe far more powerful economically and
militarily than any other world civilization. One use of this power was to establish an expand a
series of world empires by major European power. In this section we shall:




Establish which European state established empires, and where.
Understand the different between this "new imperialism" and old empires such as
Ancient Egypt, Rome or China.
Be able to discuss the explanations given for imperialism.
Learn how other civilizations reacted to the European empires.
Text
Kagan, 911-21
Multimedia


Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) and Rhodes Astride Africa
Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919, 26th Pres. 1901-1909)
Sources
The sources for this section are all very interesting, but there are a lot of them! Make sure to
read Hobson, Kipling and Morel and one other (you choose).
Analyses


John A. Hobson (1858-1940): Imperialism, 1902
Extent of European Colonialism in Statistical Terms, [At Mt. Holyoke]
China and the West


Qian Long [Ch'ien Lung]: Letter to George III, 1793
Kaiser Wilhelm II: German Interests in China, 1900, [At HNet]
o See East Asian History Sourcebook for more.
India Under the British


Raja Rammohan Roy: A Second Conference Between an Advocate for, and An
Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive, 1820, [At WSU]
Sir William Bentinck: On Ritual Murder in India , 1829
Africa

Stephen Wooten: The French in West Africa, [At Wisconsin] [A modern account]
o See African History Sourcebook for more.
American Imperialism


Albert Beveridge (1862-1927): The March of the Flag, September 16, 1898
The Platt Amendment, 1903, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Celebrations and Objections





Rudyard Kipling: The White Man's Burden, 1899
Edward Morel: The Black Man's Burden, 1903,
Joseph Conrad: Heart of Darkness, 1902, extracts, [At WSU]
The American Anti Imperialist League Platform, 1899
George Orwell: Shooting an Elephant, [At BNL][Full Text]
The Japanese Exception

Theodore Roosevelt: The Threat of Japan, 1889, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Outline
I. Imperialism

Extent of European Colonialism in Statistical Terms, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Marxists usually see Imperialism as the cause of WWI (they call it the great imperialist War).
What was Imperialism? The expansion of European Political Power around the globe:
Americas, Africa, India, Asia, China. A new kind of Empire.
II. Causes of Imperialism

John A. Hobson (1858-1940): Imperialism, 1902
A. Economic
This was especially important for Britain. Marxists say it is main reason everywhere, but this
is hard to justify if you mean colonizers made money out of the colonies.
B. Racism - Social Darwinism
Not a cause but a consequence.
C. Glory
The idea of la gloire in French politics, chez the Bourbons, Napoleon and even Louis Phillipe.
Louis III Napoleon expanded the French Empire in Africa and South East Asia, and the
Pacific. French also had aim of spread French Culture. This was sort of less racist than British
racial superiority (?).
Certainly economic motives were not primary in France, which invested most heavily in
Russia and the US.
III. The British Empire




Raja Rammohan Roy: A Second Conference Between an Advocate for, and An
Opponent of the Practice of Burning Widows Alive, 1820, [At WSU]
Sir William Bentinck: On Ritual Murder in India , 1829
Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902)
Rhodes Astride Africa

Europe
o
o
o




Gibraltar
Heligoland
Malta
N. America
o Canada
S. America
o Caribbean Islands
o Guyana
o {Argentina}
Africa: Cape to Cairo
o South Africa
o Kenya
o West African Territories
Asia
o
o
o


India, Burma, Ceylon,
Malaysia
Aden/Yemen
Oceania
o Australia
o New Zealand
o Pacific Islands
Importance of Suez canal
IV. The French Empire

Stephen Wooten: The French in West Africa, [At Wisconsin] [A modern account]

N. America
o Pierre and St. Miquelin {Quebec}
S. America
o Caribbean Islands
o French Guyana
Africa: Pacific to Indian Ocean
o West African Territories
o Algeria
o Djibouti
Asia
o Indian territories
o Indochina
Oceania
o Pacific Islands




V. Me Too Empires
Germany and Italy were only united in 1871. As full nations their governments came under
pressure to found colonial empires. Bismarck was not keen on this. However, both Italy and
German grabbed bits of Africa:
Italy



Libya
Somalia
failed in Ethiopia
Germany



SW Africa
Tanganyika.
Cameroons
VI. Russia and Imperialism


More the old fashioned kind of imperialism.
Russian Manifest Destiny
VII. The United States and Imperialism



Albert Beveridge (1862-1927): The March of the Flag, September 16, 1898
The Platt Amendment, 1903, [At Mt. Holyoke]
Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919, 26th Pres. 1901-1909)
Officially opposed to European imperialism, but might not look that way to Mexicans, Native
Americans, Canadians, etc.
Doctrine of Manifest Destiny

Spanish American War 1898
o Cuba
o Puerto Rico
o The Philippines.
VIII. Non-Conquest Imperialism


Qian Long [Ch'ien Lung]: Letter to George III, 1793
Kaiser Wilhelm II: German Interests in China, 1900, [At HNet]
IX. Resistance to Imperialism

Theodore Roosevelt: The Threat of Japan, 1889, [At Mt. Holyoke]
X. Celebrations and Objections





Rudyard Kipling: The White Man's Burden, 1899
Edward Morel: The Black Man's Burden, 1903,
Joseph Conrad: Heart of Darkness, 1902, extracts, [At WSU]
The American Anti Imperialist League Platform, 1899
George Orwell: Shooting an Elephant, [At BNL][Full Text]
VIII. Imperialist Wars?



Boer Wars - 1896-1901: Trouble between the Kaiser and UK.
Russo-Japanese War 1905
Sino-Japanese war
These were peripheral and do not seem to have played a major role in the outbreak of
European War. [The Alliance system and the Balkans seem more pertinent.]
Web Exercise
No web exercise for this section.
Discussion Questions
How were the European world empires of the 19th and 20th century different from earlier
types of empire?
What were the causes of imperialism according to Hobson?
What sort of views about the world does Kipling's White Man's Burden imply? What was
Morel's response.
Was the United States an imperialist country just like the European nations?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 14: World War I and Cultural Anxiety







Introduction: This Week's Goals
Text
Multimedia
Sources
Outline
Web Exercise
Discussion Questions

Test Yourself!
An online quiz for this section.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
The 19th century represented the apogee of European power. We have seen so far how
governmental, scientific, economic and industrial development had created, by the mid 19th
century, a civilization that was strong enough to establish a world wide hegemony.




The nation-state model of Britain and France proved to be a very efficient model of
government. Nationalism and Liberalism, in different ways, helped strengthen this model
of government in the 19th century as Germany, Italy and the United States became
important powers.
The Scientific Revolution, in addition to its theoretical aspects, gave Europe a
continually improving technology which made it militarily stronger than any other part
of the world.
The Industrial Revolution made the European economy massively more productive.
One result was the rapid success of the new imperialism, as European states imposed
their control on every part of the world.
It is true that there were certain cracks in the facade (nationalism destabilized some states, and
socialist activity demonstrated class conflict), but this was not clear at the time.
The rest of this course looks at how that Western hegemony came apart. One might say, in
general, that the factors that had made Europe so strong began, in the 20th century, to weaken it:



National rivalries, which had once merely trained European armies, now led to wars in
which massive armies with industrial-age weapons tore apart large parts of Europe [In
the world wars, and in a number of civil wars.]
Industrialization proved to be quite exportable. Already by 1905, Japan was powerful
enough to defeat one European power. Over the rest of the 20th century, the other parts
of the world regained much of their economic importance vis-a-vis the west.
Science, which had backed up the view of culture propounded during the Enlightenment,
began to present a much more complex set of theories, many of which undermined
Enlightenment beliefs about reason, nature, and progress.
In this section, we shall:


Look at the problems developments in science presented to the dominant Enlightenment
culture:
o At Darwinism and its view of nature.
o At Freudianism and its views of the Human mind.
o At modern physics, and the collapse of the Newtonian Universe.
Look at World War I, which was in fact not so much a World War as a European War in
which European states destroyed much of their wealth, and undertook mutual atrocities
that lead many to question the self-proclaimed "superiority" of the West. We shall look
at:
o The causes of the war.
 The Eastern Question
 The Alliance System.
o The course of the war.
o The intellectual and artistic response to the war.
o The results of the war.
 In Europe - the creation of many ethnic states.
 In Europe - the creation of a German state with inbuilt instability.
 In the Middle-East and Far East - the setting in motion of many modern
political developments.
Text
Kagan, 877-907, 958-63, 921-39, 944-45
Multimedia

Scientists
o Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and 2, 3
o Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
o Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and 2
o Max Planck (1858-1947)
o Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
o Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
o Clarence Darrow (1857-1938)
o
o


William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925)
The Scopes Trial (July 1925)
Thinkers
o Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
o Friederich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) and 2
o Carl Jung (1875-1961)
o Cardinal Henry Edward Manning (1808-1892)
o Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801-1890)
World War I
o Rupert Brooke (1887-1915)
o Wilfred Owen (1893-1918)
o Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)
o Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
o Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941, r. 1888-1918)
o Lloyd George, Orlando, Clemenceau, Wilson
Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)
David Lloyd George (1865-1945, PM 1916-1922)
Vittoria Emanuale Orlando, 1860-1952
Sources
Once again we have many interesting sources for this period. You must read Darwin: Origin of
the Species, Spencer, Social Darwinsm, Freud: Interpretation of Dreams, Arnold: Dover Beach
(read slowly), World War I Poetry, Wilson: The Fourteen Points, and the Versailles Treaty. The
rest are optional.








Crib Sheet: Late 19th Century Science and Culture
Biology: Red in Tooth and Claw
o Charles Darwin: Origin of the Species, 1859, extracts, [At WSU]
o Charles Darwin (1809-1882): The Descent of Man, 1871
o Herbert Spencer: Progess: Its Law and Causes, 1857
Social Darwinism by its founder.
Physics: The End of the Classical Synthesis
o Bertrand Russell: Philosophical Consequences of Relativity, written for 13th ed
of Encyclopedia Britannica, [At bmcleod]
Psychology: The Obscurity of the Mind
o Sigmund Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900, extracts, [At WSU]
Philosophical Reflections: The End of Reason?
o Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): Parable of the Madman
o Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): The Geneology of Morals, extracts, [At WSU]
Literature: Humanity's Heart of Darkness?
o Mathew Arnold (1822-88): Dover Beach, c. 1867, [At gobernet]
Visual Arts: What to Do After Photography?
o A Surrealist Manifesto: The Declaration of January 27, 1925
Religion in the Face of Modernity
o Pope Pius IX: Syllabus of Errors, 8 Dec 1864, [At American]
o Pope Leo XIII: On the Condition of the Working Classes (Rerum Novarum), 15
May 1891, [At American]
o Dorothy Day: Aims and Purposes, 1940 [At Catholic Worker]
o Walter Rauschenbusch: The Social Gospel, 1908

For more sources, see Modern History Sourcebook: Darwin Freud, etc. and Religion.
World War I



Literary Responser
o World War I Poetry, Poems by Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred Owen, Herbert Read,
and others
The Aftermath
o Woodrow Wilson: The Fourteen Points, Jan 8,1918
o The Versailles Treaty, 1919
For more sources, see Modern History Sourcebook: World War One
Outline
I. Late 19th/Early 20th Century Cultural Conflicts

Crib Sheet: Late 19th Century Science and Culture
We need to look at cultural and scientific changes in late 19th and early 20th century. The
period saw the European consensus in thought, established during the Enlightenment (in the
context of Newtonian physics) challenged by new scientific discoveries and ideas. The challenge
was to Liberalism, rationalism/empiricism and classical science. These challenges are still very
much part of the modern world.
A. The Enlightenment and Reason
Rationalism, Empiricism, Enlightenment thought -- the confidence of mid-19th century thinkers
-- all can be seen as a form of HUMANISM - the belief that human beings are:


a) important and central to the universe
b) reasonable and able to make choices with freewill
It also emphasized



c) Toleration of others
d) respect for science and reason.
e) There was a lot of CONFIDENCE in humanity.
B. Romanticism and Nationalism
Reason was not satisfying to some, even apart from new scientific discoveries. From the late
18th C. there were many who opposed excessive stress on reason. We have discussed two forms
of opposition in previous classes -- Romanticism and Nationalism.
C. Context of Cultural Change in late 19th C.
By the late 19th century the number of people who were directly impacted by intellectual change
was much greater than in earlier periods. The Industrial Revolution had produced new educated
social groups, and education was now more widespread:



Large reading public/state education
Cheap newspapers: e.g. Daily Mail, Daily Express
Beginning of modern universities and scientific investigation of humanities - e.g. history,
economics, sociology.
D. Realism in Literature
Writers in late 19th Century became impressed by science in general -- there was an emphasis
on observation -- and then by the new science, which saw man as at the subjection of vast
uncontrolled forces.


Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) Madame Bovary 1857
George Eliot (1819-1880) Adam Bede 1859
II. Science Challenges Humanism
Not all problems with the outlook of the Enlightenment came from emotionalism. The
development of science itself posed problems for humanistic views of the world.
This is perhaps the most important issue
in the development of modern thought.
Before the 20th century educated people were usually knowledgeable about both humanities and
science (Voltaire wrote on physics and literature, for instance). In the 20th century, a split
develops -- there is an emergence of two intellectual cultures:Scientific and Literary.
A. 1850: The Acme of Classical Science
Scientists knew they did know everything, but thought that they were almost there. All this was
to change over the next 50 years.
B. Darwin and Biology
Biology provided the first shock.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)


Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and 2, 3
Charles Darwin: Origin of the Species, 1859, extracts, [At WSU]

The Voyage of the Beagle On a sea voyage, Darwin saw the massive variety of species
on the Galapagos Islands -- due to adaptation of one species into many others to fulfil
ecological roles played by others in other areas.
The Origin of the Species 1859 Proposed his theory of evolution through a mechanism
of natural selection.
The Descent of Man 1871 Applied this idea to human beings.


The idea of Evolution was not original to Darwin, but its spread is due to him. The crucial point
was his use of the principle of natural selection (also thought of by Alfred Russel Wallace 1823-
1913) by the "survival of the fittest". (Concept used by Herbert Spenser before Darwin).

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
Darwin could not explain how natural selection worked and neither could anyone else, until the
work in genetics of Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) on genetics was made public after 1900.
Darwinism was a scientific revolution equivalent to Copernicus -- it changed the frame of of
reference. Now, there was no need for a God to explain life. The idea that man was a special
animal, as opposed to just a very evolved one was hard to support. Darwin's view also implied
tha human being's moral nature and religion had developed naturalistically.
The Cultural Impact of Darwinism
There was a basic change in way people saw Nature.


Newtonian Harmony - Nature as a series of mechanical Laws.
Darwinian Evolution - Nature is "red in tooth and claw" -- nature as a bloody struggle for
survival
Darwin and Racism - Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer: Progess: Its Law and Causes, 1857
Social Darwinism by its founder.
Darwin's theories were applied to other fields, such as politics -- they were used to justify the
supremacy of Europe and ignoring the poor. Although Darwin may have objected, his ideas
seemed to suggest that "Might is Right."
Racism: Applied to Race, they suggested the idea that one race is superior to another -- the core
of modern racism.
Eugenics: The idea of breeding survivors became quite popular, and not only among rightwingers. Progressives such as the Fabian society, and some feminists supported it.
["Eugenics" is a classic case of an idea which seems rational, but where the facts seem to belie
the theory. Compare modern Singapore. The Chinese people there were the scum of south
China (which is why they left). Outside China they have done very well indeed. This has
stopped the Singaporean government calling for only graduates to have children.]
Use by Nazis: The horrendous combination of social Darwinism with nationalism.
Darwinism Opposed



Clarence Darrow (1857-1938)
William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925)
The Scopes Trial (July 1925)
Darwinism contradicted ideas in the Bible and was een as a threat to revealed religion.

There was a NEW type of fundamentalist defense of the Bible, which insisted it was

literally true in every word.
Darwinism becomes a watchword for science's supporters -- almost equally supported for
emotional reasons.
C. Physics and Einstein




Max Planck (1858-1947)
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
Bertrand Russell: Philosophical Consequences of Relativity, written for 13th ed of
Encyclopedia Britannica, [At bmcleod]
1870 - Newtonian Physics still holds, along with the notion that science describes the real world.
This changes by 1914, by which time most physicists are aware that all they have are models of
how nature works. The big problem -- which still persists -- was that the two best new theories
in physics (General Relativity and Quantum Mechanics) were mutually contradictory.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
1905 - General Theory of Relativity: Reality depends on the observer. Challenged Newtonian
Physics with Relativity Science becomes less easy, but more fruitful.
D. Freud and the Mind
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)



Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and 2
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
Sigmund Freud: The Interpretation of Dreams, 1900, extracts, [At WSU]
From a prosperous Viennese Jewish family. He based his theories on the experiences he had in
Viennese culture. [Fin-de-siecle (end of the century) Vienna was one of the most important
cities in terms of cultural creativity.]
Psychoanalysis - was the name Freud gave to his new "science" and is "single most important
idea whereby 20th C. people identify themselves."


Idea of the Soul
o Ego, Id, Superego (cf. Plato : Reason, Emotion and spiritedness)
The idea of the Unconscious.
o Sex at heart of the personality: Civilization depends on the sublimation of sexual
energy.
Freud ends up profoundly compromising the idea that human beings had freewill and rationality.
The problem with this was that ideas like "democracy" really rely on the belief that voters will
take rational decisions -- not vote for a candidate because he/she reminds them of their mother.
Psychoanalysts
An entire profession grew around psychoanalysis. In some countries, especially the US, the
profession became very powerful, demanding 20 yr treatments for some patients.
Is Psychoanalysis science?
Another Viennese thinker -- Karl Popper -- provides one of the most important definitions of
science:


Not to search for Natural Law, but
Science is essentially falsifiable -- it proposes a testable model (or a model which is in
theory testable)
Popper claims Psychoanalysis is in theory untestable, as any challenge to it is said to be due to
psychological rejection of its principals.
E. The Crisis of Humanism?

Mathew Arnold (1822-88): Dover Beach, c. 1867, [At Gobernet]
Can we tie Darwin, Einstein and Freud together ?
Purpose: Is Humanity just the "accidental assembly of atoms at the present time, which will
separate in the future" (a saying of Bertrand Russell) Does science say that the beings that
created it are unimportant?
Free will: Do people lack all free will -- are their actions predetermined by their genetic makeup, or their psychological background (two modern points of view). Or do people have a real
opportunity to make an impact on the world, and to be responsible for their actions.
The older science of the enlightenment had suggested a knowable and harmonious universe, in
which clear-thinking human beings could make rational decisions to reach a better future. The
new science suggested that we do not know the universe, that what we know suggests a bloody
struggle, and that human beings take part in that struggle because their minds are clouded by
unconscious motivations.
F. Problems of Rational Thought & Philosophy
Philosophers and artists increasingly became aware of these basic problems -- the problem of
modern humanity. We had lost faith, but what did we have to replace it?
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
The Positive Philosophy 1830-1842 - saw science as the highest human achievement.
Frederich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

Friederich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) and 2
Beyond Good and Evil 1886 -- we should act rather than think.
III. Religion in the 19th Century
A. The Attack on Religion
The was a continuing intellectual attacks on Christianity, and other forms of traditional religion,
in 19th century:





David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874): Life of Jesus 1835 - denied Jesus existed.
Liberals attacked the Church as an Ancien Regime supporter.
Nationalists attacked Catholicism as non-national. Kulturkampf in Germany in 1873Jewish reformers objected to the keeping of the old Torah laws.
Science was seen as removing the need for God.
All this created a climate in which God and Faith were seen as irrelevant.
B. Judaism in the 19th Century




The Haskallah [Jewish Enlightenment]
Reform Judaism tried to treat Jewish Religion as a kind of ethical code.
Origin of Modern Orthodoxy in Germany.
Creation of non-religious Yiddish culture in eastern Europe and the US..
C. Protestantism



Some mainstream churches adopted and assimilated much of the challenge of the nonreligious critics.
Protestants in Europe also developed a "Neo-orthodox" response to the challenge -which affirmed the importance of faith over reason.
Evangelical Protestants in America came to emphasize Biblical literalism.
D. The Anglo-Catholic Movement


Oxford Movement
Attempt to overcome ossification of Protestantism.
E. The Roman Church and the Modern World
Pius IX (1846-1878): A Conservative




Decree on Immaculate Conception 1856: a test run for infallibility
Syllabus of Errors 1864: The pope opposed "Liberalism, Capitalism, Socialism, and
modern science."
Vatican Council I 1870: Papal Infallibility: Opposed by many - the "inopportunists."
Many writers say it says Pope is infallible when speaking officially: it is in fact more
restricted than this.
The real new power of the pope was that he began to appoint more and more of the
world's bishops.
Leo XIII (1878-1903): A Liberal?

Rerum Novarum 1891 The Pope liberalizes -- opposes modern capitalism, and socialism,
But faces modern world and supports Catholic trade unions.
Pius X (1903-1914)


Extends communion to children (First Communion and all that)
But condemns Catholic Modernism.
Theology



Higher Criticism
Evolution
Thomism - the Catholic response
Centralization of the Church



Popularity of the Pope: "The Prisoner of the Vatican"
Code of Canon Law 1911
Appointment of bishops by Rome
Spirituality
Marian Apparitions: Very striking spect of modern RC spirituality. -another rejection of
rationality. Not an essential part of the Faith.


Lourdes - 1858- St Bernadette
Fatima - 1911
Saints - John Bosco, Maria Goretti
England - John Newman, Gerard Manley Hopkins


Cardinal Henry Edward Manning (1808-1892)
Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801-1890)
The Catholic Worker

Dorothy Day: Aims and Purposes, 1940 [At Catholic Worker]
IV. The First World War: Introduction
A. 1815-1914: A Century of Peace and Prosperity
For most of period balance of power works in Europe. There were no major wars. People were
optimistic about progress.
B. 1870-1914 New Problems


Differing rates of industrial development
Nationalism in many countries.

Emergence of Germany as the most powerful state in Europe -- this was probably the
factor which most destabilized the situation.
V. Causes of War 1: The Alliance System
The "Alliance System" was a long term result of the Franco-Prussian War, and a direct result of
the way Germany was unified. Bismarck had unified Germany by uniting it against France, and
the new German Empire had been proclaimed not in Germany, but in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles. France had to surrender to the new Germany, the area known as Alsace-Lorraine..
After 1870, Germany was a military and increasingly a militaristic power, while France openly
wanted revenge and the return of Alsace-Lorraine.
Another result was that Britain took no major part in European Politics for most of the late 19th
Century. This "Splendid Isolation" was possible as Britain's major historic foe, France, was not
powerful.
A. The Creation of the Triple Alliance
Bismarck's Policy 1870-1890
Bismarck did not want to expand Germany any more. He said it was satiated. He wanted peace
in which to build up Germany. But he had to try to keep France isolated. He did this by
attempting to isolate France, and for the most part Bismarck succeeded in keeping the other
major power either friendly to Germany, or neutral. His strategy was a series of alliances and
treaties. The crucial issue for Germany was to make sure Russia (in the east) and France (to the
west) were not allies - since any war would then have to be fought on two fronts.
The Three Emperor's League 1873-1878
Austria, Russia and Germany. The problem was a conflict between Austria and Russia over the
Balkans [see "Eastern Question" below.] The League failed at the Congress of Berlin in 1878
Building of the Triple Alliance
This was a more successful effort at creating an alliance. The Dual Alliance was made with
Austria/Hungary in 1879. Bismarck then got Austria and Italy to agree that each will defend the
other if one is attacked in 1882. This Triple Alliance stuck until 1914. (Germany,
Austria/Hungary, Italy.)
BUT BISMARCK DID NOT FORGET RUSSIA
The Reinsurance Treaty 1887 was a secret treaty between Germany and Russia that neither
would attack the other.
The whole system of secret alliances depended very largely on Bismarck personally.
B. Building of the Triple Entente
France and Russia

Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859-1941, r. 1888-1918)
France was isolated until 1890. At that time Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) dismissed
Bismarck to try to conciliate socialists in the Reichstag. [Wilhelm I has a a reputation as having
a deficient character -- envious of his Grandmother (Queen Victoria) and bombastic.] The new
chancellor was Gen. Leo von Caprivi, who was not as competent as Bismarck.
The new regime in Germany forgot, it seems, to renew the Reinsurance treaty with Russia.
France took the opportunity to woo Russia, and in 1894 France and Russia become Allies.
Germany and Britain
Britain was out of European power politics and concentrated on her overseas empire. But Britain
began to get very worried about the rising power of Germany -- the Kaiser was into saber
rattling. He kept saying he wanted to overtake Britain in trade and militarily. In 1896 he sent the
leader of the South African Boers the "Kruger telegram," in which he supported a group
fighting Britain.
In 1898 the building up of the German Navy begins, and there was an arms race. There was a
period of increasing tension between Britain and Germany, who up until then had look kindly on
each other.
We can see this in popular literature: English novels begin to show Germany as the main
aggressor. The German press showed Britain as hindering Germany's rightful development.
Britain Draws Closer to France and Russia
Even though they were traditional rivals, they settled outstanding colonial disputes. In 1904 an
Entente Cordiale (friendly understanding) was reached. By 1907, Britain was so worried about
Germany, in allied with Russia (another old enemy -- it had been fought furing the Crimean War
in 1851), and the Triple Entente was created (France, Russia, Britain).
The Alliance System and War
By 1907 Europe was in two armed camps and Bismarck's worst dreams were realized: Germany
had enemies on East and West. Origin was in Germany's attempt to restrain France. This
ensured, or made it more likely that any war that broke out would be a general war.
VI. Causes of War 2: The Eastern Question
We saw in previous sections that Nationalism succeeded in uniting ethnic groups which were
split into lots of small statelets -- hence the creation of Germany and Italy. But in the older
dynastic empires, nationalism was a disintegrating force.
The immediate cause of World War I, was neither external imperialism, nor the Alliances of the
major powers, but the problems of two dying empires.
A. Austria-Hungary
Austria was badly effected by Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and in 1867 in the Ausgleich
(Compromise), it split into a "Dual Monarchy," in which Germans ruled one half and Magyars
(Hungarians) ruled the other.
The Hungarians were thus given power, but all the other national ethnic groups remained
subordinate.
Nationalities in Austria: Germans, Italians, Czechs, (Moravians), Poles, Slovenes, Jews.
Nationalities in Hungary: Magyars, Slovaks, Ruthenians/Ukrainians, Croats, Serbs,
Romanians.
Many of these groups had middle class politicians who agitated for there own wanted national
states.
The government response was to promote the idea that the Slavic groups could be united under
the rule of the Habsburgs - so-called Austro-Slavism.
The real problem was what to do about the new National states in the Balkans, such as Serbia
after 1878, which wanted to "unite" with Slavs in the Austrian Empire?
B. Ottoman Turkey
The Ottomans had been a great Power but by 19th century there was a fairly corrupt court in
Istanbul and the Ottoman Empire was beginning to break up in Africa, and Europe.




Greece had become independent in 1821
Serbia 1878
Walachia/Romania
Bulgaria
Both Austria and Russian were interested in the area. Austria because it wanted to prevent its
own Slavic peoples seeking self-rule, and Russia because of an ideology of Pan-Slavism, and
because of a long term goal to control Istanbul, and thus have easy access to the Mediterranean
from its Black Sea ports.
C. Trouble in the Balkans.
The "Eastern Question" focused on the Balkans as a place with:


A lot of national struggles.
Possible conflict between Austria and Russia.
There were a series of "International Incidents" leading up to the War, many of them involving
the Balkans in some way.





1908 - Bosnian Crisis.
First (1905) and Second (1911) Morocco Crises [Not a Balkan issue]
1911 Italy attacks Turkey.
1912 Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro attack Turkey.
1913 Serbia vs. Bulgaria.
We are at the eve of 1914
VII. Causes of War 3: The Domestic Situation in the Major Powers
There is some indication that domestic problems led many groups to think that a short war
would really help clear the air.
A. Britain 1900-1914



Problems with Trade Unions
Women's Suffrage
Ireland
Perhaps a war would make people rally round the flag.
B. France
The Third Republic, the French government after 1871, was the longest lasting French
governmental form since 1789, but only because no one could agree on who should be king -Bourbon, Orleanist, or Bonapartist. There was a massive division between the Left and Right.

The Dreyfus Affair, in which a French military officer was falsely accused of being a
traitor, split France. The Catholic conservative Anti-Semitic "Anti-Drefusyards" were
opposed by the Liberals.
There was, on all sides, a strong feeling that France should get Alsace-Lorraine back from
Germany.
C. Italy



North/South division.
Catholics vs.Liberal State supporters. (The pope even forbade Catholics to vote.)
Class divisions
D. Austria
Although, in the end, it was Austria which began the war, its domestic policy called for peace.
E. Serbia
Serbia was dominated by Nationalist politicians who, while protesting the government of Serbs
in the Austrian Empire, was willing to fight, and indeed succeed, in establishing Serbian control
over areas occupied by Macedonians and Albanians. It was a Serbian government agent who
assassinated Archduke Franz-Ferdinand and began the series of incidents which led to war.
F. Russia
Russia had been defeated by Japan in 1905, and the government did not want war, but was
impelled to "protect its interests.".
G. Germany - Did Junker's cause war?
Germany was unified by "blood and iron", and this gives the army tremendous cultural prestige.
On the other hand, there was a great deal of Popular Nationalism in Germany, a lot of pride in
Germany's great success, and popular pressure for an Arms Race, especially naval.
The Junker Class and Fischer Thesis
After the War, many historians decided that Germany should not have been blamed for the war - as was done in the Treaty of Versailles.
Fritz Fischer, a German historians, in 1961 suggested that the Junker class (the landed nobility
of Prussia), in order to keep power (away from the business classes and the working class),
deliberately promoted the arms race. But by 1914 it was getting too expensive. Therefore went
to war to stop the build up and hopefully to dominate Europe.
H. Common Issues in Many Countries
All states had enthusiasts for war. All thought it would help with domestic problems. This is
hard to explain but it seems that everyone wanted a war. [Can we bring in Darwinism etc - a
certain social hardness]
No-one in 1914 knew what the war would be like. All battle plans were for a four month war.
The War was in fact to mark the great divide in European history.
The outbreak was greeted with joy.
VIII. The Outbreak of War
Many People could see a war coming. There were lots of little incidents. The assassination
Sarajevo was just a spark. The Austrian Crown Prince (i.e. the heir to the throne), Archduke
Ferdinand Assassinated in Sarajevo by Black Hand operative on 28 June, 1914.
War Calculations
Should Austria go to war with Serbia? The Alliances did not kick in for an aggressive war.
Serbia was conciliatory to Austrian demands, but if Austria could conquer Serbia, it might get
some stability in the Balkans. Germany pushed Austria by promising support -- the so-called
"Blank Check" -- and Austria decided to attack one month later -- 24 July, 1914.
Mobilization began 30 July. This is really important - mobilization was necessary given the new
industrial technology of war and given the military build up. But once started, it was hard to
stop.
Russia came to the aid Serbia.
Germany and France get pulled in.
As soon as Germany realized a war was inevitable, it had to be prepared to strike first. Germany
invades France through Belgium -- Aug 1 & 3, 1914.
Britain was the official protector of Belgium, so it declared,. Aug 4, 1914
Italy, however, said the Triple Alliance was defensive, and since Germany and Austria attacked
she will not fight!
IX. The Course of the War
In dealing with WWI -- known as the Great War until the Second World War. For first time in
course we are dealing with living history. 1914 is only 85 years away. There are still people
alive who were active in the war. [My grandfather fought at the Somme in 1916!]
Kaiser William II's opposition to England and support for Austria.
A. Initial Attack
The Schlieffen Plan 1905
Count Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913) -- Head of German Staff 1891-1906 -- had proposed a
military plan that should have ensured German success. The goal was to defeat France quickly,
so that Russia could be fought with all forces. [Russia was harder to defeat because of its sheer
size in geography and population.]
Part of the plan was to allow France to penetrate into German territory, and then trap the French
Army by invading through Belgium. [Like a revolving door.] But the initial German attack was
stalled. General Helmuth von Moltke not a great general; he made the German defense too
strong so that the French Army did not penetrate Germany; and the Belgians put up a resistance
that let France and Britain get troops up and ready.
B. The Western Front
When the German advance was stopped, at The Marne September 1914, a stable Front was
established from the Channel to Switzerland -- one long set of lines. [It was closer enough to
Paris that soldier could take taxis to the front!]
Trench warfare -- which had been seen in American Civil War -- unleashed new horrors into the
annals of warfare.
New Weapons




Machine Guns made cavalry redundant
Later on Tanks -- after 1916 -- they made Trench warfare impossible in later wars.
Chemical Weapons - Mustard Gas
New Diseases - Shell Shock
Great Battles


Verdun - Feb -Dec 1916 10 months - "They Shall not Pass"
The Somme Jul-Nov 1916 Bombardment of German Lines for days. Did not work.
British Troops go over the top - perhaps 60,000 killed in first hour

Jutland 1916 -- A stand-off - sea power was not relevant in this war after all the efforts
on building up navies!
C. The Eastern Front
Germany wins - Serbia, Russia, Rumania all defeated.



Russian Attack
Tannenburg 1914 - Lead by Ludendorff
German Attack 1915
The Russian Revolution. 1917 (March and November).



Russians send Lenin to Petrograd.
Armistice 1917.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 3 1918: Germany does not treat Russia leniently -- it
demanded huge territorial concessions.
D. Other Fronts
Most action was on the Western and Eastern fronts, but there were other aspects to the War.




Austria-Italy (eventually Italy entered on the side of Britain/France/Russia. It was the
only country Austria could beat.)
Turkey: Gallipoli
The Arab World
Colonial Wars
o East Africa - (The African Queen)
o The Pacific
E. The Home Front
Popular Support: Most people ion the various countries saw the war in nationalistic/patriotic
terms -- White Feathers were given to non-fighting men in Britain
Total War and Economic Mobilization: Mobilizing for total war -- the model first used by the
Committee of Public Safety during the French Revolution.




Factories
Munitions
Pub hours in England were shortened
Rationing - especially harsh in Germany
Total control of economic and social life to obtain a common goal strengthened socialist ideals.
Labor shortages brought about benefits for organized labor.
Role of Women: Changes drastically as women enter about force. The Right to vote was granted
after the war to women in Britain and Germany and Austria.
F. German Collapse at the Western Front
Germany had won against Russia, but by 1916 morale had declined, especially in Germany.
Then the United States entered the war.



The "Lusitania" 1915 1,200 die (inc. 118 Americans), and this altered American public
opinion.
The Zimmerman Telegram
America Enters the War 1917:
Germany had to act quickly before the US forces built up.



The Spring Offensive by Germany -- March 1918
The Collapse - German resources exhausted
The Armistice - November 1918
End Result: 8.5 Million dead, 37 Million casualties
H. Warfare in the Modern Ages
Nature of the War Changes



Trench Warfare
Chemical Warfare: Mustard Gas
Air Warfare -- [Von Richthofen -- Is dying better when it's glamorous?]
Response to Horror of War




Rupert Brooke (1887-1915)
Wilfred Owen (1893-1918)
Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936)
World War I Poetry, Poems by Siegfried Sassoon, Wilfred Owen, Herbert Read, and
others
Wilfred Owen: Dulce et Decorum Est, Pro Patria Mori
What country was worth dying for in 1914?
X. The Treaty of Versailles 1919
A. Nature Of German Surrender
Note that Although Germany was not instigator of the War, it was regard as main defeated
power.



There was not a complete defeat.
Military Defeat not acknowledged by the army.
The general insisted that the Civil Government bears the stain.
All this was to make things hard for the new postwar government.
B. Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)

Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
The Fourteen Points Jan 8 1918

Woodrow Wilson: The Fourteen Points, Jan 8,1918
Self Determination - was it a good idea (think of problems with this in Eastern Europe)
C. Aims of Other Allies

Lloyd George, Orlando, Clemenceau, Wilson
Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)
David Lloyd George (1865-1945, PM 1916-1922)
Vittoria Emanuale Orlando, 1860-1952
Britain: David Lloyd George (1863-1945): Had to bow to public opinion at home, and they
wanted reparations.
France: Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929): Wanted the destruction of German Threat and
Reparations.
D. Provisions - The New Europe

The Versailles Treaty, 1919
Unlike the Congress of Vienna in 1915, the Versailles settlement attempted to redraw the map of
Europe, and to punish the vanquished.







Nine new "nation-states": Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Austria, Hungary.
France - gains Alsace-Lorraine
Germany - loses territory
o Alsace-Lorraine
o Saarland
o A lot of Prussia to Poland
Austria-Hungary: An Empire disappears
o Austria - a small rump state
o Hungary - another small rump monarchy for a while (problem - many Hungarians
in Transylvania, which was given to Romania).
o Czechoslovakia - the democratic success story -Czechs, Slovaks, Moravians
(Problem - Germans in Sudetenland)
o There was a loss of coherence in middle Danube region - trade barriers go up.
Balkans
o Yugoslavia - Serbia grows and gains a little empire over Croats, Slovenes.
Dalmatians, Macedonians, Bosnians, some Hungarians, and Montenegrins
(Problem - Albanians.)
Rumania - gains territory
o Transylvania + Moldavia + many Hungarians. Gypsies ignored.
Bulgaria



o Loses land to Yugoslavia and Greece
Russia -- loses a lot of land [Will look at Russian Revolution in next section.]
o Finland
o Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
o Poland [The Poles actually conquer a large part of Belorussia -- so much so that
half the population of New Poland was not Polish.]
o Moldavia to Rumania
Colonies: German colonies are divided up.
o Britain gets African lands
o Japan gets Asian lands.
Ottoman Empire
o Britain and France divided the Middle East.
o Britain renegades on promise made to Arabs.
o Greece tried to conquer Western Anatolia
o The New Turkey, under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk repulsed the Greeks,
and then drove out the Greeks from cities they had lived in for millennia.
E. Provisions - Reparations



Germany was to pay $5 Billion per year until 1921
Then a fixed sum which would be paid off over 30 years.
This was never paid, and could not be, but it infuriated the Germans.
F. Provisions - The League of Nations




A League of Nations to be established to govern later disputes.
Germany and Russia excluded.
USA would not join.
It never worked.
G. Clause 231 - The War Guilt Clause
"The Allied and Associated Governments affirm, and Germany accepts, the responsibility for
causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their
nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression
of Germany and her allies"
Criticized By John Maynard Keynes in The Economic Consequences of Peace 1921. Led to UK
and USA really leaving France to enforce the Treaty, which was not all bad. France was unable
to this.
Overall, the Versailles settlement managed to set the scene for another, even more destructive,
war within 25 years.
Web Exercise
The History of Disillusionment
The themes of this section have addressed the ways in which the self-confidant and aggressive
European culture of the mid-19th century began to face problems by the beginning of the 20th
century -- problems within its basic belief structures, and in its political strutcures. One result
was the disillusionment we find in such poets as Wilfred Own, or in artistic movements such as
Surrealism. To understand the later appeal of Bolshevism and Fascism it is important to grasp
this aspect of European cultural history.
These considerations do not really apply to the United States, however, which continued (with a
real downturn during the Depression) its path of success after success. It was only after the
Vietnam War that a fairly large section of the population became disillusioned with the
"American Dream."
For this web exercise, you should seek out and find websites which address the protest
movements of the 1960s and 1970s andf compare what you fins with the texts you have looked
at for the period around World War I. [Look for websites on, for example, Bob Dylan, "The
Sixties," Then Anti-Vietnam war movement, or even Punk Rock.]
Try to work out what, exactly, the peopel who were disillusioned were disillusioned about. Do
you think "disillusionment" is just a phase within a culture, or does it represent a time of
fundamental cultural change?
Discussion Questions
Cultural Conflict
What does Matthew Arnold lament in Dover Beach?
How did new ideas in biology challenge the Newtonian view of nature?
What were the implication of Social Darwinism for politics?
What ideas of Freud seem to conflict withLiberal ideas about the nature of how human beings
act in politics and in the economy?
How did art and poetry reflect on the "end of reason"?
WWI
What was more important in the outbreak of war -- the Alliance System, or the Eastern
Question?
What experiences most focused the attention of the war poets?
Was Germany treated fairly in 1919?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 15: The Soviet Experiment 1918-1989







Introduction: This Week's Goals
Text
Multimedia
Sources
Outline
Web Exercise
Discussion Questions

Test Yourself!
An online quiz for this section.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
The Russian Revolution ultimately failed, but the Soviet Experiment remains one of the defining events
of the 20th century. Today, Russian studies has fallen from academic fashion, and Marxism is dismissed or
ignored in many economics departments. But for 70 years The USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
was one of the two great powers on earth, and under its influence more than half the world's people lived
under some form of Communist government. In the West, foreign policy for most of that 70 years was
determined by reaction to the "Soviet threat," and in Western Europe (and to a much lesser extent in the
United States) internal social welfare policy was driven by a concern to promote social equality without a
revolution. For the the rest of the world -- colonized by European states -- just as World War I severely
weakened the economic power of Britain, France, and Germany, the conflict between the Soviet bloc and
the West helped the process of ending imperialism.
In this section we shall:




Understand the circumstances that led to revolution in Russia.
o Russian distinctiveness.
o Failure of Tsarism.
o Social upheaval during World War I.
o The element of Chance.
Examine the legacy of Lenin.
o Lenin as the "good Communist."
o Lenin's creation of oppressive state structures.
Discuss Stalinism.
o Stalin's successes.
o Stalinism as a form of Communism.
Assess success and failures of the Soviet system.
Text
Kagan, 536-41, 823-28, 865-72, 839-44, 965-74, 1018-25
Multimedia



Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
Vladimir I. Lenin (1870-1924) and 2
Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)
Lived in the Bronx before leading the Red Army.




Lenin and Stalin
Josef Stalin (1879-1953) and 2
Alexander Kollantai (1872-1952)
John Reed (1887-1920)
American journalist who reported on the Revolution in Ten Days that Shook the World.
Sources





Crib Sheet: The Russian Revolution
The Development of the Opposition
o Maria Sukloff: The Story of An Assassination, extracts, [At WSU]
Lenin
o Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): What is to Be Done?, 1902, extended excerpts
1917
o Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): Call to Power, Oct 24, 1917
o Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): The State and Revolution, 1918, extended excerpts,
o Alexandra Kollantai: The Workers' Opposition, 1921, [At Marx.Org]
o Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): Excerpts from Lenin's Testament, 1922
Stalinism
o Hymn to Stalin, The cult of personality.
o The Soviet Purges: Official Explanation, 1936
For more texts on the Russian Revolution see the Modern History Sourcebook: Russian Revolutiuon and
Post War Eastern Europe.
Outline
I. Tsarist Russia - the Russian Ancien Regime.
A. Geography of Russia


"Russia" has two historical homes:
o The area of "Rus" around the ancient city of Kiev (now the area called Ukraine). This was
the center of a major state until it was conquered by the Mongols.
o "Muscovy" -- based in the Oka-Volga basin around Moscow. It was this area that grew into
the Russian Empire after the Princes of Muscovy threw off the control of the Mongols.
o Russia only emerged as an independent state in the 16th century.
o The king took the title "Tsar" [or "Czar," the Russian form of the word "Caesar."]
Russia - Growth 1700-1917
o Under the Tsars, Russia expanded: south to Ukraine and the Black Sea; west (where it
eventually took over Finland, Swedish territories on the Baltic Coast, and Poland); east,
where Russia conquered its former rulers, and pushed across Siberia to the Pacific.
o 1/6th Earth's land surface.


"Russia" can mean either the historic area of Eastern Europe dominated by Muscovy, or the entire
Russian controlled land in Asia and Europe.
"Soviet Union" is simply a short form of "USSR." The USSR included 15 other "republics."
B. Culture
Russian culture was quite distinct from that of Western Europe, which had never been ruled by Mongols,
and was built on common experiences such as the Latin tradition of the Church, the Renaissance, the
Reformation, and the Enlightenment. Russia was:




Geographically distinct. Between the major centers of Russian population and the great mass of
European population there were great expanses of sparsely populated forests and marshes.
Slavic. Russia's people spoke a language related to Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Czech, etc. One of the
peculiarities of European culture has been that while educated people in the major Western
countries have been required to learn each other's languages (French, German, English, Italian,
Spanish) as part of an expected education, the Slavic languages have never been commonly taught.
Russian Orthodox. The Russian state church has been perhaps the most consistent cultural
influence.
Byzantine Background. Most Western states looked to the Latin-speaking Roman Empire and a
secular Latin culture always existed. [One of the consequences of the insistence of Catholicism on
Latin was that educated Westerners always had access to the non-Christian writings of the ancient
world.] Russia, however, was converted to Christianity by the Greek-speaking East Roman (or
"Byzantine") Empire. The Byzantine missionaries did not insist on the use of Greek, and translated
texts into a Slavic language (a special church languages called "Church Slavonic"). This meant that
Russian culture was influenced by Byzantium, but did not access the classical heritage until very
late. Some of the effects:
o Autocracy: Byzantine political tradition gave power to the emperor.
o All education is based on Slavonic translations of Greek Church texts. There is no
Renaissance in Russia. It does draw on part of the same cultural heritage as the West - i.e.
Christianity, and some Greek thought, but not on other parts that came down from Latin
antiquity.
C. Tsarist Government
The Tsar exercised and absolutism unlike anything in the West. There were no countervailing powers:



The Church was under state control.
The Aristocracy was not powerful: It was not an ancient independent institution but dependent on
the Tsar for its existence and power. It was subordinate to the state, and increasingly in the 19th
century it becomes a service aristocracy, looking to state offices for power and prestige.
No one has free speech or "rights" such as trial by jury.
There were some limits on the Tsar's power

Size of country. An old saying was that "God is on high and the Tsar is far away." The nobles do
have effective local power.
D. Peasant Society - Serfdom
For all of the Tsarist period most people (over 90%) were peasants. There was no Industrial Revolution
until 1890s. Most peasants were serfs (tied laborers) until 1861.
Russian serfdom was brutal, hardly different from slavery



Serfs were sold with land
Could be gambled away
No effective laws to regulate their treatment.
E. Lateness of Industrial Rev
Russia was an economically backward state compared to almost every other major European country.
There was no middle class until the late 19th Century and even then it was not very large. Towns in Russia
were mainly administrative centers, not industrial cities.
In the late 19th Century Russia began to industrialize, but even then businessmen do not become a
political force as they depend on the State for contracts -- industrialization is lead by the state.
II. Politics and History of the Russian Ancien Regime
I am going to look at the politics and history of Russia up to the Revolution so that no-one thinks the
revolution just happened. As well as being related to western European ideas like communism, the USSR
of the present day reflects traditions in Russia's past.
A. Ivan the Terrible (or "the Awesome") 1533-1584

First Tsar of Russian (Had been Grand Prince of Moscow).
B. Peter the Great 1688-1725
Tried to modernize Russia.




Took control of the Church - Holy Synod a government body 1721.
"Incognito" visit to Holland 1697 - learnt shipbuilding
Founded iron, ammunition and textile industries - note that these industries were all to help the
army.
Founded St Petersburg - a window on the West -- the cost was thousands of peasants dying of
malaria.
o Moscow - symbol of Old Russia
o St. Petersburg - symbol of the New Russia
Note some important themes here, which have been repeated in later centuries:


Significant change comes from the top.
"Modernization" is almost always understood as "Westernization." This can mean, at different
times: adopting Western industrial or military methods; adopting western educational methods;
adopting Marxism; adopting modern Capitalism.
C. Catherine the Great (1762-1796)
Another important ruler. She re-established control of the State by the Tsars after a period of loss of
Control. She was in origin a German Princess who came to power after she got rid of her husband, Peter
III.
She had a good press in the West as an "Enlightened Despot." In fact she made conditions worse for serfs
by buying good will of the nobles.
[Myth of her death under a stallion. One story students often know about her is that she supposedly died
while having sex with a horse. This story is completely untrue, but it does reflect a common theme of male
writers when confronted by a powerful woman - that she must be either "masculine" or perverted in some
way. Louis XIV of France had just as many lovers as Catherine, but no-one spread a story that he died
while having sex with a cow! ]
D. Early 19th Century
Napoleon's attack on Russia was extremely violent, and also failed. It ended up:



Encouraging Russian nationalism.
Making Russia seem invincible for 1/2 the 19th C. - writers talked of the "The Russian Bear."
Making Enlightenment ideals suspect.
E. Alexander I 1802-1825
First of all Liberal - even talked of emancipating the serfs. But after Napoleon he become a religious
conservative.
D. Nicholas I 1825-1855
He was the epitome of reactionary conservatism.
In 1825 the Decembrist Revolt among liberal army officers called for constitutionalism and abolition of
serfdom. It was the first "political" revolt in Russian history, but was put down with force.
Nicholas adopted a Policy of Official Nationality with the slogan "Orthodoxy, Autocracy and
Nationalism."
Important: The result was the progressive alienation of the educated classes in Russian from both the
Church and the State.
E. Alexander II "the Liberator" 1855-81
After the humiliation of Russia in the Crimean War, there was another move towards "modernization."
Abolition of Serfdom 1861 -- Another example of Reform from above in Russian History. [Two years
before American slaves.]
Rural Life and Problems
A crucial mistake was made in the abolition of serfdom, one which lead to continuing social problems.
Unlike in France in 1789, where the peasants got their land freely, and afterwards became a very
conservative force in later French society, the Russian peasants they had to pay for the land they got over
many decades (the money went to government, which had already compensated the nobles). Serfs seem to
have felt this was unfair, but more importantly they could not afford to pay. The result was no or little
progress in agricultural technology, and massive social discontent.



Population Growth from 1860s: 50 - 100 Million 1860 - 1900. Some argued that there was not
enough land to go round.
Peasants were treated like children: although free they could not sell land or leave the village. The
aim was to ensure tax collection and a supply of soldiers.
The Mir. Peasants were forced to live in Mirs [The Mir was a communal landholding system.]
Land might be redistributed every 10-120 years according to need. This later appealed to some
socialists, but redistribution led to problems with the modernization of farming -- why should a
farmer upgrade land if it was going to be taken away?.
So on the land even after emancipation, peasants were not really free and many of them were in debt.
Alexander II's leanings to constitutionalism
Alexander also had some desire to allow constitutional government - but he was killed before it could be
put into effect. Lets look at his murder, since it points to the future.
F. 19th Century Political Opposition to Tsardom


Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
Maria Sukloff: The Story of An Assassination, extracts, [At WSU]
The policy of Official Nationality alienated serious intellectuals from the government - e.g. Tolstoy.
The Intelligentsia was a uniquely Russian phenomenon. It referred to those who made their living through
their education, and in Russia they constituted a social group. Among the intelligentsia there was an
important movement dedicated to changing society -- not in there own interest, but for the peasants!
This movement had its origins among the sons and daughters of the nobility who felt that they owed a
debt to the serfs. They talk about this as a "duty" (dolg). Another important source of support was among
the sons of priests - who for unexplained reasons became ferocious foes of the Tsar. Seminaries become
centers of radical sentiment. Most students at universities also seem to have been radically discontent with
society. The Regime was so autocratic that people just opposed it. Since the State was so involved in the
Church, the radicals become militant atheists.
From the 1860s, Revolution becomes almost a religion amongst this group. Those who got arrested they
had to stay revolutionaries. Women who did not marry by 21 also had to stay radical, as they could not reintegrate with noble society.
"Land and Freedom" was the main revolutionary organization - called Populists/Narodniks
Activities in 1870s - Mostly by students
They went around preaching revolution to the peasants. [The peasants often reported them to the police.]
The students were upset that their revolutionary message was not heeded. In 1879 there was a split between
and a reformist wing -- which wanted social/constitutional change -- and a a terrorist wing - "The People's
Will" (note the Rousseauian reference).
Terrorism
The terrorists decided that the peasants were not rising because they were afraid of the Tsar, so they try to
destabilize the system.



1879-1881 - they kill 1000's of officials
By 1881 - still no revolution - so what to do? They decide to kill the Tsar - Alexander II
o One got a job as a carpenter, and made an exploding table leg, but the Tsar was not at
dinner.
o They dug a tunnel under train, but the Tsar changed trains.
o Finally one killed the Tsar in his carriage - he threw a bomb that kills both Tsar and
revolutionary in March 1881.
But there was no revolution - the terrorists had totally misjudged the situation.
The important thing to note is the tradition of opposition and violent revolution in late 19th C. Russia. It
was from this tradition that the leaders of the Russian Revolution came.
G. Alexander III 1881-1894 and Reaction
After assassination of Alexander II, a police state was instituted..



Pograms against Jews were directed by the state with the intent of diverting popular discontents
away from the state and towards Jews.
1880s a period of oppression
By 1890s most terrorists in exile in Siberia or in exile abroad.
H. Change in late 19th Century
Despite political repression the government saw that Russia must change to keep great power status. These
changes were later to undermine Tsarism.
Industrialization
Led by Sergei Witte in the 1890s. He wanted the 100 year process of the Industrial Revolution in UK to be
gone through in 10-20 years. He was helped by French Capital investment. There was massive growth e.g. Trans-Siberian Railway.
Social Pressures of Industrialization
The same stresses and strains on society as in the West but very much quicker and more intense. There was
the rapid creation of an urban proletariat in major cities, with very bad conditions for workers
In the 1890s there was a famine, which was embarrassing to the state, but it also energized popular
movements that had been dormant in the 1880s.
I. New Political Parties in Early 20th C. Russia
After a period of quiet, a series of new political parties were organized among the Intelligentsia.
Social Revolutionaries 1901
The y Looked back to peasant Russia and the old populists. They said above all they are for the peasants,
and disliked the industrialization that is proceeding at the time. The loved the Mir as a kind of Russian
Socialism, and opposed trends to change it. They were often anti-Semitic.
Constitutional Democrats (Cadets) 1903
These were most like western liberals. They wanted non-violent constitutional change.
Social Democrats 1898
These were Marxists modeled on the German Social Democrats. They were happy about industrialization
and looked to the newly emerging proletariat. [Marx's Das Kapital was published in Russia! The censor
said it was too long and too boring and so no one would read it.] It was this group that became the basis of
the Bolshevik and then the Communist Party that ruled in the Soviet Union.
III. Bolshevism and Russia to 1914
A. George Plekhanov 1857-1918
Plekhanov was the founder of Social Democrats: a populist who had given up on the peasants. His
problem was that Marx had said that Revolution took place in advanced states and Russia was not
advanced. Plekhanov called for two revolutions.


A bourgeois revolution to overthrow Tsardom. At this stage Marxists should help the bourgeois
parties.
A second revolution - using the bourgeois liberties to organize workers and have a socialist
revolution.
The Problem was this would all take a long time - so why should workers work now for a bourgeois rev,
that would not give then any benefits?
B. Vladimir Illich Ulyanov - Lenin 1870-1924

Vladimir I. Lenin (1870-1924) and 2

He was born 1870 in the Volga Country. His brother had been executed for plotting vs. Alexander
III.
1893 - Lenin studied Law passed with top of class honors.
Exiled in Siberia 1895 - but was allowed to write
1900 went into exile



Lenin's Theories

Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): What is to Be Done?, 1902, extended excerpts
Lenin became involved with the Social Democrat Party in exile, and became an important theorist. He is
next in importance to Marx, whom he develops significantly. It was Lenin who worked out how to take
power, something Marx had never really worked out.
Opposition to what he saw in Western Socialist parties, which accommodated to the state. What is to be
Done? 1902 expressed his ideas.
Lenin did not trust workers without "revolutionary consciousness and specifically distrusted trade unions.
He dismissed "T.U. Consciousness". Essentially, he argued that workers do not know what is good for
them [Compare Rousseau and Robespierre's position on the general will.].
His model was a secret Party (like the old Narodnik model of party). The party was to be the "Vanguard of
the Revolution." It was to be stable, to be selected, to be a group of professional revolutionaries.
The Party must know what it is doing. Democratic discussion was allowed on open questions, but all must
follow the party line once a decision is reached - this is known as "Democratic centralism." A strict party
hierarchy was to be followed. The Party works secretly - it will will enter worker's groups to create
change.
Lenin made a great distinction between Strategy -- long term goals, not to be altered -- and Tactics - the
day to day flexibility necessary to pursue the strategy.
C. Origins of Bolshevism
Many members of the SDP rejected Lenin's approach, and wanted to work with Trade Unions.
In 1903 there was the London Conference of the Russian Social Democrat Party. The question was
should there be an open or closed party?
Lenin was opposed by Paul Martov [Martov was the leader of the Jewish Bund - the Jews in Poland and
the Pale; He was Jewish in language not faith.] Lenin's views were in a minority, but he managed to get a
vote first on whether the Bund could remain as a distinct Jewish group within the SDP. This was rejected
[perhaps reflecting anti-Semitism] and so the Bund members walk out -- leaving Lenin with a majority on
the floor to win his idea of party organization. His group was called the "majority " [Bolsheviks] and his
opponents (who were actually more popular) were called the "Minority" [Mensheviks]. Note that the
Mensheviks were also revolutionary - but trusted the workers.
[Note on Tactics: if you cannot win a vote, always try to control the agenda. If that fails, you can always
win via the minutes!]
D. Bolsheviks Organize separately only in 1912.
Led by Lenin from exile. He wrote at least 10 letters a day and lived and breathed revolution. Above all he
saw importance of appealing to peasant discontent.
IV. War with Japan 1904 and the 1905 Revolution
The "Russian Revolution" is sometimes seen as three revolutions one 1905 and two in 1917.
A. War with Japan 1905
The aim of the war was to rally people around the Tsar, but Japan won. It was as if Grenada had defeated
the USA.
Factory Workers' Problems
The War helped speed inflation and rise in price of food lead to riots in Moscow and St. Petersburg. But all
the Tsar's troops were in East Asia and there was a power vacuum in the cities.
January 1905.
Father Gapon and march on Winter Palace Jan 22 1905 to present a - petition to the Tsar. He was a sort of
Orthodox "Liberation Theologian," who believed the Tsar would help his people if only he knew their
sufferings.
The Star's troops opened fire, and over a 1000 people were killed. This punctured the myth that the Tsar
loved his people. A real revolutionary movement develops. October 1905 a successful General Strike:
nothing moved in Moscow or Petersburg. Bolsheviks later claimed credit for the strike, but it seems to
have been the Mensheviks and ordinary workers.
Worker's Councils, or Soviets were set up. They were able to have power as the Army was away in the
East. When it returned the Tsar could reassert his authority.
B. October 1905: Constitutionalism
The Tsar gave in to the pressure,and issued the October Manifesto. He granted a Parliament (Duma) and
some civil liberties.This splits the revolutionary movement.



The Socialists: the SRs and Mensheviks do not like it.
The Cadets split: The leader --Miliukov -- says the Manifesto was not enough. Others form a group
called the Octoberists
There is also a new right-wing group formed called the Union of the Russian People.
Compare this to splits to divisions in French Revolution.
The socialist groups organized an armed uprising in Moscow in December 1905, . But the troops were back
home and the revolt was put down, although troubles continued until 1907.
Duma I - 1906
Elections: only Cadets, Octoberists and URP. Other parties boycott. Immediately there is a dispute between
Miliukov and the Tsar. Tsar dismisses the Duma and Sergei Witte who had suggested it.
V. Russia and the Tsar 1907-1914
The Tsar never accepted the October Manifesto that he had issued in 1905. He saw it as his sacred duty to
preserve autocracy. So 1907-1914 you see the Tsar trying to get rid of the constitution.
A. New Dumas - II and III 1907
Duma II
After Miluikov saw Duma I dismissed he advocated passive resistance. But the govt. felt strong enough to
forbid the Cadets [the most moderate group to run for Duma II] But the SRs decide the run, plus the URP.
So you get a Duma II with extremes and no center. Duma II is dissolved.
Duma III
Duma III, on a more restricted property qualification. Peasants and workers disenfranchised. But Duma III
is more moderate. Lasts its five year term 1907-1912.
Duma IV in 1912 also lasts. But has little power.
B. Government 1907-1914
These were years of economic progress and rapid industrialization. A lot of the funds came from France.
There were even some advances in civil liberties. A plan was adopted to educate all boys and girls to 8th
Grade (to be be gradually adopted by 1922). There is a big question of whether the revolution was
inevitable or was Russia on the way to democracy?
Peter Stolypin 1862-1911 - PM from 1906-1911
He was last great conservative statesman in Russia. He was the one who had made changes in Duma.
Land Reforms 1906
Stolypin realized that the Mir system stifled progress in agriculture. He abolished the peasant's debt, and
began making plans to give peasants individual land holdings, and to break up the Mir. (This was opposed
by SRs on principal, and Lenin, who did not want the peasants to get to comfortable).
In 1911 Stolypin was shot by a double agent. Not clear if he was working for Tsar's secret police or the SRs
when he did this. He had been effective and had shown some insight into problems. Without him
leadership depended on the Tsar -- who faced problems that were to lead to a revolution



Continuing peasant unrest
Unhappy workers in the cities
National unrest amongst Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, etc.
VII. The Last Tsar: Nicholas I 1894 -1917
Character: Weak leader. Determined to preserve Tsarism as a sacred trust.
Political Policies
Tried to take back the reforms he had given in 1905. For example, he got a huge loan from the French so
that he would not have to rely on the Duma.
And Alexandra
She was married to Nicholas in 1890s, and exercised significant influence over his decisions. Unfortunately
for him, she seems to have totally misunderstood Russia, and to have let personal issues guide her actions.
Hemophilia and the Tsarvitch
This disease -- in which internal bleeding cannot be stopped -- seems to have come from Queen Victoria,
Alexandra's Grandmother. Alexandra was a convert to Orthodoxy, and she became extremely concerned to
find a miraculous cure for her sons illness. She looked to faith healers.
Grigory Efimovich Rasputin (1871?-1916)
Rasputin was no where near as powerful as later myth, but he became part of the mythology of the
revolution.
Theory of Sin: God loves the repentant sinner, therefore sin a lot.
Effectiveness as Hypnotist: Rasputin's power derived from his quite real ability to stop the Tsarvitch's
bleeding, apparently by hypnosis.
After Stolypin died Rasputin was to have great power. He managed to get his friends -- especially
Protopopov into office. They did not know how to run the country. His sexual activities and his power
playing became a scandal and removed support from the Tsar.
Situation of Russia at Outbreak of First World War



Social Revolution due to Industrialization
o Workers disaffected since 1905
Continuing Unrest in Countryside
Government that was weak, scandalous and causing inefficiency.
o Ineffective Duma
o Ineffective leadership.
VIII. First World War
We already discussed the Alliance system and how Russia got dragged into the war in support of Serbia.
The War meant the end of old Russia.
A. Panslavism and Serbia
Russian foreign policy was consistent - support Slavs, and try to get a port in the Mediterranean.
B. Popularity of War: 1914
St Petersburg becomes Petrograd (which sounds more Russian)
The army was very excited: Some officers were anxious in case it was all over before they got to the front.
Others asked if they should pack their dress uniforms.
The war was opposed by Tsarina, Rasputin, and Sergei Witte, who was still around. The Tsarina was
German in origin. Rasputin sensed what the war would cost in peasant blood: In 1914 he sent a telegram to
the Tsar:Let Papa not plan war, for with the war will come the end of Russia and yourselves and you will lose the
last man.
The Tsar tore this to pieces. Rasputin wrote to him a remarkable prophecy.
Dear friend, I will say again a menacing cloud is over Russia lots of sorrow and grief it is dark and there is
no lightening to be seen. A sea of tears immeasurable and as to blood? What can I say? There are no words
the horror of it is indescribable. I know they keep wanting war from you evidently not knowing that this is
destruction. Heavy is God's punishment when he takes away reason that is the beginning of the end. Thou
art the Tsar Father of the People don't allow the madmen to triumph and destroy themselves and the
People. Well, they will conquer Germany and what about Russia? If one thinks then verily there has not
been a greater sufferer since the beginning of time she is all drowned in blood. Terrible is the destruction
and without end the grief. Gregory
C. Russia was unprepared to go to war


Armies went into battle with one gun for two soldiers -they were told to pick up the guns of dead
comrades.
Support Services by Civilians
D. Losses in the War



Land: German Advance through all of Western Russia
Men - Desertions:perhaps 1 1/2 Million by 1917.
Food shortages:- Revolution was looming.
The Tsar, unlike in 1905, had lost support and control over the Army by Spring 1917. He government
simply melted away.
IX. The February Revolution 1917
Society fell apart. The major reason for revolt was disgust with the war. Even the generals a reported to
have said "the army is drowning in its own blood."
But longstanding causes remain:


Peasant's anger about land
Population explosion 1860-1914
Workers Revolts in February 23 1917. [Russia used the old "Julian" Calendar, which was 11 days (?)
behind the Gregorian calendar used in the West, and later in Russia. The result was that the "February
revolution" actually took place in March 1917 on the standard calendar.].
This revolt was not organized by anyone. It began on a breadline and was unexpected even to Lenin who
was in Switzerland at the time. He was soon to return.
The Tsar abdicated March 15 1917 - in favor of his brother Michael, but gives power to the Duma. The
Cadets and conservatives organized a Provisional Govt. (This is a simplification: there were very many
more groups politically active.) But, in effect, two governments came into being


The Provisional Government - based in the Duma.
The Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers. A council set up by the workers in the Capital.
Other soviets were set up in other cities. This has real power as it has the army and guns.
X. The Failure of the Provisional Government
The Provisional Government took over the old military alliances, and continued the War, but with no
resources, especially after a failure of an offensive in summer 1917. The allies (UK and France) try to keep
Russia in the War.
A. Problems for the Provisional Government
Continuation of the War is unpopular. Paul Miliukov had been promised by the UK and France that
Russia would get the Dardanelles if it stayed in: A traditional Russian aim.
The Return of Lenin. Amnesty was granted to Political Prisoners April 1917. The Bolsheviks return from
abroad. Trotsky from the Bronx, Lenin from Zurich.
Lenin made a deal with the German government, who gave him transit visa - the so-called sealed train. The
Germans saw him as detrimental to the Russian war effort.
In Russia, Lenin takes leadership of the Bolsheviks. [Only Olga Kolajka (?) opposes him.]
B. Continuing Unrest in the Cities.
Unorganized riots in Petrograd in July 1917. Bolsheviks oppose these riots because they were not leading
them.
C. Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970)
In response to the riots a new Cabinet formed by Kerensky is formed in July 1917. Kerensky was not
effective. He would not use the harsh measures needed to restore order.
Involvement in the Kornilov Plot
This was a plot to establish a dictatorship. It is not clear, even from interviewing the survivors, what
happened. But it seems thus:- Lavr Kornilov was a general. Kerensky was worried about order and the
Bolsheviks. Kerensky makes a deal with Kornilov - Kornilov promised to take power with troops and get
rid of Bolsheviks. Kerensky would then head a military dictatorship. But Kerensky got worried that
Kornilov would take over, and so he turns to the Petrograd Soviet for help. The Soviet stops Kornilov and
arrested him. In the process Kerensky weakened the Provisional government at the expense of the Soviet,
and the Bolsheviks who were now dominating it.
XI. The October Revolution 1917

Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)
Lived in the Bronx before leading the Red Army.

John Reed (1887-1920)
American journalist who reported on the Revolution in Ten Days that Shook the World.

Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): Call to Power, Oct 24, 1917
A. Bolshevik activities in 1917
A classic application of Lenin's theory of tactics. For instance, Marxist theory had no place for "soviets,"
But Lenin and Trotsky managed to gain control of the Petrograd Soviet.
Slogans were used to gain support - "Peace, Bread and Land," "All power to the Soviets"
B. The Petrograd Soviets of Workers and Soldiers
Set up in Petrograd - issuing orders alongside the Provisional Government. Appealed to other countries
workers for help.
C. Lenin's Role
To organize and inspire party. He stopped Bolsheviks co-operating with the Provisional government. Again
a clear consciousness of what needs to be done.
D. Leon Trotsky
[Address in the Bronx - 1522 Vyse Avenue/ 172nd St]
Organizes in Petrograd, and becomes head of the Soviet there.
E. October 1917 (November 6-7-8 new Calendar)
This was more a coup d'etat than a massive revolution. The Bolsheviks stormed the Winter Palace and
Kerensky fled leaving Lenin and co in charge. Moscow also came under Bolshevik control. The problem
was how to expand power from Moscow and Petrograd to rest of the country.
XII. The Bolshevik's Immediate Actions Once in Power

Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): The State and Revolution, 1918, extended excerpts
We should see these actions as what Lenin did to maintain power. Marx had seen revolutions as a matter of
taking over factories and redistributing wealth. The Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of how to
actually secure power. Lenin's main promises were to give the peasants land and to get Russia out of the
War. A key concept for Lenin becomes "the Dictatorship of the Proletariat" - which justifies strong action.
Aims



To defeat class enemies - i.e. no civil liberties for the opposition - calls them "bourgeois"
To build the economy quickly -- there was a need to build up the economy devastated by war.
Only then, once all was well, would the dictatorship of the proletariat wither away, and government
would just become a matter of administration.
This whole ideal is based on theories that economy would remain at a simple level. Also Lenin did not
discuss the attractions of power in itself.
A. Press Censorship
When the Bolsheviks took power some of the press opposed them - e.g. Izvestia was not keen at first.
Press censorship was imposed Nov 9 1917
B. Elections to Constituent Assembly
This was in fact Lenin's first major difficulty. Elections had been arranged by the Provisional government
and were allowed to take place. But the SR's and other non-Bolsheviks win most votes.
The Bolsheviks simply dissolve the new assembly - and blame SR win on the old "relation of political
forces" - Dec 1917
Instead, the Bolsheviks claimed "all power for the soviets." There was no revolt when the Bolsheviks did
this.
C. End of War: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 3 1918
Lenin agreed to give up huge areas of Western Russia + agree to an indemnity. No alternative. It was never
put into effect as Germany looses in the West in 1918.
D. June 1918 - Nationalization of all factories.
E. Execution of the Tsar and his Family 1918 removed a possible focus of opposition.
XIII. Civil War 1917-1921
The vital struggle if Bolshevism was to survive in Russia. See it as another element in what the Bolsheviks
did to survive.
A. The Whites - Supporters of the Tsar
They lead local civil wars in Ukraine, in the north, and in the East. The US and UK were involved in
supporting these groups.
B. The Reds and Leon Trotsky
The Red Army was set up immediately after revolution and proved very effective.
XIV. The New Socialist Order

Alexandra Kollantai: The Workers' Opposition, 1921, [At Marx.Org]
A. War Communism
Organization for War until 1921. All decisions come from the top in a non-democratic manner - there was
no time for consultation.





The Cheka - secret Police Dec 20 1917
Dictatorship of the Proletariat - organization of the "Vanguard of the Oppressed" (i.e. the
Bolsheviks) as the ruling class to crush the oppressors.
Banks, Transport and heavy industry confiscated.
Real Reforms - e.g. education promised for all Communist Morality/ethics taught
Opposition suppressed: Kronstadt Rebellion March 1921 - "Slogan: Soviets without communists"
B. Cultural Freedom
At First great intellectual and artistic freedom in Russia. "Constructivism" and other new ideas in art were
tried. etc. Some intellectuals flock to Russia.
But the artists kept going to the party asking for others to be restrained - and later on socialist realism was
imposed. (a sort of romanticized glorification of the worker - rather like some sentimental religious
pictures)
C. The Third International (Comintern) 1919
After failure of pre-war 2nd International. This split European socialists into "Communists" and "Social
Democrats". Tended to stop them fighting fascism.
All Communist parties were work for revolution on Russian model, and to look to Russia for leadership.
All parties were to adopt the title "Communist Part of XXX." The Bolsheviks became the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union [CPSU]
XV. The New Economic Policy March 1921
A. Problems of Economics



Drought and famine 1918-1921 & Million Russians died of hunger and sickness
Spanish Flu in 1918 - killed more people than the War.
Not enough food: There was Aid from the USA in 1920-21 - start of a long tradition.
B. The New Economic Policy was instituted to solve some of these problems. A slowing down of the
move to communism. Aim was increased food production.
NEP allowed peasants to farm for profit and also small businesses. They would pay taxes (not usual in
communist countries now). Small industry allowed in private hands. The economy recovered by 1927.
C. Kulaks - Rich Peasants become a force in Russia. perhaps 5% of pop by 1927. This causes ideological
disputes in the Politburo [the central policy committee of the party.]
XVI. Lenin's Death

Vladimir Illyich Lenin (1870-1924): Excerpts from Lenin's Testament, 1922
Lenin had stroke 1922, died 1924
Lenin's role was crucial in the Russian Rev. But note the Marxist theory that individuals do not determine
history. They would say great historical forces are actualized in actual people. Is this sufficient? In fact in
USSR Lenin is lionized - see his Tomb in Red Square etc.
So far we have covered the process by which the Tsar lost control of Russia and two revolutions in 1917
gave power to the Bolshevik party, led by Lenin. We have also looked at the consolidation of power by the
Bolsheviks, and at the rule of Lenin. The big question is when did things go wrong.
Under Lenin, or under Stalin? Who really invented Stalinism?
XVII. Stalin Comes to Power

Lenin and Stalin
There was jockeying for power once Lenin started to fade. The main struggle was between Bukahrin and
Trotsky, with another, Stalin on the sidelines at first.
A. Leon Trotsky(18 -1940)
His power due to role as head of the Red Army. His was the more left wing faction and was not keen on
NEP. He wanted rapid industrialization to make Russia a great power. he Looked for worldwide revolution
to support the Russian Rev. He was a creative ideological thinker - called for open discussion - although he
was late convert to this.
B. Nicolai Bukharin (1888-1938)
The group opposed to Trotsky led ideologically by Nikolai Bukharin, the editor of Pravda. He tended to
be pro peasant.
C. Stalin (1879-1953)
But the real power was Stalin. [Stalin means "Man of Steel"]
Josef Djugushvili Stalin was a Georgian not a Russian, and was altogether unlike Lenin and Trotsky. He
had been very poor as a child. Not an intellectual - he had trained as a Georgian Priest. He became active in
SDP in 1908 - as a bank robber or conductor of "forced expropriations.
Stalin came to power as a bureaucrat - placing his supporters all over the Party. By 1912 he became part of
the Central Committee. He won in the end because no one thought he was important at the beginning. In
particular Stalin got control of the Purge committees.
Initially Stalin supported the NEP & Bukharin, and then he won the struggle against Trotsky. He simply
out-maneuvered him by 1927. Trotsky sent into internal exile, then expelled from the country 1929. [He
was finally killed with an Ice-Pick in Mexico City in 1940]
[Note: Trotskyism is an important force in the European left, which generally opposes the Soviet Union as
"state capitalist."]
XVIII. Stalin in Power: A Revolution from Above

Josef Stalin (1879-1953) and 2
Stalin was concerned to have the revolution successful in one country - Russia, before the rest of the world.
"Socialism in one country" doctrine 1924.
He was the only early Bolshevik leader leader not to have traveled abroad, or to speak other European
languages.
Effectively from 1928 there is Second Revolution in which Stalin forces through massive industrial
development.
A. Stalinism in the 1930's


Used brutal methods to obtain results
Coercion and Terror

More successful in achieving economic goals than the West which was in depression at the time.
Why did it go this way? There were reasons.
The NEP stops Working: NEP had been supported by Stalin. Its aim was to stop food shortages. But in
1928-29 it stopped working. The Kulaks held grain off the market to raise prices. Stalin in 1929 decided
that Russia must industrialize and collectivize to match power of the West. [in other words, he adopted
Trotsky's economic goals.]
B. Agriculture - Collectivization of Land
From 1929 - hoarded wheat confiscated. The Kulaks were "eliminated" - but this soon included all
opposition.
Two Stages from 1928


Take away Kulak land and power. Use poorer peasants against Kulaks.
Force all peasants on to collective farms.
There was massive opposition - especially from Kulaks


They killed their animals - 100 million 1929-33
open warfare in the countryside
Massive state repression was directed against these people -- who were systematically killed.
Collectivization was put into effect.



Perhaps 10 Million people died in forced collectivization.
Millions were sent to forced labor camps and farms.
State took control of farm machinery - could be withdrawn from opponents.
Even after collectivization there was planned famine directed against the peasants. Millions were
deliberately starved to death. Especially in Ukraine. It is difficult to explain why. There is no rational
reason. It was a way of controlling peasants. One of bleakest chapters in history.


1928 - 98% of land was small farms
1938 - 90% was collectivized
Collectivization was put into effect, but it did not produced food efficiently. However peasants could not
now starve the cities.
C. Rapid Industrialization
Stalin decided to go for rapid industrialization. In terms of achieving goals this was a success . There was a
400% increase in production in 12 years 1928-40 - the most rapid advance to Industrialization ever.
Emphasis was on heavy Industry, esp. steel. Capital was raised by grain export.
D. Five Year Plans
A series of planned economic targets, setting goals for the next five years. Again it is a matter of direction
from above. Began in 1928 with Gosplan - state planning agency - overseeing the program.


Regimentation of workers: Trade Unions under state control
New cites built - Many people brought into the cities
Despite the horror, it was probably this industrialization that let Russia stand up to Hitler.
E. Purges


Hymn to Stalin, The cult of personality.
The Soviet Purges: Official Explanation, 1936
All the economic progress was applauded by many in the West - especially when compared to the
Depression that hit there in the 1930s. But there was another side to all this. Western praisers of Stalin
ignored the pure social cost, which was massive. Huge numbers of people suffered. And the westerners
ignored the repression.
Stalin did not feel secure in his power. He was especially jealous of old Bolsheviks and those who had
worked during the 1917 revolutions. He was also paranoid about opposition.
There was opposition to the brutality of collectivization and industrialization. Also to new Comintern
policies allowing co-operation vs. fascist groups.
1929 Bukharin was expelled from Politburo.
There were a series of Show Trials when opponents would be forced to publicly recant there wrongdoings. esp. after 1934.
Massive Trials 1936-38. It is not clear why the victims made their false confessions. Thousands where
killed or sent to the Gulag.
It was not clear to anyone why this was going on: There was no reason for it. But a loyal party was created
for Stalin. Stalin was able to more than any Tsar in the way of oppression because of the modern methods
open to him. He stands with Hitler in many respects.
XVIII. The Second World War
Destroyed many gains of 1930s, but united the Soviet peoples. We will pick up this theme in next two
sections.
Web Exercise
This is a straightforward review project in which you should use all the evaluation skills you have acquired
over the semester.
Visit the Revelations from the Russian Archives site at the Library of Congress.
Explain the goals of the exhibition, and discuss one section in detail. Do you think the exhibition is one
sided? Does it have an argument to make? Could you make an argument *in favor* of the old Soviet
system? [You might want to see if you can find a pro-Soviet site on the net.]
Discussion Questions
What aspects of Russian history distinguished it from Western European cultures?
How did distinctively Russian experiences contribute to Bolshevism in comparison to western Marxism
such as that supported by the German SDP?
Why did Lenin argue for the "secret party" model in What is to be Done?
Who created the repressive state structures of the Soviet Union?
What was the "official" explanation of the purges?
What points of comparions and difference can you see between the Russian Revolution and the French
Revolution?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 16: World War II and the End of Empire







Introduction: This Week's Goals
Text
Multimedia
Sources
Outline
Web Exercise
Discussion Questions

Test Yourself!
An online quiz for this section.
Introduction: This Week's Goals
[I will still be altering this -- but you can go ahead and do the reading and projects.]
Text
Multimedia

Literature/Thought
o Federico Garcia Lorca (1898-1936)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o


Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) and 2
Franz Kafka (1883-1924) and 2
T S Eliot (1888-1965)
Bertand Russell (1872-1970)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) and 2
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946)
World War II: Axis
o Hitler and Mussolini (Hitler,1889-1945)
o Benito Mussolini
o Adolph Hitler 1932, and 2
o Heinrich Himmler
World War II: Allies
o Harry S. Truman (1884-1972, 33rd Pres. 1945-1953)
o Yalta: Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin
o Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)
Sources










An Age of Anxiety?
o Paul Valéry: On European Civilization and the European Mind, c. 1919, 1922
o T.S. Eliot: The Hollow Men, [At Cambridge]
o Bertrand Russell: Icarus, or, the Future of Science, 1924, [At Wisconsin]
Economic Problems and the Depression
o Kagan, 979-89, 997-1006
o John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946): The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 1920
Inter-War International Relations
o Kagan, 945-51
o League of Nations Covenant, 1924, [At Yale]
Italy
o Kagan, 975-79, 1017-18
o Benito Mussolini (1883-1945): What is Fascism?, 1932
Germany and National Socialism
o Kagan, 989-94, 1006-16, 1033-50, 1050-56, 1058-64
o The 25 Points, 1920 An early Nazi program.
Lead Up to War
o Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, Aug 29, 1939
o Neville Chamberlain: Peace in Our Time, 1938
War In Europe
o Vyacheslav Molotov (1889-1986): Broadcast Speech on the Invasion of The Soviet Union, June
22, 1941
War In Asia
o The Nanking Massacre, The New York Times, December 18, 1937
o Hiroshima Survivor's Accounts,[At OBI]
The Home Front
o Winston S. Churchill, "Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat" Speech, 1940
Anti-Semitism The Holocaust and
o Religious Anti-Semitism:
o Martin Luther (1483-1546): The Jews and Their Lies 1543 [At Medieval Sourcebook]
o Racist Anti-Semitism
o Adolf Hitler: First Antisemitic Writing, September 16, 1919, [At HNet]




o Adolf Hitler: On Antisemitism in Vienna, 1925, [At HNet][From Mein Kampf]
The "Final Solution"
o The Nazi Marking/Identification System [At HistoryPlace]
o Heinrich Himmler: Speech to SS Group Leaders at Posen, October 4 1943 , [At HistoryPlace]
o Hermann Friedrich Graebe: Account of Holocaust Mass Shooting,, 1942
o Rudolf Hoess, Commandant of Auschwitz: Testimony, 1946
o Daniel J. Goldhagen: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, [At HistoryPlace] [Modern Opinion
Piece]
The Handicapped
o Adolf Hitler: Order Authorizing Involuntary Euthanasia in Germany, October 1939, [At Hnet]
Gypsies
o Gypsies [Roma] in the Holocaust
Homosexuals o Heinrich Himmler: On Homosexuals
o Para. 175 The Nazi laws on homosexual activity.
o Hans Heger [pseud.]: Daily Life in a Camp, from The Men with the Pink Triangles, [At CMU]
(Note: Heger is the name of the journalist who wrote the book. The "hero" of the book remains anonymous).
o

Pierre Seel: The Death of His Lover [At PWH]
Post-Holocaust Genocides
o UN Resolution 260- On Genocide, 1948
o François Ponchaud, Cambodia: Year Zero, 1978
Outline
The Age of Anxiety - Post War Malaise and Responses
A. We backtrack a little from Russia to see effects of World War I on Europe. Today we are looking at



The so-called "Age of Anxiety"
Problems of interwar years - the Depression
One solution - Mussolini
Next class we will be looking a Germany in particular. Read details about individual countries in
textbook.
II. History's Revenge?
Recall overall view of the course - how European political, industrial/technological dominace gave Europe
power over the Globe. I suggested that this might be caused by the divisions that kept Europe an innovative
ferment.
NOW we see the flip side of division - After 1914 Europe begins to lose its position of power, although this is
not entirely apparent until after 1945. The USA is most powerful economic power after 1914, but for the time
being abdicates its role.
Also in the background, and not covered by this course you have the growth of non-European national
movements, which often built on western ideologies and local cultures.


Japan
China - Sun Yat Sen and Mao Tse-Tung (Zedong)


India - Gandhi
the Near East - Arab Nationalism
III. Post-War Malaise - The Age of Anxiety
A. Introduction
Paul Valery (1871-1945) speaking in 1920s about the "crisis of the mind". (french poet and critic).
The storm has died away, and still we are restless, uneasy, as if the storm were about to break. Almost all the
affairs of men remain in a terrible uncertainty. We think of what has disappeared, and we are almost destroyed
by what has been destroyed; we do not know what will be born, and we fear the future, not without reason...
Doubt and disorder are in us and with us. There is no thinking man who can hope to dominate this anxiety, to
escape from this impression of darkness.
B. Why the Malaise? - The Experience of the War
1. Expectations of war not met. Modelled on 19th Century wars - quick and glorious.
2. Casualties
Numbers killed



750,000 in UK
1,385,000 in France
1,808,000 in Germany
More were killed in the `flu after, but these were all young men. A whole generation was lost to the war. There
were also millions of non-fatal casualties - the sight of wounded veterans was common.
Severe shortage of men - there were millions of women who never got married, whose sweethearts died at war.
3. Age of Anxiety
It seemed that after the war that there was one crisis after another - lasted at least unitil the 1950s. Some would
say we never got out of it.
Recall Woodrow Wilson's call for "normalcy".
C. The Moral Effects of the War
1. The ideal of Progress of Humanity was hard to maintain, when civilised nations had committed such
barbarities - mustard gas, trench warfare.
2. Experience of War made many question the value of the society they lived in. How could it have happened?
3. Religion - very many people gave up on a God who could allow the War to happen. On the other hand,
many intellectuals, for the first time since the Enlightenment, returned to God. "Reason" was no longer
enough, and the ideal of progress was dead.
Karl Barth (1886-1968) - major protestant theologian - he rejected attempts to prove God, and said Faith is
purely a matter of grace.
Graham Greene "One began to believe in heaven because one believed in hell".
D. The Cultural Effects of the War
1. Introduction
EMPHASISE the profundity of the effect of war on Europe. Unlike US experience of War, even WWII, which
was a good war, more like Vietnam, which was seen as pointless. WWI however, had actually taken place in
the heartland.
2. Literature
a. Novels - Alienation
Franx Kafka (1883-1924) - The Trial - extreme alienation - even more so in The Metamorphosis.
Virginia Woolf (1882-1941): novels as series of inner monologues.
b. Poetry - Images of Age
Wilfred Owen - "Dulce et Decorum Est"
TS Eliot (1888-1965)



The WasteLand (1922)
The Hollow Men (1925)
Gerontion (1920)
WH Auden - Model citizen
3. Music - Atonality


Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)- The Rite of Spring - caused riots by its emotional intensity.
Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) - abandoned traditional harmony and tonality.
4. Art - Looks for a deeper meaning than reality.
Modernism - constant experimentation because the old forms were not good enough to express angst. No more
happy impressionism - change had begun before 1914. Now profound attempts to look beneath the surface




-Cubism - Braque and Picasso.
-non-representational art after 1910
-Dadaism - post war - attacked all standards
-surrealism - inspired by Freudianism - Sal. Dali
5. Some People Had Fun


NOT Everything was unhappy for everybody. EMPHASISE.
Hollywood, Radio Entertainment, Chaplin et al. But it was a way of escaping from the hard world of

everyday life.
Rising standard of living for many people. (despite economic problems).
E. Decline of Reason
Uncertainty in Modern Intellectual Thought
a. Builds on some pre-War trends - popularisation of Freudianism - only after 1918 did his ideas become well
known.
b. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - believed Western Civ. lost its creativity. Christianity glorified weakness.
Reason, democracy and progress had out paced passion and emotion.
c. Ludwig Wittgenstein - Logical Positivism




Philosophy is only the logical clarification of thoughts.
Rejected concerns of most philosophy God, morals, freedom.
Used the "verification principle"
Philosophy cannot give any answers
d. Existentialism - existence is its own meaning.
Henri Bergson (1859-1941) - Idea of immediate experience and intuition are as important as rational and
scientific thought for understanding reality. A response to post war malaise, but such ideas have a political
counterpart.
e. History - Oswald Spengler: The Decline of the West 1918
f. Physics - Heisenberg's Uncertainity Principle - emphasises decline of Newtonian physics.
2. Politics
The general malaise effecting positive beliefs in art and thought, and the the distressed state of many
Europeans left 19th Century Liberalism floundering. Many came to reject what they saw as the heritage of the
French Revolution.
New Parties sprang up in all European countries offering a way out. This way spurned Reason, and individual
problems and invest all your hope in the collective - Nationalism. Psychological aspect: blaming somebody
else for problems [Anti-Semitism, Anti-Bolshevism]. We are going to look at one of these new parties today,
the Fascists in Italy.
IV. Economic Depression
The psychological and sociological effects of the war were not the only problems effecting society after the
First War. There were also very real economic problems.
A. Political discontent after the War
Wilson's vision of Europe did not happen

In New states - in Eastern Europe a series of right wing royal dictatorships came into being. eg King


Zog of Albania.
In Britain - stagnation
France - obsessesed with getting back at Germany
B. Cause of Economic Problems
Reparations and War debts -A burden of the War


Reparations from Germany.
Debts owed by UK and France to USA.
USA objected to reparations, but would not give up debts to it. Led to a flow of capital from Germany to the
US. Also led to problems of all international trade being affected by non-trade flows of money.
2. Trade Barriers
There was an agricultural price collapse, as farmers were underpaid for their produce. Led to a drop in
production. Nations imposed trade barriers which made things worse.
3. Lack of Economic Leadership
There was no real attempt to control the depression. It was only later that Keynes comes up with the idea of
spending a country out of Depression.
Liberalism was dead in economics in Europe. The war had made governments direct production, and the mixed
economy (explain) was here to stay.
C. The Twenties



Boom in USA. Supported by shady stock market dealings.
Britain and France muddle along. No boom
Inflation in Germany in 1923 [distinguish from Depression]
o Rhineland Occupation Jan 1923
o Government reponse - a paid strike
o hyper-inflation - wipes out debts and savings upsets middle class.
D. The Depression
The 20s had not been happy but the so-called Great Depression only begins in 1929.
1. Stockmarket Crash in US -no more credit in Europe.
2. Decline in production - unemployment - decline in consumption - decline in production - vicious circle.
3. Unemployment becomes massive. In UK never less than 10%. Extreme poverty in some areas.
E. Solutions



National market in GB. Off Gold Std. Trade Barriers
France - did not suffer as badly, but had weak leadership.
New Deal in US.


Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin: all had highly directed industrial growth.
No real solution until the War.
V. An Italian Solution: Mussolini and Fascism
A. Distinctions


Conservative Authoritarianism - elite power and often run by old power elites.
Modern Totalitarianism - tends to be based on mass parties and "new: dictators.
o Totalitarianism of the LEFT - Stalinism
o Totalitarianism of the RIGHT - certainly Nazism, possibly Fascism.
Note however, that Stalinism was a perversion of socialism, which is firmly in the western tradition, and so is
capable of reform based on its own principles.
Fascism and Nazism are more pathological - based on a mishmash of bad science and group fantasy, mixed
with brutality.
B. Italy After the War





Unhappy about Italia Irredenta/Fiume.
Unhappy about not being a Great Power.
Problems with Liberal Democracy: seen as/was corrupt.
Appeals to middle class of extreme right solutions.
Especially a party which claimed the party system itself was destroying national honour.
C. Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)
Socialist Origins - edited a socialist Newspaper Avanti.
Mussolini - basically an opportunist. At first he saw hope in appealing to workers but then he saw more
advantage in the middle class.
3. The Fascists




word from fasces
Fasci di Combattino founded 1919 in Milan, by veterans (often a conservative force.)
Black Shirts
Growing Support - emphasise
D. The Fascists Take Power - Two Stages
Stage 1






Labour Problems - Attack on Socialists
Fascists in Local Government. Black Shirt Brutality.
The March on Rome October 1922 (stage 1)
Victor Emmanuel III's (1900-46) capitulation.
Mussolini as Prime Minister - even though a minority in parliament.
Murder of Matteotti.

Actually less brutal once in power.
2. Second Stage


Consolidation of Power 1924-1926 (stage 2)
New election law 1924. largest party over 25% gets 2/3 of seats in parliament.
E. Fascist Ideology



The nation above the individual.
Action over thought.
The Corporate State/Corporativism.
F. Fascist Government






Praised Abroad - "he made the trains run on time"
Grand Gestures
o Architecture in Rome
o Milan Railway station
Internal Corruption
Economics: corporatism but unions restrained.
Attacks on Dissidents see Carlo Levi : Christo S'fermato a Eboli
Dealings with the Church - Lateran Treaty 1929. Did Church Approve of Fascism?
7. Was Fascist Italy a Totalitarian State?
Yes



Corporatism
Party organisation shadowed Government
Mussolini always claimed to be Totalitarian
No - Always other power centres




The Monarchy
The Church
Capitalist structure
The Mafia
G. Foreign Policy - Dealing With Germany



Abyssinia 1936
Differences with Nazism: little anti-semitism in Italy.
Mussolini gave in to Hitler all down the line.
The Rise of the Nazi Party
Today: the collapse of a liberal democratic and its takeover by the Nazis. The rise to power of Hitler in
Germany. The question is why this happened.
II. Politics in Germany - the Weimar Republic
A. The War and its effects - Myth of the stab in the back - The Treaty of Versailles 1919 - signed by SDP.
B. 1918 - Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and went to live in Holland.
C. Revolution in Germany 1918. But split between Leninist KPD and SDP.
Another Revolt - Spartacist Revolt Dec 1918-Jan 1919. Crushed by Freiskorps - demobbed vets.
In election in 1919 SDP won. Opposed on the right by those who said they lost the war, and on the left by the
KPD, who called the "Social Fascists".
D. The Weimar Republic
1. Name because constitution was written there in 1919.




A weak president
A powerful Chancellor, responsible to the Reichstag.
A Democratic system.
Civil liberties ensured.
2. Politics.
Proportional representation - led to problems with minor parties and no one party majority.
SDP and Center parties.
Attempted coups - Knapp Putsch in 1920.
3. Treaty of Versailles, War Guilt and Reparations
May 1921 set at 123 Billion gold marks.
4. Occupation of the Rhineland Jan 1923 by Raymond Poincare 1860-1934, the nationalist French PM. The
French were depending on reparations. The Weimar government responds by paying for gen. strike in the
Ruhr.
5. Inflation in 1923



1914 $1 = 4.2M
1921 $1 = 64M
1923/Nov $1 = 800million M
Destroys middle class savings. Important in explaining the turn to extreme solutions. There were extreme
problems.
6. Gustav Stressman 1879-1929 - re-established the currency.
1924 - Dawes plan. Beginning of recovery by 1927.
7. Weimar Culture








Cabaret - Christopher Isherwood
Intense cultural freedom in the 1920s.
Sexual revolution - some claim it was connected with the inflation and loss of money to give diaries.
Also there were far more women than men.
Women's Movement
Gay rights movement - Dr. Magnus Hirshfeld.
Artistic innovation - Bauhaus
German academicism
Martin Heidigger
8. The Response of the Middle Class







Define: civil servants, teachers, shopkeepers. Had been loyal to the old Empire.
Other groups in society were organised: labour. the old Junkers, the Army. It was the middle class who
felt weak and insecure.
Shame at the loss of the War - they were looking for someone to blame.
Financially ruined due to inflation and uncertainty.
Were worried by what was happening in Russia.
They did not like or trust the republic, and abhorred the sleaze.
Bring in the "age of anxiety ideas" - people were losing it.
III. The Nazis - Origins
National Socialist German Workers Party [NSDAP] Grows rapidly from about 1920
IV. Adolph Hitler 1888-1945
A. Austrian - son of a minor customs official.
Born in Linz, Austria. One historian, Alan Bullock, claims Hitler's real father was called Schickelgruber: Hitler
was his stepfathers name. Others note that his mother worked for the Rothschilds. Such comments show subtle
snobism and ant-semitism.
B. A failed painter. Painted postcards and was a day labourer.
1908 went to live in Vienna. [became obsessed with whipped cream/schlag!]
C. Fought in the German Army as an NCO.
D. After the war, he moved to Munich and formed the German Workers Party, which in 1920 takes the name
NSDAP: it made the workers party a nationalist party. Hitler was not in fact a German citizen until 1932!
V. Early Nazi Programme - The 25 Points 1920
Combines extreme nationalism, racism and some socialist concepts. [Not in order below.]



Unification of Greater Germany (Austria + Germany)
Land + expansion
Anti-Versailles - abrogation of the Treaty.




















Land and territory - lebensraum.
Only a "member of the race" can be a citizen.
Anti-Semitism - No Jew can be a member of the race.
Anti-foreigner - only citizens can live in Germany.
No immigration - ref. to Jews fleeing pograms in Eastern Europe..
Everyone must work.
Abolition of unearned income - "no rent-slavery".
Nationalisation of industry
Divison of profits
Extension of old age welfare.
Land reform
Death to all criminals
German law, not Roman law (anti- French Rev.)
Education to teach "the German Way"
Education of gifted children
Protection of mother and child by outlawing child labour.
Encouraging gymnastics and swimming
Formation a national army.
Duty of the state to provide for its volk.
Duty of individuals to the state
Note here the use of the word "socialist" - it means here that all were to be subordinated to the state, NOT
worker control.
From 1920 Nazis use a black flag and a reverse swastika.
VI. Munich Putsch 1923
A. After the period of massive inflation: the aim was to overthrow the Weimar government. Nov. 9th, 1923
B. General Ludendorff (Spring Offensive etc.) helped. But it failed nonetheless.
C. Hitler was tired and sent to prison for a few months. But he got lots of publicity.
D. The Party still remained small until 1929.
VII. Hitler's Ideas - Mein Kampf
A. Influence of Vienna: Nationalism, anti-semitism of the Christian Social Party, + anti-marxism
B. Nationalism - the Volk - the glories of the German race.
C. Anti-Semitism


Christian anti-semitism was long standing.
Social Darwinism - allows "racial" anti-semitism.
3. Vienna.
Karl Lueger mayor in late 1900's.
This was the place were Hitler contracted the disease of anti-semitism.But it was not only HItler who was
infected.
4. Psychological explanation - scapegoating.
D. The Fuhrer - the "Leader Principal" as a political ideal.
E. Hitler's aim was German domination of Europe.
F. Economics: He was opposed to free trade and capitalism, although in fact he worked with capitalism, and
even compared to Mussolini toned down this aspect once in power
G. Essentially Hitler was uneducated, but thought he was an expert in everthing from economics to army
tactics. He wasn't, but for 12 years he was able to dominate and terrorise Europe.
VIII. The Nazis Rise to Power 1923-1933
A. Factors






The Depression of the 30s, followed the different economic problems of the 1920's.
The Party attracted lower middle class and young people.
The Weimar Governments economic poicies intensified the economic crisis. The SDP left power, and
let other weaker parties in rather than reduce welfare.
KPD and SDP would not work together to block the Nazis.
Article 48 was added to the constitution - allowing rule by presidential decree.
Unemployment continued to rise: 2.25 million to 6 million from 1930-1932.
B. Sturmabteilung - SA - Storm Troopers - Brown Shirts
Lead by Ernst Roehm. they terrorised opponents, the SDP and KPD. SA was 100,000 by 1930.
C. Propaganda in the 1920s and 1930s.
Herman Goebbels was very skilful at this.





Volkischer Beobachter
Hitler's speeches
Rallys: Nuremburg: Discuss psychology of these rallies.
Uniforms
Music - eg Wagner, the Horst Wessel Song
D. The Party was not just Hitler




1928 - 12 seats, KPD 54
1930 - 107 seats, KPD 77
1932 July - 230 seats, 37.5% of vote
1932 Nov. - 196 seats, 33.1% of vote
E. Franz von Papen, Chancellor May 31st 1932. He drew the Nazis into government.
F. By Nov, 1932 Nazis were largest party in the Reichstag, but not an absolute majority.
G. Hitler was made Chancellor in 1933 by Paul von Hindenburg, due to the rivalry between traditional
conservatives.
IX. Where did Nazi support come from?






Lower middle class: Nazis addressed directly their concerns.
Farmers.
Austria and the South.
Germans outside Germany.
NOT workers
NOT Berlin.
G. Big business was not as important in Nazi support as was once thought. [and Marxists wanted to believe.]
H. The Nazis promised, and delivered, and economic recovery through public spending.
I. To some extant they reduced traditional class distinctions.
X. Consolidating Power
Nazis get into power legally.
A. Possible Opposition



The Army
The Church
Other Parties: Communists, SDP.
B. Reichstag Fire, Feb 27, 1933, by a mentally-ill Dutch communist.
C. The Enabling Act March 1933
Under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution - an anti-communist rule allowing dicatatorial powers if the state
was "threatened".
The Act was passed July 14th 1933. All other parties were abolished. The act gave Hitler dictatorial power the Weimar Constitution was in fact never revoked.
D. Hitler takes all legal authority, especially after Hindenburg dies on Aug 2, 1933
E. Opposition and alternatives were crushed. Party opposition removed - Ernst Roehm murdered in June 1934.
XI. Life in Nazi Germany
A. Totalitarian Nature of the State
No independent Sectors. All groups had to disband or affiliate with the Party - incuding the Church. [Neopaganism]
B. The Church



German Christians
The Confessing Church
o Dietrich Boenhoffer: The Cost of Discipleship
The Catholic Church
o Concordat
o Opposition from some priests and bishops
o Mit Brennende Sorge
C. Book Bonfires.
Schools were politicised.
Universities were a major sector of society to go over to the Nazis. [Recent studies show over 50% of
einsatzgruppen had Ph.Ds.]
D. Women: "Kinder, Kirche, Kuche"
Women's function as child-bearers was stressed. Opposed to abortion, but only for German women.
E. Youth - "Strength Through JOY": Hitler Youth.
Breeding experiments to make a "superman/ubermensch. " SS men mate with selected German women.
F. The Economy



Total control, but no nationalisation.
Work - Unions abolished- strikes illegal 1933.
Goverment spending creates work, e.g. on autobahns and on war build-up.
The economy was relatively successful for many Germans.
XII. Terror
A. Political Opponents Attacked
1. Police - SS - Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945) [Schutzstaffel]
2. Gestapo
B. ContraGenics
1. Jews
NB Holocaust only after 1942
Nuremburg 1935 Laws vs Jews

Anyone with one Jewish grandparent was a Jew for Nazis, regardless of current beliefs.

Intermarriage forbidden. etc.
Systematic Persecution begins

Krystalnacht, Nov 1938 - 1000 synagogues destroyed. Anti-Semitism becomes more radical from 1938.
By then it was impossible to get out.
2. People with Disabilities: The disabled were killed, but the Churches protested and stopped it.
3. Concentration camps: Communists, Jews, Gypsies, Homosexuals
XIII. Other European Fascist Parties
What was going on in Germany and Austrai was to some extent repeated throughout Europe.







Austria
Hungary - Iron Cross
France - Action Francaise
Belgium - French and Flemish Nazi parties
Eastern Europe
England - British Union of Fascists, Sir Oswald Mosely
Scotland - Protestant Action
The Course of the War in Europe
A. So far we have looked at the Rise of the Nazi Party, and at what policies the followed in Germany, and the
areas which came under their control. Now we are backtracking a little to look at the actual conflict which
brought them to power in Europe, and eventually led to their defeat.
B. It is important to note the worldwide nature of WWII. It was composed of several wars.





Germany vs. Britain and France and then the USA
Germany vs. The Soviet Union
Japan vs. China
Japan vs. Britain
Japan vs. USA
[Do not have time in this course to go into the details of the rise of Japan and the reasons for its power. We
have mentioned its industrialisation in the 19th C. and its defeat of Russia in 1905]
C. In the overall theme of this course this marks the end of the European Era in world history.
II. Nazi External Agression
A. Hitler's Goals
1. Much of Policy was in his hands. [NOTE: recent research has suggested that Germany was less under Hitler'
tight control, than under a sort of modern feudal regime with a number of strongmen excercising power in their
own realm.]
3. Goal was expansion for the German Volk - seen as superior and destined to rule.
AJP Taylor suggests that Hitler only wanted expanded borders, and Germany to be a Great Power. Hitler was
an opportunist, but you cannot eliminate the psychosis from his ideas. He does not necessarily seem to have
required as part of his masterplan the conquest of Britain for instance, but he did want Lebensraum in the
slavic areas of the Ukraine and Poland.
4. Idea of Lebensraum




No Jews.
Slavs as servile workers.
Expanding German race in the area.
Agriculturalist mythology in what was in fact an industrial state. [re. Kagan p 968]
5. Germany was the power wanting to overturn the status quo.
B. Early Actions
1. Opposition to Versailles Treaty
-demilitaristion of the Rhineland
-Disarmament of Germany
2. Oct 1933 - Withdrew from League of Nations
Mar 1935 - Renounced Disarmament


- UK and France do not intervene
- UK even agrees to let him build a fleet to 35% of the Royal Navy
3. Background - Oct 1935 - Italy attached Ethiopia


-no effective international response
-showed weakness of the League
4. Italy, Germany and Japan formed an Alliance.
- By Nov 1, 1936 - Mussolini speaks of an AXIS.
- Japanese treated as "honorary aryans."
5. Rhineland - March 7 1936 - Demilitarised Zone Occupied
-This removed the security of France.
France was divided internally. At this stage it was in fact powerful enough to have destroyed German power. Military thinking emphasises defence - The Maginot Line - (does not cover Belgium).
British Policy of Appeasement - Why?



Public Opinion
Hatred of idea of another war - memories of 1914-18 still strong.
Feeling Germany had been badly dealt with in Treaty of Versailles and that Germany had real
grievances.
C. Spanish Civil War 1936-39


Provided a training ground
Franco not a facist.
D. Austria - Anschluss March 12 1938



1934 - Nazis try to sieze power in Austria blocked by Mussolini, not yet allied to Hitler
1938 - Nazis try again. Plebiscite for March 13 1938 but Hitler marches in March 12th 1938
Approval of most Austrians [The Sound of Music is a whitewash.]
E. Demand for Sudentenland May 1938 - Czechoslovakia threatened by Union of Germany and Austria.
F. Munich Sept 15-29 1938
"Peace with honour. I believe it is peace in our Time"
Neville Chamberlain, British PM. Committed to Appeasement. Allowed Germany to have Sudetenland. French
and British threatened the Czechs.
G. Occupation of Sudetenland and then all of Czechoslavakia by March 15 1939
H. Some have argued against idea appeasement bought time, But:





Appeasers did not claim this at the time.
If British and French had attacked, while Czechs fought in the East they might have succeeded. Some
German officer opposed to Hitlers high risk policies.
A war in October 1938 would have not given Hitler a neutrality re Russia, nor the resources of Eastern
Europe.
The exclusion of USSR from Munich prevented any alliance with Stalin.
Churchill opposed it.
I. Nazi-Soviet Nonagression Pact August 23d 1939
Russians fearful West meant to let them bear the burden of a war. Rightly it seems. The Pact included secret
provisons - i.e. divided Poland between Russia and Germany, and it allowed USSR to take Baltic States and
Bessarabia. Why did Stalin to it? - to get territory or to gain time?
J. Poland was next Target



German Propaganda begins March 1939
Chamberlain announces a guarantee March 31. Supported by UK public this time.
Attack on Poland - Sept 1 1939 - Leads into War
III. Outbreak - 1939
A. Britain and France go to War - Sept 3, 1939
Everyone expected it to be totally destructive, opposite to optimism of 1914. Important in postwar recovery.
B. Blitzkreig
Speed and Force - Key to early German Success





Keen to avoid trench stalemate of WW1.
Poland divided between Soviet Union and Germany.
Soviets invaded from East Sept 17 1939.
Soviets also Take Baltic States 1940.
Finland resisted.
3. The Phoney War in West Sept 1939-Spring 1940
Britain rearmed.




April 1940 - Denmark & Norway
May 1940 - Holland and Belgium
May 1940 - The Fall of France
By July 1940 all of Continental Europe ruled by Nazis
Dunkirk June 1940 "Our finest Hour" - 200,000 UK and 100,000 French were brought over to UK.
2. In June France asked for armistice.
Led by Field Marshal Henri Philippe Petain. N. France German. South ruled from Vichy. Collaborated with
Germans. Aim was to preserve as much autonomy as possible.
Charles de Gaulle - fled to UK. Organised the French National Committe for Liberation/Free French.
IV. Britain Alone
A. Winston Spencer Churchill 1874-1965


Become PM in in May 1940. From a great British family - his ancestor the Duke of Marlborough
(1650-1722) had stopped Louis XIV.
Churchill had spent 1930s warning about Hitler. No chance UK would allow one power to dominate
Europe. Hitler had hoped Britain would settle with him. For a year USA was still dominated by
isolationism.
B. The Battle of Britain



August 1940, Germans began attacking airfields, but in revenge for UK attacks on German cities.
London was attacked every for 2 months. 15,000 killed
Air Battle - possible since airfields were working.
RAF vs. Luftwaffe: Twice as many German planes destroyed.
Why Victory?



Govt had been arming since Munich 1938.
Airfields functioning.
Radar and communications.
Loss of this was first major defeat for Hitler. He could not invade Britain.
C. The Blitz - Aerial Bombardment
Aim was the break morale. Did not succeed.
D. The Home Front





The Home Guard
Evacuation of Children
Rationing
Propaganda
National Unity
E. U-Boats and the Enigma Code - Alan Turing.
F. Roosevelt and Lend-Lease in 1940 and 1941
V. Russia Attacked - Operation Barbarossa - June 22 1941
A. Aim had been to start in May, but the Italian attack on Greece and Egypt diverted German resources as
Mussolini failed. Troops sent to Africa and the Balkans. This delayed Operation Barbarossa for six weeks.
B. German Advances and Russian Tactics
The Ukraine was taken - for Lebensraum.
Nazis get as far as Leningrad and Moscow by Dec 1941.
C. Suffering of the Soviet People.



Despite early warnings Stalin was surprised at attack. USSR lost 2.5 mil of its 4 mil troops. Of 15,000
planes, only 700 left. Moscow - could have been taken, but Hitler diverted resources south.
Leningrad - 2.5 million died.
The main bloodletting was on the Eastern Front, as in 1914-18 - Great Patriotic War of the Soviet
Union
VI. Pearl Harbour, 7th Dec 1941
A. Japan in the East
Extreme Nationalism + East Asia Economic Zone. Japanese had been expanding since 1931 - Manchuria.
1939 - Japan allied with Hitler and Italy, but this was really a separate war. Japan was supported by many
Asians as an Asian state against western imperialism.
B. Japanese Atrocities - on the Chinese, on POWs
C. American Efforts for Peace.
US did not stop supplies of oil until Japan attacked Indochina in July 1941.
Then Japan had to conquer Indonesian Oil-fields.
D. The Attack - Pearl Harbour 1941 Dec 7
Japan led by Gen. Hideki Tojo (1885-1948) attack was while negotiations were going on. But note that the
Japanese were aware that the talks were about to fail. Japan had to attack quickly, as it could not hope to win
anything but a quick war.
E. America joins the War
Vital Power of US - Industrial Might - 35% of world industrial production in USA. The American economy
was untouched by devastation that was occuring elsewhere.
F. US Success from 1942


1942 - Coral Sea Battle
1942 - Spring - Battle of Midway - stopped Jap advance.
The Allies decided to concentrate on Europe.
VII. The Grand Alliance - 26 Nations vs Hitler and Japan


Aim was to defeat Germany first, then Japan. Unconditional surrender was required.
Military decisions came first - ie Allies made allowances to Russia, in order to win the war, no matter
what might happen after.
C. Power of Allies



-USA - Industry and National Unity
-UK - Drew on Empire resources, position, and mobilised its own economy.
-USSR- Industrial Capacity - moved the the East + the heroic determination of the people.
VIII. The Eastern Front - Stalingrad
A. The Russian Winter (Again) - by 1942 the War was turning B. German goal in the south was Caspian oil
fields
Stalingrad Feb 1943 - the Turning Point, and the greatest landbattle in history. Russians lost more men in this
battle than the US did in the whole war.
IX. Other Fronts
A. North Africa

Rommel - the Afrika Corps



Bernard Montgomery - and the Eigth Army [Lili Marlene]
Dwight Eisenhower Nov 1942 - Lands in Morocco.
El Alamein - 1942 - opened Italy to the Allies
B. Italian Invasion


Sicily July-Aug 1943
Italy Surrendered 1943 - but Germans siezed Rome and fighting continues. But this diverted German
resources.
C. Burma - British Empire in Asia fight Japan. (had some support in India).
X. Social Effects of the War in Britain and the US
A. Effects on Men


Put into a situation of restricted freedom in the army.
Move away from home.
B. Women go to Work



Have more personal freedom than ever before.
Become effective heads of households.
Hold responsible jobs.
C. Lesbians and Gay Men




Join armed forces.
Meet each other in port cities.
Benefit from general wartime loosening of moral rules.
Homosexuals meet together in large numbers in US army, and in the Navy - leads to San Francisco as
gay center.
D. Loosening of "morals".


Time of war - idea of live for today.
Women have more sexual freedom in army
E. Nutrition
Rationing means that the British never ate so well. Every one ate their ration and this was in effect better food
than they had ever had. Little sugar, little meat, but ample calories and protein.
F. Expansion of the US economy


No physical damage to US.
Booming production for war fuels the economy.
XI. June 1944 Normandy
A. Allies begin Strategic bombing of Germany - 1943
Day and Night attacks on Germany.


US went for precision bombing - got better as time went by. They did real damage.
UK for "area-bombing" - aim was terror and morale breaking. This does not seem to have had any
useful effect. Dresden in Feb 1945 was particularly savage, fire storms.
B. Dwight Eisenhower (1890-1969) Leader of Allies
C. Britain Becomes a troop camp.
Story about US segregation -separate Black and White Regiments
British lack of racism at the time -US films on the problem - British would not let whites displace blacks from
seats on the bushes. A omment from one Cornwall housewife (obviously not with a good command of
geography) - "I like these Americans, but I can't stand the white fellows they brought with them"].
D. D-Day - June 6 1940 Landing in Normandy




Aim was to establish a beachhead.
Mid August - southern France also invaded.
Battle of the Bulge Dec 1944 - Germany's last gasp.
Rhine Crossed in March 7 1945 (at Remagen).
E. Liberation of France

General Charles de Gaulle and the Free French
F. German Surrender - by the army this time


Reims - May 7 1945
Berlin - May 8 1945
XII. Germany Falls
A. Why?
1. Unravelling of Nazi Power
Von Staffebburg - attack on Hitlers life, by conservatives wanting an empire.
2. Other Powers were basically stronger.
3. Founding of SS - Fanatics who in last months challenged the Reich.
4. German use of resources for Holocaust in wartime.
B. Hitler Commits Suicide May 1 1945. Last commands lead to destruction of Berlin. He'll go to Hell
C. A real break in European History
XIII. War in Pacific - How to defeat Japan
The Atomic Bomb - the start of the modern period in many respects. In science and politics. In this class we
are going to look at the ending of the war in the Pacific and the use of the atomic bomb.
II. The War with Japan
Japan in the East
Extreme Nationalism + East Asia Economic Zone. Japanese had been expanding since 1931 - Manchuria.
1939 - Japan allied itself with Hitler and Italy, but this was really a separate war. Japan was supported by many
Asians as as Asian state against western imperialism.
B. The Attack - Pearl Harbour 1941 Dec 7
Japan led by Gen. Hideki Tojo (1885-1948) attack was while negotiations were going on.
C. Japanese Atrocities - not wiped out by the bomb.



On the Chinese
On POWs - Bataan Death March in the Phillipines
On British POWs in Burma
[This happened on both sides. eg a friend's father recalls shooting Japanese POWS in Burma]
D. US Success from 1942


1942 - Coral Sea Battle
1942 - Spring - Battle of Midway - stopped Jap advance.
Allies concentrated in Europe
E. War in the Pacific - How to defeat Japan
Once Germany was defeated, attention turned to Japan. The longer the war went on the less chance Japan had
of succeeding against US industry and resources.
F. Island Hopping from 1943
By June 1944, the US had reached the Mariana Islands - which could be used as a base from which to bomb
Japan. The Japanese showed incredible resistence - eg. at Iwo Jima (1945). Late in the war, Kamikaze attacks
were used. It was calculated, in the light of Japanese resistence that a frontal attack on Japan might cost a
30,000, possibly a million, US casulties.
G. But this is not the whole story. By 1945 it was clear Japan was going to loose

There were Japanese government reports in 1945 showing the total destruction of the economy, as well
as a bad rice harvest that year. Acorns were being eaten as food and fuel was being made out of pine





trees.
Parts of Japanese government were trying to surrender for two months before the bomb.
But the Japanese insisted that whatever happened they must retain the Emperor. The US would not
accept this condition - it insisted on unconditional surrender. Also it is possible that the allies did not
believe that Japan would surrender.
[An argument is often made with reference to Japanese treachery at Pearl Harbour. But, what nation,
including the US, is not treacherous at diplomatic events - eg. UK and US sell out of Poland at Yalta.]
The Japanese military clique did want to fight to the end. (Toland, Rising Sun p. 741). Planes were
collected for a suicidal defence - by lat June they had collected 10,000 planes and 2,350,000 troops, and
given civilians bows and arrows amongst other weapons. (Toland, p. 756)
But, other elements in Japan, including the Emperor, were willing to surrender from June 1945. There
were negotiations via the USSR for surrender from June 1945. They were supported by the Emperor.
(Toland, p. 747)
III. The Bomb
A. American Industrial and Scientific Might
Vital Power of US - Industrial Might [35% of world industrial production in USA-American Economy
untouched by devastation that was occuring elsewhere.
B. The Manhattan Project
1. There was a fear amongst some scientists that the Nazis were developing an atomic bomb. In fact they were
working in the wrong direction.
2. Einstein's Letter to Roosevelt. In August 1939, he warned of the dangers of a German Bomb.
3. The Manhattan Project was set up from Spring 1943.
4. Leo Szilard and Enrico Fermi.
The Staff was made up of exiles from Hitler's Europe.
5. Cost of the project was $2 Billion. 60,000 people worked on the project. Only the USA could afford this sort
of money, and had these resources.
6. The Feelings of the Scientists Involved. After Hitler was defeated, some no longer felt there was a need to
go on with the bomb. The US military kept it going.
Szilard got together a petition of 56, asking that Japan be warned about the bomb. Others did, Americans,
support the bomb's use.
7. Four Bombs were made.




Plutonium - exploded at Trinity - Fat Man
Little Boy - Uranium - destined for Hiroshima.
Fat Man - Plutonium - destined for Nagaskai
One other
At the end of the war, the US's nuclear arsenal was just one bomb.
C. The Strategy of Area Bombing
1. Europe




1941 - Germans bomb UK. Coventry totally destoyed.
1943 - the Allies begin strategic bombing of Germany. There were day and night attacks.
August 1943 - 50,000 killed in Hamburg.
February 1945 - 155,000 killed in Dresden.
At the time FDR, after the Nazi's attacked Poland, said
"The ruthless bombing from the air of civilians in unfortified centers of population...has profoundly shocked
the conscience of humanity...I am therefore addressing this urgent appeal to every government to affirm its
determination that its armed forces shall in no event and under no circumstances undertake bombardment from
the air of civilian populations."[Vandahaar, p. 17]
But, the Allies decided in 1943 to bomb Germany.
The UK leader was known as Sir Arthur "Bomber" Harris.
The USA went for precison bombing - and got better as time went by. They did real damage.
The UK went for "area-bombing" - the aim was terror and morale-breaking. This does not seem to have had
any useful effect. Dresden in Feb, 1945, when it was clear how the war was going, resulted in huge losses, and
a fire-storm [explain].
2. Japan
Mass area-bombing was possible once Saipan was reached in 1944. Japan was bombed mercilessly.





Tokyo - March 9/10 1945 - 333 B-29s 140,000 died, 34.2 sq. miles destroyed (Toland, p. 744)
Nagoya- March 10/11 1945 - 313 B-29s napalmed it
Tokyo - May 23 and 35 - 562 B-39 bombers. 16.8 sq. miles destroyed. There was a firestorm. By this
stage anti-aircraft guns were not working.
Yokohama - May 29, 1945 - 517 B-29s 85% of the city destroyed.
Osaka and Kobe recieved similar treatment.
In all 2 million buildings were destroyed, about 1/3 of building in Japan. 13 million were homeless. [Makes
talk of suicide defense suspect.]
D. Trinity - July 16th 1945
Had been known as Jornada del Muerte [Journey of Death] in Spanish. First explosion of an atomic bomb. It
was unexpectedly powerful. Used a plutonium Bomb - Fat Man.
E. Truman and Potsdam
1. Harry S. Truman, President from April 12, 1945
2. Potsdam, July 1945
Truman heard about the bomb at Potsdam. Truman was "immensely pleased" according to Churchill.
F. The Decison to Bomb
1. Moral
Truman felt that the bomb was no worse than conventional area bombing - speech at Columbia University in
1959. It was he said "a powerful weapon in the arsenal of righteousness." Also it would make the USSR more
manageable in Europe.
2. Military
The fear of enormous casualties from a frontal attack was real. BUT:



Admiral William Leahy - thought the bomb was used because so much money had been spent.
General Henry "Hap" Arnold - claimed that it was unnecessary as conventional bombing would end the
war.
General Dwight Eisenhower, sadi that the US should avoid world condemnation, and that "it was no
longer a mandatory measure to save American lives."
3. The Enola Gay
Flew from Tinian, 1,500 miles from Japan. The plane was named after the pilot's mother. The chaplain blessed
it before it set off: "May the men who fly this night be kept safe in thy care, and may they be retruned safely to
us." No mention of the thousands to be killed.
G. Hiroshima Aug 6, 1945, 8.15am, 9000 lb bomb, 45 second descent.
Hiroshima had not been bombed before: one aim of bombing it was to see the effects of a bomb on a virgin
area. A Uranium bomb was used, and exploded at 32,000 feet. There had been an all-clear 45 minutes earlier,
so this bombing was totally unexpected. At least 78,000 men, women and children were killed out of a
population of 200,000. This included 6,000 young children on their way to school, and 20 US airmen in POW
camps.
H. Nagasakai Aug 9, 1945
This was flown early due to weather conditions. It was also flown before Japan had had time to react to
Hiroshima. One possible aim was to show the USSR that there was more than one bomb.
A plutonium bomb was used here. Another Fat Man. [Oppenheimer had met the art student son of a friend, and
persuaded the military not to bomb Kyoto as it was so beautiful...]
Nagasaki was the most Christian city of Japan - 100s had been martyred there in the 16th century. Fr. Pedro
Arupe S.J., recent head of the Jesuits was there at time. 30,000 people killed.
I. B-29 raids continued after the A-bombs, inluding a 1000 B-29 raid on August 14, as the commander,
General Carl Spaatz wanted "as big a finale as posible."
J. Physical Effects of Bombing




Blast - Shadow effects of light. -on stone, -on people
Fire - main cause was not heat from the bomb, but by flames caused by falling houses and buildings
igniting gas and electricty - it was after all breakfast time. Fire storm in Hiroshima, but not Nagaskai.
Radiation - By this we mean the gamma rays from the blast. There was very little left in the ground.
The city did not become radioactive. [Present bombs are much bigger and would cause this effect.]
Area destroyed - 4.2 sq. miles in Hiroshima.
K. Effects on People





Blast kills many: some just evaporate. With others it melts away their skin or eyes.
Many dies in conventional ways: trapped by falling masonry, burnt to death.
Radiation Sickness - 3 weeks later: Hair falls out, Blood cell count declines.
Hospitals were destroyed: Most doctors killed, Most nurses killed
Most people just did not realise what had happened. Some people went round helping others, Many
went into shock.
IV. Japanese Surrender
USSR enters the war against Japan, Aug 9, 1945. It advances through China and takes North Korea. [This
would not have happened if Japan had been allowed to surrender earlier, and there would have been no Korean
war, or American casulties there.]
Kagan says the Japanese Cabinet was still unwilling to surrender. In fact the majority was prepared to
surrender, but not the PM. Hirohito [Showa] brought about the surrender. He broadcast to the peopl for the first
time. [Most could not understand the court dialect of Japanese he used.]
Surrender was on August 14th 1945.
There was one condition - the Emperor could be kept. [This had been offered before the bombs.] Truman
agreed to this condition. General MacArthur in Charge. Peace was signed on the Missouri, Sept 2, 1945.
D. Trials were held for Japanese War Criminals after war.
V. The Atomic Bomb - The Start of the Modern Age?
The Bomb - another major war would end civilisation - this knowledge is always there in the background in a
way never known to other ages.


USSR - has about 20,000 various A- and H- bombs,
USA - has about 30,000
The Bomb is also the start of Big Science, and advance in technology most characterise our period. Also
possession of the bomb and the resources to make it has altered the nature of political power. Present world
politics depend on it.
VI. Class Discussion of the Bombing of Hiroshima
The Effects of the Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasakai (Washington DC: US Govt Printing Office,
1946)


1. What are the arguments for dropping the bomb?
2. What are the arguments against its use - look at moral and military/strategic arguments. Be prepared
to argue both sides of the issue?
The Holocaust
The Holocaust/The Shoah [explain words] - Distinguishes Germany from any other fascist State.
Film - "Genocide", Part 20 of The World at War
II. Genocide in the Past







Caesar - on the Celts
Mongols - on Iran 13th Century
Amerindians
o 16th century: small-pox deliberately spread (?) 16 million to 1 million in a century. Possibly
more.
o 19th century: US attempts to wipe out Plains Indians. [Frank Baum, in year before he wrote
Wizard of Oz, called for it.]
Turks and Armenians 1910: -c. I million killed
Stalin and the Peasents 1930's ; -c. 10 million
Japaneses in China and Korea
Communists in China
H. Uniqueness of Holocaust





Attempt to wipe out an entire people.
Perpetrated by a highly civilised modern country
Done for ideological reasons
The extreme brutality
The mechanical nature of the killing
III. Nazis and Contragenics
Concentration Camps - 1933 - Dachau
Triangles: Show Diagram
The Disabled were killed - Church stopped it 1930s
Concept of misnaming people to make them less than human. -idea from the Church in the Middle ages [the
rouelle of IV Lateran].
IV. Politicals, Communists, Dissidents
V. The War against the Christians


Dissident RC priests
Jehovahs Witnesses [emphasise - an ignored group][ref. contemporary US attacks on them for refusing
tosay pledge allegiance]
VI. The War against Homosexuals


Gay Rights Movement in Germany before the War, led by Dr Magnus Hirschfeld.
1932 onwards - arrests and deportations. Less intense after war started.
VII. The War against the Gypsies
Little written - perhaps 250,000 killed - another attempt to wipe out an entire people.
VIII. The War Against the Slavs


Nazis opposed to abortion - but not for Poles.
Himmler planned to eliminate 30 Million Slavs, perhaps 6 million were killed. The rest to be kept as
slaves.
Web Exercise
Locate on the web a "holocaust denial" or "revisionist" site. [You can do this though Yahoo or via the related
pages at the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Two to look for are Radio Islam and the "Institute for
Historica Rersearch."]
Explain what sort of arguments these web sites make. Why are they making the arguments.
The locate one of the web sites whch document the Holocaust. Especially look at Nizkor. Describe at least
two different responses to Holocaut deniers. Which approach do you think works best, and why?
Finally, try to find out how Holocaust deniers are treated in France, Germany and Canada [Look up news
reports in Press indices such as Lexis/Nexis (which is free on school computers).] What works best - the US or
French/German way of dealing with the deniers.
Discussion Questions
What was the attraction of fascism in Italy and Germany? How did Italian and German fascism differ?
What seemed to be the failures of the western democracies in the 1930s?
Could Germany have won World War II?
What were the moral issues involved in using the Atomic bomb on Hiroshima?
Brooklyn College Core Curriculum:
The Shaping of the Modern World
Section 17: Post War Themes: 1945-1989
Introduction: This Week's Goals
This is the last section of the course, so congratulations to all students who got this far! Our theme
in this course has been that of "Modernization." We looked at how:




Absolutist and constiitutional politics contributed to modern ways in which states work.
The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment created aspecific modern view of the
world.
The American and French Revolutions brought the people to the fore of political
arguments -- a phenonmenon that defines all forms of modern political discourse.
The Industrial Revolution began a still unfinished transformation in how people live and
work.
In short, this course argued that by the beginning of the 19th century the "modern world" had
come into being -- and that "modernity" understood in this sense was a feature of Western
European and North American cultures alone. Because fo the strength of modern states, and the
power of modern industry, the 19th and early 20th centuries were periods in which Western
countries established a world-wide political, economic, and military hegemony. [They did not
succeeed, however, in destroying other peoples' cultures.]
The first half of the twentieth century, as we have looked at it, showed the weaknesses of the
Modern World.


Further advances in science undermined the "Enlightenment" principles wthat had formed
the basis of Western political and economic ideas.
Conflict between Western countries lead to a series of enormously destructive wars.
The period between 1945 and 1989 is still too recent for us to have a clear perspective about what
happened. In this section then, we will simply think about some themes that seem to be important.
Your job is to grasp what these themes are:




Decolonization. The Western imperial powers were so weakened by the two world wars
that they lost the ability to maintain their overseas empires. At the same time, the spread
of modern techniques of industrya and statecraft have allowed many of the previously
dominated areas of the world to reestablish some control over their own destinies.
The Cold War. International politics was structure for much of the period as a struggle
between the United States and its Allies, and the USSR. Then ending of the USSR, and
collapse fof its control over Eastern Europe in 1989, marked the end of the "postwar" era.
The Continuing Vitality of Western European states and cultures. Despite the disasters of
the first half of the century, the postwar recovery of Europe has led to greater wealth than
ever.
Big Science. Science and technology continue to be the motor forces of social change.
Text and Sources
Since the themes of this section are so complex, the textbook readings for each theme and the
source readings are mixed together. You should read all the Kagan assignments, but only read
those source readings that interest you!
Decolonization





Kagan, 1094-97
India
o Mohandas K. Gandhi : Indian Home Rule, 1909, [At WSU]
o Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): Marxism, Capitalism and Non-Alignment, 1941,
1956
China
o Mao Zedong: In Commemoration of the 28th Anniversary of the Communist Party
of China, June 30, 1949
Africa
o Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972): I Speak of Freedom, 1961
o A.L. Geyer: The Case for Apartheid, 1953
o Bishop Demond Tutu (1931-): The Question of South Africa, 1984
o Nelson Mandela : Speech on Release From Jail, 1990
o Nelson Mandela : Inaugural Address, May 10, 1994, [At WSU]
Israel and Palestine
o Kagan, 1081-82, 1102-04
o The Balfour Declaration, 1917
o Israeli Declaration of Independence, 1948, [At Yale]
o The Palestinian National Charter, 1968, [At Yale]
The Cold War




The United Nations
o Kagan, 1064-68
o United Nations Charter, 1945, [At Yale]
Human Rights: Universal Ideals or a Western Impositions?
o Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948
The Cold War
o Kagan, 1071-81, 1082-84
o Winston S. Churchill: "Iron Curtain" Speech, 1946
o Joseph Stalin: Response to Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech, 1946
o The Truman Doctrine, 1947
o President John F. Kennedy: Inaugural Address, 1961
The Vietnam War
o Kagan, 1095-1102
o Vietnamese Declaration of Independence, 1945
Europe, Yalta to Malta


Kagan, 1087-88, 1105-10, 1123-36
Britain
o Margaret Thatcher: Christianity and Wealth, Speech made to the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland, May 21, 1988



The Soviet Union/Russia
o Kagan, 1084-87, 1110-13
o Nikita Krushchev: Secret Speech, 1956
o The Brezhnev Doctrine, November, 1968
o Sam Marcy: The Collapse of the USSR and the Destiny of Socialism, [At CMU]
Other Eastern European Countries
o Kagan, 1088-94
1989: What Happened and Why?
o Kagan, 1143-64
Social Movements



Kagan, 1116-21, 1136-40
Black Power
o Brown v. Board of Education, 1954
o Martin Luther King: "I have a dream" speech - August 28, 1963, [At The
American Revolution Site]
o George Wallace: The Civil Rights Movement: Fraud Sham and Hoax,, July 5,
1964
o Robert F. Kennedy: Speech on the Death of Martin Luther King,, April 4, 1968
Lesbian and Gay Rights
o Homosexuals in Government, 1950. [At UPenn]
o Jerry Lisker, Homo Nest Raided: Queen Bees are Stinging. Daily News (New
York), July 6, 1969 [At CMU],
o Gay Liberation Front (London): Manifesto, 1971 (rev. 1979), [At PWH]
o Manifesto of First Chinese Tongzhi Conference, 1996, [At HKGAY]
Post-World War II Thought



Kagan, 1140-43
Paul Tillich: The Courage to Be, 1952
Malcolm X: On HisPilgrimmage to Mecca, [At Unn.UK]
Multimedia
Politics











Jean Monnet (1888-1979)
Boris Yeltsin (1931-)
Ernesto "Che" Guevara (1928-1967)
Fidel Castro (1926-) and 2
Rigoberta Menchú (b.1960-)
Nelson Mandela (b. 1918-)
Mao Zedong [Mao Tze-tung](1893-1976)
Deng Xiaoping [Teng Hsiao-p'ing] (1904-1998)
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948) and 2
Men on the Moon, 1969
Outline
I Decolonization: The End Of Empire
A. Although modern international politics is very much the domain of the superpowers, it is often
displaced to Third World conflicts. Many of these hang over from the old European empires. We
are looking at these "little" conflicts today and the hard birth of the 3rd World.[The big exception
is Latin America -although that is old Spanish Empire]
B. End of the European Dominance of the World? Politically yes. Economic power continues.
C. Many of these old colonial conflicts have been brought into superpower Cold War rivalry.
Roosevelt, The UN and Decolonization
A. The European powers did not want to lose their empires. Churchill in particular was opposed
to the loss of the British Empire.
B. Roosevelt wanted the old European empires to end. This may have been due to idealism, but
another factor was that without their world empires the European states would become relatively
less powerful vis-a-vis the US which was a homogenous land power.
C. The United Nations specifically called for an end to colonization. UK, Belg, France, Holland,
Port, US, Italy.
Reasons for Decolonization
A. The fundamental exploitative injustice, felt after the war of one country occupying another.
Germany had been condemned just for that.
B. The effects of the War - weakened European countries.
Also they had been driven out of some areas by the Japanese. [France, Indochina: UK, Hong
Kong, Burma: US, Philippines]
C. Spread of nationalist ideologies in occupied areas, plus Marxism and Communism. Often
leaders were educated in Europe, e.g. all Indian leaders, even Ho Chi Minh.
II. The End of the French Empire: Indochina, West Africa and Algeria
A. Indo-China and the Vietnam Wars
1. Indochina was French. Conquered 1857-1883
Conquered by the Japanese in WWII, but France claimed rights after the war.
A Nationalist/Communist independence movement - Viet Minh had begun in 1930 led by Ho Chi
Min (1892-1969). Had lobbied at Versailles in 1919 for self-determination for Vietnam, but there
it was only applied to Europeans. [discuss appeal of communism to Third World - Capitalism
associated with exploiting powers -- Extremes of wealth and poverty]
2. First Indochina War
Viet Minh fight Japan then France.
Opposition from many against a communist takeover. War broke out 1947. US aids in France,
esp. after China goes communist in 1949.
Dien Bien Phu 1954 - French forces overrun.
1954 Division of the Country into two independent states divided in middle. Cambodia and Laos
also made independent.
US becomes involved and then it is more a US than a French issue. SEATO set up 1954. Domino
Theory. But you have the example of an imperial power leaving a mess behind.
3. Second Indochina War - Vietnam War
Korean War Background - 1950-53 US/UN had successfully fought an ideological war in Korea.
Saw Vietnam in same light. I.e. all wars really waged from Moscow to promote communism. But
Vietnam was more truly a colonialist nationalist war. US thought Korea showed containment
worked. This got it involved in Vietnam. From 1956 US is supporting Ngo Dionh Diem in S.
Vietnam and training the army.
US becomes involved when Viet Minh backed guerrillas, the Viet Cong (political wing of Nat.
Liberation Front) begin to destabilize S Vietnam, a corrupt, but western orientated state. US
demands for reform never effective. US intervention, Kennedy, then Johnson. US coup overthrew
Diem in favor of Nguyen Van Thieu.
Guerilla war is difficult - US could not win by usual methods. Use of chemicals + bombing raids
on Hanoi. Napalm (gasoline and gelatin to stick to peoples skin) was used.
500,000 US troops there in 1968.
One of the tragedies was the dragging into the war of Cambodia. Led to that countries almost total
destruction. The war probably no more savage than any other war but there was one major
difference. This was filmed by TV cameras, and US is a democracy.
This was the first war where many Americans thought the US was in the wrong, and that the
methods it was using were thus criminal. At all times most people supported the war and its aims,
but a significant number became disaffected with both the war and the country: Peace Movement,
Draft resistors. Many Americans and Europeans came to regard the US not as protector of liberty,
but as ambitious and aggressive and imperialist.
The war was eventually ended by the US being forced to leave in 1975. America has spent the
past two decades working out its reactions. [Meanwhile, France has forgotten all about it.]
Vietnam is now an independent country.
B. Algeria
Lies just across the Mediterranean from France. It was claimed to be part of Metropolitan France,
and there was heavy French Settlement in the 100 mile wide coastal strip - 1 million French
settlers. However, most of the population were Arabic and Berber speaking Berbers;
Revolt broke out 1954 - Algerian Liberation Front (FLN). There was a ferocious war for
independence. This more or less destroyed the state in 1958. Charles de Gaulle (1890-1969) came
out of retirement, to lead France to an acceptable peace. In fact France withdrew and Algeria
became independent in 1962. De Gaulle restructured French State. Millions of Pied-Noirs
emigrated to France.
C. Africa
France had extensive holdings in other parts of Africa. These were given independence, but kept
in a French sphere of influence. They have a common currency.
They all look culturally to Paris. France is the European country most committed to keeping up its
overseas influence - so its troops fight in the various wars its former colonies have, e.g. Chad vs.
Libya.
D. Overseas Departments
Recall France is divided into departments from time of revolution. One solution to problem of
small overseas areas has been to declare that they are parts of metropolitan France, on the model
of Algeria. In fact they do elect deputies to the French Assembly. There are still problems in
France's empire - e.g. disputes in New Caledonia btw the French Settlers and the Kanaks.
E. Effects at Home
Right wing bloc of former pied-noirs. Large immigrant population. Determination to keep up
importance of France against the "Anglo-Saxon" powers.
III. The End of the British Empire
A. Dominions
Old "white" powers always had self government. Their independence was recognized in the
Statute of Westminster 1931. They were called "Dominions" The Queen still reigns there Canada, Australia, Newfoundland [Later united with Canada], New Zealand, South Africa - will
come back to this.
B. India
1. The End of the Raj 1947
Gandhi and the Congress Party



-Experience in South Africa
-Non-Violence
But still nationalism
b. Chandra Bose and the INA
c. Hindus and Muslims
Muslims had higher prestige for a long time but a minority.
d. Jinna and "Pakistan" "Land of the Pure"
e. Partition
Mass exchange of populations
2. Modern India
Modern Democracy, but dominated by one family, the >Nehru-Gandhis
Population growth
Disputes with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir, and East Bengal
3. Muslim India becomes Pakistan, a Muslim state: has been democratic for much of the time.
Problem of East and West Pakistan -attempted genocide in 1971
4. East Pakistan becomes Bangladesh -- the poorest state in the world. Huge population, with no
security. Cut off from larger Indian whole
5. Ceylon becomes Sri Lanka - 1948
Tamils imported by British to Run Admin. Now racial disputes btw Tamils and Sinhalese
6. Burma -1948 - becomes independent and closes itself off from the world.
C. The Middle East - Israel









-Palestine Mandate
-Zionism - what it is.
-Pre-War Conflict
-The Holocaust
-The Haganah and Irgun
-The Arab Legion
-War 1947-148
-May 148 - Yishuv declare Independence
-War 1956, 1967, 1973. + Lebanon
D. Suez - 1956- the End of the British Empire
Egypt had been a UK colony, with its own king. Became independent in the 1930s. President
Gamel Abdul Nasser - Arab nationalist President. 1956 - nationalizes Suez Canal. UK, France and
Israel Invade. US objects. UK and France had to withdraw. Showed UK was not in same league
as US and USSR anymore.
E. Africa and South Africa
1. Africa
Britain consciously prepared some countries for independence
Ghana - 1957, Nigeria 1960
Other places tried to keep control, but forced to yield to nationalist pressure
-Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya
2. Rhodesia





Whites in South want control.
No settlement
Zambia and Malawi become independent
1966 UDI [Unilateral Declaration of Independence] by Smith. Civil war.
Zimbabwe in 1979
3. South Africa






A dominion - UK had no right of internal control.
Population o Afrikaaners - old Dutch
o Anglos - had fought Afrikaaners in 1900s
o Blacks - vast majority
o Coloreds
o Indians
Nationalist Party wins power 194
PM Voerwoerd
Apartheid (practiced in US South at the time). Recently ended.
Leaders: Bishop Tutu, Nelson Mandela, PM de Klerk
F. Northern Ireland





Ireland Independent 1921
NI 60% Protestant, 40% papist
Bad rule by Prot. majority.
Desire for unification chez Catholics.
Unresolved conflict.
IV. Smaller Empires
A. Belgium and the Congo
B.. Holland and Indonesia
Forced from Indonesia in 1950. Generally corrupt regime.
C. Portuguese Possessions
Brazil - in 19th C.
Angola - 1975: Marxist MPLA and Unita still fight it out.
Mozambique - 1975 - after a bloody guerrilla war led by Freelimo. South African backed civil
war which laid waste to the country.
East Timor - Taken over by Indonesia -- Major case of genocide currently going on there.
V. Economic Dominance of the West Vs. New Economic Powers



Neo-Colonialism
France and Africa
Europe as a trading block.
Pacific Rim and Japan
Growth of Japan since World War II is phenomenal. In 1970 this also effects Hong Kong,
Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore. In US, California has been leading state in the nation
economically. People speak of the Pacific rim becoming the center of world politics. This
probably depends on the future of China, Don't write the Atlantic powers off just yet.
As the West (US, Europe and Japan) uses up resources Third World countries, have flexed the
power they have due to possession of resources. OPEC was very powerful in the 1970s. In 1989
the Third World is in debt to the West, and their is a net loss of capital from the poor countries to
the rich. Banks could easily be destabilized. At the moment this is not a factor in politics but it
almost certainly will become so - and it effects the Pacific rim as much as the West.
VI. The Cold War Begins
World War II killed as many as 40 million people. Europe was devastated, as was much of the
East. There were conscious efforts to rebuild after the War


The United Nations - international peace.
Rebuilding the West - The Marshall Plan - 1947
BUT the messy end of WWII led to the Cold War -- a superpower conflcit over Europe, but with
the main European states on the periphery!
The Ending of the War and the Post War Settlement
A. The Allies in 1945
USA, UK - main western allies, Also France. Plus the USSR. Despite ideological difference they
fought the war together. Churchill and Stalin were always hostile. Roosevelt and Truman saw that
the allies would not work together after the war, but they did try.
B. Summits - The Division of Europe
During the War politics was less important than defeating Germany and Japan, Politics were
conducted at a series of meetings of leaders - summits. These summits involved compromises on
all sides, but ultimately no satisfactory arrangements were agreed on, and the modern world is a
result of events rather than plans. The main area of concern was what was to happen to Eastern
Europe. The UK had gone to war for Poland, but equally the USSR had been invaded from this
direction.
Stalin's aims - to kep Russia's gains plus some security. He looked for an old fashioned Russian
sphere of influence to create this.
Churchill - to keep Russia as weak as possible, To maintain the British Empire. He was pragmatic
about the idea of spheres of influence.
Roosevelt - to make the worlds available to American business. To get rid of spheres and such old
imperialist notions - outside of Latin America of course. He looked for security to an international
organization.
1. The Atlantic Charter - August 1941
Roosevelt and Churchill met in 1941 on a ship off Newfoundland. Before the US was officially in
the War. They agreed a set of principles on which to fight the war. This was to become the basis
for the UN.
2. Tehran - 1943
Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt. The West promised to open a new front in Europe - in the west.
This effectively left the East to Russia. It was probably a military necessity. Attacking from the
South would have meant attacking Germany through the Alps.
3. Moscow - October 9, 1944
Churchill and Stalin. It looked like Stalin was going to get the whole of Eastern Europe. Churchill
in Moscow agreed that Stalin could have a spheres of influence in the Balkans, but that the West
would have one as well. But the US was hostile to spheres of influence. Also Stalin wanted to
dismember Germany and extract reparations. US and UK were prepared to allow the USSR safe
borders, but Stalin wanted a communist Eastern Europe.
4. Yalta - February 1945
Churchill, Stalin, Roosevelt The US wanted the USSR in the Pacific War. It was agreed that
European states were to have independent governments and elections. This was the US's main
insistence. However, it was also agreed that such governments should be friendly to Russia. The
two things just do not go together, and Stalin interpreted in the light of his Moscow meeting with
Churchill.
5. Potsdam - July 1945
Truman, Attlee (replaces Churchill halfway through), and Stalin. Truman came to power April 12
1945. Truman was rougher with the Russians - e.g. his lecture to Molotov on April 23 on the
subject of Poland. Potsdam sets modern map of Europe until 1989. Truman let Stalin take eastern
Poland. Poland got a large chunk of Eastern Germany. Germany was divided into 4 zones. Why
did Truman let Stalin get this amount of control? Russian troops were already 30 miles west of
Berlin and Allied troops were still stuck in the Ardennes and it was not realized how fast the
Allies were going to advance in the West at the end of the war.
Revisionists: Some historians have argued that Truman knew about the Bomb and so was
determined to let Stalin have what he wanted at Potsdam, and then forces him to give it up by
using the bomb as a threat. The problem with this argument is that the US pulled 2.5 million
troops from Europe immediately after the war, and never did threaten Russia overtly with the
bomb. It is still however a possible interpretation.
6. Europe Divided. The Summits did not work, but they were an attempt to work things out.
However, the divisions they high-lighted became the basis for the Cold War.
All the divisions were supposed to be temporary. It has in fact never been changed. There was
never a treaty like Versailles that provided a wrap up to WW2.
C. The United Nations
One permanent body was set up - the UNO
1. Origins




a. Woodrow Wilson's idea of the League of Nations, which Roosevelt supported.
b. A general desire for a more peaceful way of settling disputes than war.
c. The Atlantic Charter.
d. The victorious allies who were its first members.
2. First Meeting - San Francisco - April 1945
3. New York chosen as HQ, partly to make sure the US would support the new UN, unlike the
League of Nations.
4. The UN Charter


Aims -Collective security
An end to colonialism - made untenable by Hitler.
5. Post War Membership
US, UK, France, USSR. China - in security council
Most other nations join.
6. The UN: Success or Failure?
Many commentators have been skeptical. t has had some successes, particularly in its affiliated
organizations - WHO, and UNESCO -- but there has been less success diplomatically. It has
averted some wars, been a important negotiator in others, and provided a legitimacy to very many
peace efforts and agreements.
VII. Cold War Conflicts
The flip side of attempts at cooperation is the Cold War: US vs. USSR, East, vs. West.
One way of looking at this is that it was not really an ideological conflict, rather a dispute
between two major powers (empires). Ideology was not entirely absent from feelings of
righteousness on either side. But it should be realized that the major difference for many people
outside the US and the USSR is not in their foreign policy, but in how they treat their own
citizens. Many textbooks are not very good on this period. The attitudes of the textbooks reflect
cold war attitudes rather than make clear their causes. I am going to highlight a few themes rather
than attempt to give a sketch chronology.
A. Events Leading to the Cold War
1. The Western feeling that Stalin was cheating, and that Communism was expanding.
a. Stalin occupies Eastern Europe




Poland 1945
Bulgaria and Romania - 1945
Hungary - 1947
Czechoslovakia - 1948
b. The Berlin Blockade - June 1948-May 1949 -- effective western response to it.
c. China falls to Mao, Oct 1948-Jan 1950
2. Stalin had grounds for distrusting the West



a. USSR was excluded from Italian settlement in 1944, despite very strong Communist
Party there.
b. Lend-Lease shipments stopped to Russia, in May 1945. It was a congressional
requirement, but it upset Russia.
c. The Marshall Plan was seen as attacking the USSR's area of power in Europe.
3. Churchill's "Iron Curtain" Speech. Fulton Missouri, March 5th 1946
4. The Truman Doctrine: Containment of Communism: This upset the USSR and made it feel
encircled.
5. Who was to Blame?


The USA - Revisionist view
The USSR - older view
It all depends on whether you see the USSR as fundamentally different from other states, as a
state promoting world Leninism, or whether you see it as a power in the Tsarist tradition,
pursuing its own security. It could be both. But also, the US is an imperialist power, in terms of
the economic power it wields, and the military power it has used in Latin America. These are, at
the moment, political as well as historical questions.
B. The Cold War at Home






1. McCarthyism
2. Political Parties and Response to Cold War
3. Defense Issues in National elections
4. The Military Industrial Complex.
5. Economic Expansion in US (Good Keynesian Reasons)
6. Economic Stagnation in USSR. (Keynesianism doesn't work)
C. Themes in the Cold War
1. The Nuclear and Conventional Arms Race





USA - A-Bomb 1945, Jul
USA - H-Bomb 1952, Nov
USSR - A-Bomb 1949, Sep
USSR - H-Bomb 1953, Aug [By Andrei Sakharov]
USSR - ICBMs in 1957
Multi-warhead missiles
Mid-range missiles
From MAD to SDI - Changing strategies in arms usage.
2. The Space Race - Subsidiary to Arms Race




USSR - first rocket 1957 - Yuri Gagarin - first man in space 1961
USA - First Man on the Moon - 1969 - First reusable space vehicle
Some cooperation in the 1970's Skylab-Solyut link up
Space exploration is still in its infancy.
2. Alliances
NATO : North Atlantic Treaty March-Aug 1949
The first US "entangling alliance". Fundamental change in US foreign policy.
The Warsaw Pact, May 1955
3. Close Calls
There have only been a few occasions when the two superpowers actually came closed to war.
Most conflicts/wars have been displaced. [explain term.]


a. Berlin Wall - Aug 1961
b. Cuban Missile Crisis - 1962
4. Cold War Battles - Displaced Wars
a. Greece - British, the US vs. Communists.
Stalin allows Western victory, as per agreements.
b. Korea 1951-53
The UN repels a N. Korean attack on the South. But goes to far, so Chinese get involved. Height
of anti-communism im US.
c. Vietnam and Cambodia - see above
d. Cuba - Bay of Pigs 1961
e. Chile - Allende and Pinochet
f. Central America El Salvador
Nicaragua - US supported Somoza
g. Angola
h. Afghanistan
i. The Middle East
j. Not all Third world wars are of this nature, and there have been wars about local issues, e.g.
India vs. Pakistan, India vs. China. Many wars in Africa.
5. Moral and Ideological Basis of Propaganda
On both sides the Cold War has been presented as a battle of good and evil.



-All communist polemic, up to and inc. Gorbachev.
-Anti-communism and "evil empire' theorists in the US.
McCarthyism compromised all the US stands for.
VIII. Superpower Politics during the Cold War - Europe on the Periphery
The superpowers, although neither conceives of itself as such, because they are not colonial and
have largely contiguous territory, are both world empires. A quick overview of their postwar
history.
A. The Ascendancy of the United States
1. Economics
US was the only major power not to undergo war damage. It was absolutely dominant in the 50's
and 60's. Investments abroad. Multinationals invented in the US. By mid-60s, other countries
were recovering. Especially Japan and West Germany, which became major industrial powers,
with the rest of Europe tagging along. The US is still the worlds biggest economy, but not so
much due to its owe failure, but other success, it is now less dominant than it once was. The US is
richer today than ever before, but its relative position has declined.
2. American Politics
a. The Fifties: Truman and Eisenhower



1. McCarthyism and anti-communism
2. Growing Economy
3. Stability
b. The Sixties: Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon



1. Civil Rights, and the New Left
2. Changes in morals
o The Warren Court
o Women's Rights
o Lesbian and Gay Rights
3. Move from class to identity politics
c. The Seventies: Nixon, Ford and Carter




1. The Vietnam War
2. Détente
3. Watergate
4. Feelings of a loss of power
d. The Eighties: Reagan and Bush



1. Resurgence of the Right
2. Military expenditure and Cold War II, encouraged by the Afghanistan War.
3. Yuppies
B. The Ascendancy of Russia
1. Economy
Rebuilding in Poland, East Germany and Russia. Fairly successful. No foreign Aid. Agriculture
has been, especially in the USSR, a disaster.
2. Politics - Stalin to Gorbachev





a. Stalin - Postwar. Became Paranoid
b. Nikita Krushchev. Reforms then deposition.
c. Brezhnev - stagnation
d. Gorbachev - Glasnost and Perestroika
e. Yeltsin - and Radical Reform.
3. Eastern Europe







a. Control Established
b. Poland 1956
c. Hungary 1956
d. Czechoslovakia - the Prague Spring - 1968
e. Poland - 1971
Poland - 1980's Solidarity
f. 1989
IX. The New Europe - Centrist Politics and Unification
Now we are returning to European Political History, and a survey of modern politics in the
heartland of Western Civilization.
The End of World War II is once again the starting point. Differences with period after WWI.
1945 a real break with the past. There has been a much more optimistic view of the world in the
west since then with less harping about the "world we have lost".This may not be realistic given
the Holocaust and the arms race.
The Western Democracies after the War
1. General Themes
Most European countries move towards welfare states. This was seen as good and fair in itself
and also a way of preventing the social conditions which had encouraged fascism.
2. The Right
Christian Democracy in Germany and Italy, not in France. Catholic parties in origin which were
not conservative in a nationalistic way. They were for state intervention to help the poor, but
opposed to socialism and supportive of capitalism. They retain this character now, even though
they are often thought of as conservative.
3. The Left
Democratic Socialism in Labor party in UK and SDP in Germany (+ Holland, Norway and
Sweden). These tend to be mass parties, related to trade unions, and looking to interests of
working people without compromising civil liberties.
France and Italy - there are socialist parties in these countries but they are parties of intellectuals
that did not originate in the working class. In Italy the Communist Party is the mass party of the
workers, and despite its name it is a moderate party, in some respects to the right of the UK Labor
Party. In France, the CPF was the workers party but it has now been destroyed electorally by the
socialists.
4. Conservative parties tend to vary from country to country.
A. Britain
1. Labor Government 1945-1951
People fearful of another war. Also felt a need for a new society. Clement Attlee was PM. Ideas
of Beveridge and John Maynard Keynes. The belief that the War had shown you could organize
for success, so you could organise for an end to poverty.
Domestic Policies



Nationalization
Welfare State
National Health Service
Foreign Policies
Begins decolonization - India
2. Conservative Government 1951-1964
Basically kept the same policies as Labor. British Conservative Party is about power, and it is not
in general ideological. Mrs. Thatcher is a recent phenomenon.
This was a period of rebuilding the economy. Not as successful as Germany - old structures
remained in place.
Further end to Empire
Suez 1956
US did not back UK. Could no longer see itself in top rank of powers. British probably now
underestimate the importance of the country in the world.
3. 1964-1979







Period of alternation of governments and Economic crises.
Discovery of North Sea Oil.
Joining the EEC
Outbreak of troubles in Northern Ireland 1969.
BUT also on up side.
Best years of the BBC
Cultural bomb in writing and theater - through state support.
4. Conservatives in Power 1979




Margaret Thatcher - an Ideological conservative (but Thatcher is not of the US "moral
majority" type - she alwasy supported free access to abortion).
o Attempts to role back the welfare atmosphere of past four decades.
o Successful dealing with inflation and deficit - now in fact has a huge surplus.
o -by cutting back on welfare state
o -by selling out nationalized industries.
o Growth of Yuppies.
High unemployment
tax cuts to benefit the rich
Police given more power.
How she kept power-
o

Falklands War 1982 saved her from defeat. Was the ost powerful politician sine
WWII in UK.
o Labor party split with SDP. And internal divisions.
o Naked appeal to self interest of middle class and homeowners at expense of the
poor.
Fall of Thatcher.
o Conservatives feared losing election over Poll Tax. John Major - wins again 1992.
B. France
Has been troubled politically.
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)



Leader of Free French
Not really a democrat - he thought parties divide the nation.
Gaullism - distinctive French conservatism. It is the most nationalistic conservatism in
modern western Europe. It sees a special place for France and French culture [which is of
course one of the greatest in the world]. It is less interested in economic management than
France itself.
Fourth Republic and Algeria
Opposed by De Gaulle as to divisive. Lots of governments - 19 - 1948-1958
Algeria - the situation overturned the Govt. De Gaulle recalled. Creates new constitution giving
President almost monarchical power. Confirmed by referendum. (cf. Louis Napoleon.)
Then withdraws from Algeria - shows De Gaulle as as realist, more than just a right winger. De
Gaulle Faced much opposition for his policies.
Fifth Republic
1. Strong President - 7 year term / Bicameral Legislature.
Propensity for French politicians to hold many seats at different level of government.
A whole series of parties



-Gaullists
-Republicans and Liberals (on the Right in France)
-Socialists, -Communists
2. De Gaulle


Opposed to US dominance - reject UK from EEC. Withdrew French Forces form NATO
command 1967.
1968 - De Gaulle put down Student riots
3. Georges Pompidou 1969-1974
4. Valery Giscard D'Estaing (b, 1924) 1974-1980




A Republican rather than a Gaullist, but he governed in coalition with Gaullists.
Allowed UK to join EEC
Technocrat - Economic growth
Tendency to intervene abroad - e.g. in Chad.
5. Francois Mitterand (b. ) 1980-199?




Reorganized the Socialist Party
Overtook the Communists in elections/
1980 Socialists won.
People tired of technocracy and lack of democracy. People no longer afraid of a
communist dominated government. Liberal reforms + nationalizations. More proAmerican than Gaullists All French political groups want France to keep Nuclear
weapons.
6. 1986 - Right wing win in Parliament


Cohabitation of Mitterand with Right.
1987 - Socialist regain control but are very moderate.
C. Germany
1. Occupation 1945



Very hard living conditions.
Denazification - Nuremburg Trials -even reconstruction of the Church had to be done.
Allies create a state in the West - Bundesrepublik Deutschland/Federal Republic of
Germany 1949
2. Constitution






Division into Lander.
Capital at Bonn
Bicameral House
Limited PR to give fair distribution of seats, but >to keep out parties that get less than 5%
of the vote.
Ceremonial President
Executive Chancellor
3. Economic Expansion
Britain sent it food in 1946. Helped by Marshall Plan 1949 Became part of EEC 1957.
Old companies lived on - Volkswagen, Krupp. AEG. The nation put all its effort into economic
growth. It had no political role for decades. There was an economic miracle Now BRD is most
powerful economy in Europe.
4. Politics
Effectively only non-nazis have been allowed to play a role. But also left wingers have been
excluded. Even from teaching - Berufsverbote. Christian Democrats + CSU of Bavaria 1949-1966
Led by Konrad Adenauer. Adenauer is the major architect of post war recovery and rehabilitation
of West Germany. He always opposed the separation of Germany,and would not talk to east
European countries.
Social Democrats - Bad Godesburg Conference - renounced revolution. Take Power 1966. Prove
effective managers of a capitalist economy. Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt leaders. SDP has
open up to eastern Europe - Ostpolitik from 1970 onwards.
Free Democrats - always coalition partners in BRD governments. Basically Free Market liberals
with a social conference.
Welfarism on a lavish scale in Germany - Very good national health service.
1982 - CDP and CSU under Helmut Kohl return to power. Still basically moderate, but currently
low in polls.
The Greens have become important in last decade - environmental and nuclear issues are big
considerations in Germany.
D. Italy
Christian Democrats have been dominant in coalition after coalition. Communists major
opposition party. Adopted "Eurocommunism" Economic boom in Nth of Italy.
E. Spain and Portugal
See textbook.
F. Formation of the European Union
The important thing to realize is that this is the most unified western Europe has been since the
Roman Empire, excepting Napoleon and Hitler. Will it work?
Desire for a New Europe
Destruction of 2 world wars led people to look for a better way. Since the War Europe has moved
towards integration. This is a response to the two superpowers. Economically and in population
Europe together is larger than either of them, but divided it is weak.
The process has been mainly economic. Politically no one state would give up sovereignty [ask
what that means]. i.e. the Council of Europe 1949 was never an important body. Military
integration happened under NATO, to which most governments are committed. However, France
remains partially independent, and NATO is US not European dominated.
Judicial Unity - The European Court of Human Rights was established at the Hague. All
governments subscribe to it, and alter laws by its decisions, but it only deals with a few cases.
Main success was going to be economic unity.
Leading Europeanists - wanted united Europe economically as a prelude to political unity.



-Robert Schuman (1886-1963), a French Foreign Minister.
-Konrad Adenauer ((1876-1967), BRD Chancellor
-Jean Monnet (1885-1981) a French Civil Servant.
The Process
1. Coal and Steel bind France and Germany
France, West Germany, Italy, Benelux [explain term] join European Coal and Steel
Community 1951 -limited remit but this was a vital economic sector. Ties up the industries of
these countries. Now they could not go to war with each other. It is economically impossible. The
ECSC made more ambitious integration possible.
2. The Treaty of Rome 1957
Same groups as ECSC - France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands,, Luxembourg.
Creates the EEC (European Economic Community, aka the "Common Market"). The elimination
of all tariffs, free flow of capital, free exchange of Labor. Beginning of common economic
policies - e.g. on Transport, agriculture, even in law.
3. The EEC - the Six
EEC was run by a High Commission appointed by political leaders of each country. Also a
Council of Ministers. The High Commission has introduced massive reforms and standardization
throughout member countries. Centers of EEC were Brussels, Luxembourg and Strasbourg. EEC
was very successful in 1960s. Major problem was when one country refused to go along with the
others. This was often France, which to British eyes, seemed to see the EEC has hers to dominate.
4. EFTA 1959
UK, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Austria, Portugal. Organized by UK. Not
successful. All but UK had small economies.
5. The Nine
Britain after refusing to become part of EEC in 1957 tried to join, in 1963 and 1967. De Gaulle
objected - he thought UK was too friendly with USA. Many in UK opposed joining - felt EEC
was undemocratic since no control could be exercised by the people over the official in Brussels.
1973 UK, Denmark and Ireland also joined the EEC. Norway was going to but backed out after a
referendum. EEC was less successful in 1970s, mainly because of the worse world economy
caused by inter alia Oil disputes. Creation of an elected European Parliament 1979 - First time
ever in Europe's history. This body now claims some prestige.
6 Spain, Greece and Portugal
1982 - Greece, Portugal and Spain joined. First time poor countries (apart from Ireland) had
joined.
Problems of EEC/European Union
1. The Common Agricultural Policy
Agricultural policy is central. EEC worked by giving people subsidies to produce. This created an
enormous boom in production. But especially in France inefficiency was kept going. EEC
officially tried to get people off the land, but the French farmers resist and have great influence on
govt. Other countries do not like paying for it.
2. Decline of Sovereignty
EEC decides things like weights and measures. E.G. UK dropped imperial system in favor of
metric weights and measures. EEC has been dropped in favor of European Community-EC There
is now a currency unit - the Ecu. This loss of sovereignty upsets many.
1992
In 1992 most barriers came down and one market is on its way to being established. Realization
of an old Enlightenment dream. Not entirely good. No way of people controlling
this supranational body. There are no Europe wide political groups. The EC will be the largest
developed market in the world. Possibly Europe is not done for just yet.
X. Eastern Europe
Has had a separate development under USSR domination. It has had some economic success but
more striking have been the political problems. See textbook for details. Note the huge
environmental problems.
XI. Modern Political Ideas
The 1960s and the New Left
This topic is not covered in textbooks, but they do suggest that criticism of society is part of what
distinguishes Western Civilization. The critics today are the people in the New Left, and so we
are going to look at them.
A. 1968



Student revolts at Berkeley and Columbia
Students Revolt in Paris - brings down the government.
Czechoslovakia - the Prague Spring.
B. Ideas of the New Left.
Dislike of Stalinism as much as Capitalism especially after the Soviet invasions of Hungary and
Czechoslovakia. A feeling that workers were no longer a revolutionary group but had been
brought into the system. A new group of concerns - around the concept of oppression.
C. Trotskyists. Some looked to the ideas of Leon Trotsky - a form of Marxism officially opposed
by the USSR. This opposed USSR as "state capitalism" and the the USA and "imperialist".
D. One Issue Groups
Most people in the New Left are not affiliated with a particular ideology, or are eclectic about
positions they adopt. Rather a is series of connected political movements. One issue groups especially important in the US which has no ideological parties. Women's groups, Gay Groups,
Campaigns for Nuclear Disarmament, END. This is especially the case in UK and West
Germany, but similar groups now make up the Left all over Europe.
E. Feminism - A Critique of Patriarchy and Sexual Politics
The background of the Black Civil Rights Movement in the US was very important. Women in
the US and the UK worked during the War. Government attempted to get them abk in the home in
the 1950s - to give jobs to the boys. By the 1960's very many were dissatisfied. The Pill made
having children a matter of choice. Very many women began to go out to work after marriage,
reversing the peacetime trend to stay at home that began in the late 19th century. France - Simone
de Beauvoir The Second Sex argued for the rights of Women, USA - Betty Freidan The Feminine
Mystique -- The awful life of a woman stuck in a suburban home. Feminist ideas spread very fast.
Middle Class women began demanding equal pay, child care and an end to job discrimination.
There was a 1970s radicalization of feminism, as writers like Andrea Dworkin and Mary Daly
tried to come up with an understanding of women's social situation. The issues of rape, abortion,
and pornography were examined. Some women in Europe and America began to feel that men
were impossible to live with because of the way they were brought up. Most of the ills of the
world were blamed on patriarchy and patriarchal structures. An attempt was made to analyze
these structures. Feminism now is generalized. Even Catholic Church is officially opposed to any
discrimination. The problem is making the words spoken by so many men into realities, and in
changing social attitudes that allow men to feel it OK to hassle women in the street.
What do people associate with the word "feminist"? Why?
F. Lesbian and Gay Liberation - A Critique of Sexual Mores
Builds on women's liberation. Basically a US movement that spread to Europe. There were
Homophile groups in the 1950s and 1960s >-Homophile League ay Columbia in 1968 -The
Stonewall Riots June 28th 1968 -There has since been a massive growth in gay political groups in
Europe and America.
AIDS was expected to destroy this movement, but in fact the number of gay organizations had
grown. This movement would seem to be a permanent part of the next 50 or so years.
G. Pacifism/Anti-Nuclearism - A Critique of War.
This is another aspect of the New Left. Many western Europeans feel that they are in the firing
line for superpower weapons. The are strong anti-nuke movements in most European countries.
Socialist analysis is directed against the military/industrial aspects of weapons production.
Feminist analysis is directed against the idea the weapons are toys for the boys, but that the toys
are getting dangerous. This movement has been sidelined by the end of the Cold War.
H. Ecology/The Greens - A Critique of Growth
Die Greuner in Germany, Green Party in the UK, Environmental movements all over. Some
vegetarians The Club of Rome: The Limits to Growth. possibly the most Radical new political
force. Unlike wither socialism or capitalism this is an anti-growth movement. Sometimes it is not
even socialist. hey want a steady state economy as they see industrialization destroying the world.
New Left Politics?
The New Left is not one united movement. It is an Amalgam of various interests and enthusiasm.
Not all people supporting one aspect support the rest. However, it is a good indicator of trying to
find radical solutions to new problems, and also of the current lack of a unified vision. It does
carry on the Western tradition of criticism of society from within society begun by Socrates.
The New Right - Conservatives
A few word about modern European conservatism. There has been a revival in the past few years,
both of conservative political parties, and conservative ideology (reminder: goes back to Edmund
Burke).
A. Business not Empire
Modern European conservatism comprises two parts. -Those conservatives who look above all to
free enterprise, and the growth of business. They are not necessarily concerned about moralism.
They are also not particularly nationalistic, which is a great change from the interwar years. They
are really 19th century liberals under another name. There are also many people who yearn for
"traditional values" [that in fact never existed]. However, it is important to realize that in Europe
the "religious right" is not important; for instance many members of the British Conservative
Party support abortion.
New Right Politics?
Conservatives, like the left, are critical of society. In particular, they criticize the social
democracy welfarism of modern Europe. But in this critical mode they are just as much part of
the western tradition as the left.
XII. Big Science
A. Since 1945, this has been a period of tremendous scientific growth which gets ever faster.
Science has built on and advanced the discoveries of the first half of the century - relativity and
quantum mechanics.
B. Science is now characterized by high government spending. It is just too expensive, for the
most part, for an individual to act work alone. Where the government does not pay, big companies
do.
This "big" science is related to military expenditure. The US has been at the forefront, as the
richest nation in the world, but other countries have made significant contributions - USSR,
Britain, France, China, Japan. Many "American" scientists were immigrants, especially Jews.
[Ask class why this might be? Suggest it requires a great commitment by scientists to hard,
"useless", academic from early on.]
C. Scientists as a Class
Scientists work now not as individuals but as part of groups. Problems are too big and too
expensive to leave to one "genius". But this means there is now a class of scientists. Worth
following in non-specialist magazines like Scientific American.
D. Physics - the First "Big" Science
1. The Manhattan Project was the first big science project. Due to fear of a Nazi A-Bomb.
2. The physicists often exiles from Nazism.
3. Military interest has really pushed physics
-for general weapon development
-H-Bombs
-More missiles
-MAD and SDI
4. Developments in Theoretical Physics





Big Bang Cosmology
New fundamental particles
Unified Field Theories
See, for a very simple discussion,
Stephen Hawkins A Brief History of Time
5. Space Travel - the Moon and Mars are in our reach. alpha Centuri is not.
E. Medicine - The Other Major Fundamental Area of Advance
1. Pre-War
Septicemia, diphtheria, TB, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping Cough - all killed people.
2. Development of Antibiotics
Penicillin - able to treat septicemsia, syphilis, and all bacterial diseases.
3. Development of New Vaccines
Smallpox Vaccine had been around for some time. Now, vaccines were developed for Polis,
whooping cough. Smallpox was wiped off the planet in the 1980s.
4. Other Drugs/Advanced treatments developed.



Insulin for diabetes
Chemotherapy
Radiotherapy
5. New Surgical Techniques

Transplants - kidneys, hearts, lungs, corneas
6. Biology's and Genetic Research
The Discovery of DNA


As great a discovery as anything in physics.
Current research on the the Human Genome.
Current Research (Should happen in your lifetime)



-Cancer cures
-Treatment for viral diseases - research due to AIDS epidemic [discuss significance re
peoples' feelings about infection.]
-Possible treatments for genetic disorders, using virus to input new genes into living
people.
7. Effects of New Medicine on People's Lives
Reduces fear of disease for millions.
For first time in history people were not afraid of infectious disease - although AIDS has changed
that, at least for a while.
-BUT this medical help is not available to millions more in LAAA, where simple diarrhea
remains the major killer.
F. Technology
Unlike physics which works at the edge of scientific knowledge, practical science, or technology,
applies what we already know to new directions. It has transformed how we live since 1945 in
incalculable ways.
1. The Transistor





-basically an electronic switch
-Change from valve technology
-later integrated circuits, then chips
-basic to many consumer goods
-Consumer goods illustrate a new development in capitalism.
2. Air Travel
The Jet Engine made fast air travel more common. The Helicopter and Hovercraft were also
invented.
3. Television. Invented before WWII, but only widespread afterwards. It dominates life in many
countries. It may possibly the single greatest change in how people spend their time. It has
effected most noticeably Politics and Entertainment. But also patterns of eating, consuming, and
family life.
4. Consumer Goods have proliferated. Better telephones, Automatic cars, washing machines,
refrigerators, stereos, CDs (= Capitalist way of making more money in a saturated market),
VCRs, walkmans -the list is endless. This has transformed work, what we work to buy, and
housework.
5. Computers
Alan Turing and the Enigma Machine.
Valves, then transistors, then integrated circuits, now microchips.
Science and the Future
We have been looking at the great material benefits that science has brought us in the last 40 years
or so. The important thing to realize is just how important science is to our civilization, both in its
great intellectual endeavors, and in practical life. It has taken humanity's control, and possibility
of losing control of its environment to new heights. But science is not the only thing which
defines modern culture.
XIII. A Late 20th Century States of Mind?
A. Commentators point out there has not been one culture or state of mind in the 20th century,
rather a variety. The process of changes and disruptions has been continuous - the disintegration
of the Enlightenment synthesis began before 1900, with Freud etc. But two world wars and the
abuse of technology have intensified these developments. We are living in a major developmental
period.
B. Diffusion of Knowledge and Culture
More books are published than ever before. Massive amounts of information are created and
pushed. More people go to school than ever before. Fordham is bigger than any pre-1900
University. There are more scientists alive now than in all of previous history. Also more
historians, economists, literary critics, etc. All this is a function of the greater number of students,
and hence the wealth created by the industrial revolution.
C. Modern Creativity
1. Arts
Europe has been en fete since 1950 -- New concert halls, galleries, museums and theatres
2. Youth Culture
Drawing on UK and US popular music. The invention of the Teenager -- Cults: Teddy Boys,
Mods, Rockers, Skinheads, Punks.
3. Philosophy -
1. Existentialism





Nietzsche
Soren Kierkegaard - Christianity to be seized with passion
Martin Heidigger 1889-1976 - Being and Time
Albert Camus 1913-1960 - The Plague, The Outsider
Jean Paul Sartre 1905-1980 - Nausea, Being and Nothingness
They often do not agree with each other,but they all have problems with human existence, and
have a lack of faith in reason. [Reason and science had produces war and genocide]. Truth for
them is to do with experience.
2. Post-Modernism


Michel Foucault
Notion of Language creating reality
Web Exercise
Your last web exercise is simple. Find a current news article in any serious online newspaper,
and explain how and why what you have learned in this course makes it possible for you to
explain the story.
Discussion Questions
What is "decolonization"? Does it really represent a decline in the power of Western states in the
world?
In what ways did the Cold War provide stability in western society.
How does western European politics differ from modern American politics?
What opportunities does modern science offer? What dangers does it present?