Cells and Heredity- 25%
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Cell theory- all living things are composed of cells, cells come from other cells, cells are the basic building
blocks of living matter.
Prokaryotic- circular DNA, no nucleus, reproduce by binary fission conjugation, no membrane bound organelles.
Eukaryotic- thought to have derived from symbiotic relationship of Prokaryotes…..have a true nucleus.
o Major differences of Animal cells and Plant cell- cell walls, large vacuoles for food and water storage,
chloroplasts
Nucleus- central region of cell; contains the chromosomes, or DNA
ribosomes- cite where RNA produces protein in Protein Synthesis
golgi apparatus-modifies and packages for shipping out of the cell structure
Lysosomes-structure for cleaning the cell of waste and unwanted material.
mitochondria- motor - site where ATP- adenosine tri-phosphate is produce in cellular respiration for energy of
the cell
Vacuoles- think vacuum- large spaces for holding water and food
Cilia/ Flagella- used for locomotion. Cilia short hair-like, Flagellum-long whip-like sperm cell.
Cytoplasm- Jelly that holds it together.
Chloroplasts- contain chlorophyll, a green pigment; region were photosynthesis occurs
Movement of Material Across the Selectively Permeable Cell Membrane
 cells move materials to maintain equilibrium, homeostasis, in the body i.e. sweating to move water out to cool
the body.
 Active Transport-cell uses energy to move materials in and out.
o Sodium Potassium Pump- Muscle Movement
o Endocytosis- cells engulf materials that are too large to pass through the cell membrane.
o Exocytosis- cells expel materials that are too large to pass through the cell membrane.
 Passive Transport- cell does not use energy to move materials
o Diffusion- particle moves from higher concentration to lesser concentration.
o Osmosis is the diffusion of Water.
 Hypotonic- low concentration
 Hypertonic- high concentration
 Isotonic- same concentration, homeostasis, or equilibrium.
 Plasmolysis-cell shrinks due to water moving out to hypertonic
 Cytolysis cell bursts due to too much water if animal cell,
 expands and becomes rigid in plants due to cell wall; also called turgor.
Major Processes
 Photosynthesis- process were autotrophs produce sugar from –
Carbon dioxide + Water + sunlight → sugar + Oxygen. C6H12O6 is a sugar called glucose. Occurs in the
chloroplasts.
Two major cycles- Light Dependent- needs light. Light independent- can occur in the dark.
 Cellular Respiration- process were the cell converts sugar with oxygen to energy ( 34 ATP)and carbon dioxide.
Occurs in the Mitochondria
o Aerobic- uses oxygen to perform cellular respiration.
 Fermentation- Anaerobic- no oxygen
o Lactic acid fermentation- occurs in animals when oxygen is not present for cellular respiration, ocurs
when animals exercise pass the
o Alcohol fermentation- microbes (yeasts) convert sugar to alcohol- beer, bread, wine.
 Replication- DNA copies itself for mitosis or meiosis.
 Protein Synthesiso Transcription- DNA produces RNA in the nucleus. Nitrogen bases ATC GGG CGT ATG
mRNA Complimentary base pair
_________________
o Translation- RNA is used to make proteins at the Ribosome.
Three nitrogen bases (codon) code for a specific amino acid.
Inheritance/ Genetics
 DNA- (chromosomes)
o deoxyribonucleic acid, found only in the nucleus of Eukaryotes, genetic blueprint for the cell.
o Double helix (twisted ladder, double strand) structure, discovered by Watson and Crick. Makes a copy
of itself replica in replication.
o Adenine and Thymine always pair together and Guanine and Cytosine always pair. Remember AT GC.
RNA- ribonucleic acid- single strand, produce by DNA by the process of transcription. Three typeso mRNA- messenger RNA- carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cell to
assemble proteins.
o tRNA- Transfer RNA- finds the appropriate amino acids and brings it to the ribosome so that it may
assemble proteins.
o rRNA- ribosomal RNA- this is the material in which ribosomes are composed.
Cell cycle Interphase- cell is resting, no division, every day functions carried out.
 Cell Division- process in which the cell divides due to becoming to large, or replace damaged tissues. Diploid to
Diploid- Di means double or two…copies of chromosomes 2N to 2N
o Mitosis is the process in which DNA is replicated to produce new cells in Cell Division.
 It has four phase:
Prophase- DNA Prepares to divide
Metaphase- chromosomes line up in the Middle
Anaphase- chromosomes are pulled Apart to the centrioles.
Telophase- The End of Mitosis, not cell division
o Cytokinesis.- occurs simultaneously with Telophase.
Cytoplasm divides- organelles not necessarily dispersed evenly.
 Meiosis- reduction division is the process in which sex cells, zygotes- egg and sperm, are produced. The number
of chromosomes from a cell is reduced by half…Why? .half from the father/half from the mother.
o Diploid to Haploid- 16 to 8 chromosomes 2N to 1N
 A human has 46 chromosomes, or 23 pair of chromosomes. The first 22 carry short strands of info called genes
which determine our traits. The last pair determines the sex of a human. XX- female and XY- male.
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Genetics Gregor Mendel is known as the father of Genetics (study of inheritance) for his work on peas.
 Genotype refers to our actual genetic makeup, while Phenotype refers to our physical appearance.
 A Punnett square is used to predict outcomes of inheriting a certain trait from the living organisms’ parents.
Sometimes referred to as a monohybrid cross.
 The genotype can be one of three things
 Homozygous Dominant- AA
Dominant will always be expressed
 Homozygous recessive- aa
over recessive traits.
 Heterozygous- Aa
A
A
a
Aa
Aa
a
Aa
Aa
 All offspring will be Heterozygous with the dominant trait expressed.
 A second generation cross would be Aa x Aa and would look like
A
a
A
AA
Aa
a
Aa
aa
 So the phenotype ratio would be 3 dominant to 1 recessive 3:1 75%, 25%.
 Incomplete Dominance- neither trait is dominant both are expressed. White and Red Four
O’clocks when mixed will produce pink:
W
W
R
WR WR
R
WR WR
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Genotypical Ratio:_____________
Crossing a Pink and Pink
W
R
W
WW WR
R
WR RR
Genotypical Ratio:_____________
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Genetic Disorders are usually caused by mutations, or changes in the DNA, during meiosis. Down’s syndrome,
called Trisomy 21, means that one has three # 21 chromosomes instead of the normal two.
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Many cancers are a result of mutations from Viruses, Radiation exposure (UV from sun, x-rays and gamma rays)
and carcinogens.
Genetic engineering is the altering, or splicing of DNA to have cells produce specific traits.
o This method of engineering has allowed us to produce many plants with favorable characteristics (i.e.
Produce better crops in various weather climates, disease resistant crops, and higher crop yields, human
insulin is produced by splicing human genes in a specific bacterium).
o Used in the medical field to identify diseases, and forensics to identify criminal suspects.
Human Genome Project – map of the Human DNA sequence.
Classification
 Why classify? Orderly way to find things…ever tried to find a name in the phone book that was not in alphabetical
order.
 Linnaeus developed Binomial Nomenclature to classify organisms in Taxonomy (classification of organisms)
o Means Two Name Naming….remember Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus species….the
1st name is always capitalized the 2nd is lower case.
Six KingdomsArchaebacteria EubacteriaProtista
Fungi
Plant
Animals
Prokaryote/
P
P
E
E
E
E
Eukaryote
Unicellular/
Mostly M
U
U
Mostly U
M
M
Multicellular
(yeasts)
Autotroph/
B
B
A, H, B
H
A
H
Heterotroph
Cell Wall
Y
Y
Some
Y
Y
Never
 Archaebacteria- ancient bacteria
 Eubacteria- cyanobacteria, true bacteria
 Protista-reproduce asexually- binary fission. Plant like, animal like, fungal like
 Fungi-reproduce by spores, feed by heterotrophy. Mushrooms, yeasts, athlete’s foot.
 Plant –sexually seeds (angiosperms and gymnosperms), asexually-spores (mosses, ferns) all are autotrophs.
 Animals- sexual reproduction, heterotrophs
o Invertebrates- no backbone , largest group
o Vertebrates-Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians.
 Virus- short piece of DNA or RNA that can invade a cell and take over the cells machinery.
 Cells, tissues, organs, systems, organisms.
Macromolecules of Life
 Carbohydrates- C ∙H2O- simple and complex sugars (saccharide ) produced by Photosynthesis. Main source of
energy for Cellular respiration.
 Lipids- fats, oils, steroids- used by organisms to store energy that is not immediately needed for Cellular
Respiration.
 Nucleic Acids- DNA (deoxyribose) and RNA (ribose) differ in the type of sugar used as the ladder, double strand
and single strand, ATGC and AUGC ….store genetic info, used to produce cell needs
 Proteins- made from amino acids- Polypeptides….long chains of Amino acids make proteins, used for structure to
build and repair, also enzymes to speed up reactions.
ECOLOGY-16%
 Study of the interaction of organisms and their environment.
 Too survive all species need Air, Water, Food, Space, and Shelter.
 Heirarchy
o Organism- one of a species (plants, animals, and all living things).
o Population- all the organisms of one species
o Community- all of the populations
o Ecosystem- Community (biotic) and Abiotic factors (dirt, rocks, water).
o Biomes- climatic regions of the biosphere that are determined by the amount of precipitation and
temperature.
Temp
Precipitation
Desert
Hi
Low
Tropical Savannah
warm
Seasonal rainfall
US
Prairie
Tropical Rain Forest
Temperate Grassland
hot
Warm summers
Cold winters
Warm summers,
Cold winters
Wet year round
Amazon
Temperate Forest
Coniferous Forest
Boreal Forest (Taiga)
Tundra
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Mild temps
Long cold winters,
mild summers
Cold permafrost
Think
Sahara
Mojahve
seasonal
Year round precip
Lots of rainfall
moderate
Low precipitation
Georgia
Pacific
NW US
Alaskan
Forests
Greenland
Niche- role of an organism in the ecosystem
o Predator / Prey – hawk, rabbit
o Producer/ Consumer- plants, animals
o Parasite/ Host- flea, animal
o Scavenger/ ??? Dead Man
o Decomposer-bacteria
Habitat- locale or the area in the ecosystem (in a tree, hole in the ground, etc.).
Flow of Energy/Matter in an Ecosytem- Energy flows and matter recycles.
o Food web- Starts with a producer (autotrophs) and ultimately ends with decomposers.
o Food Chain- grass, rabbit, fox