WHAT IS DEVIANCE?
Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms. One familiar type of
deviance is crime, or the violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law.
Deviant people are subject to social control, or the means by which members of
a society try to influence each other's behavior. A more formal and multifaceted
system of social control, the criminal justice system, refers to a formal
response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law.
The Biological Context During the later part of the nineteenth century, Caesare
Lombroso, an Italian physician who worked in prisons, suggested that criminals
have distinctive physical traits.
During the middle of twentieth century, William Sheldon suggested that body
structure was a critical link to criminal behavior. Subsequent research by Sheldon
and Eleanor Glueck supported this argument; however, they suggested body
structure was not the cause of the delinquency.
The field of genetics has rejuvenated interest in the study of biological causes of
criminality. Overall, research findings suggest genetic and social influences are
significant in affecting the patterns of deviant behavior in society.
Personality Factors Psychological explanations of deviance concentrate on
individual abnormalities. Weaknesses in psychological research are pointed out.
The Social Foundations of Deviance Both conformity and deviance are shaped
by society. This is evident in three ways: (1) deviance varies according to cultural
norms; (2) people become deviant as others define them that way; and (3) both
norms and the way people define situations involve social power.
THE FUNCTIONS OF DEVIANCE: STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS
Durkheim’s Basic Insight Emile Durkheim asserted that deviance is an integral
part of all societies and serves four major functions. These include: (1) affirming
cultural values and norms, (2) clarifying moral boundaries, (3) promoting social
unity, and (4) encouraging social change.
Merton's Strain Theory According to Robert Merton, deviance is encouraged by
the day-to-day operation of society. Analysis using this theory points out
imbalances between socially endorsed means available to different groups of
people and the widely held goals and values of society makes some people
prone to anomie. This leads to higher proportions of deviance in those groups
experiencing anomie. Four adaptive strategies are identified by Merton:
innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Figure 6-1 (p. 137) outlines the
components of this theory.
Deviant Subcultures Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin have attempted to
extend the work of Merton utilizing the concept of relative opportunity structure.
They argue that criminal deviance occurs when there is limited opportunity to
achieve success. They further suggest that criminal subcultures emerge to
organize and expand systems of deviance.
Albert Cohen found that deviant subcultures occur more often in the lower
classes and are based on values that oppose the dominant culture. Walter Miller
argued that the values that emerge are not a reaction against the middle-class
way of life. Rather, he suggested that their values emerge out of daily
experiences within the context of limited opportunities. He described six focal
concerns of these delinquent subcultures--trouble, toughness, smartness,
excitement, fate, and freedom.
Three limitations of the functionalist approach are pointed out. First, functionalists
assume a single, dominant culture. Second, the assumption that deviance occurs
primarily among the poor is a weakness of subcultural theories. Third, the view
that the definition of being deviant will be applied to all who violate norms is
inadequate.
LABELING DEVIANCE: THE SYMBOLIC-INTERACTION APPROACH
The symbolic-interaction paradigm focuses on how people define deviance in
everyday situations.
Labeling theory, the assertion that deviance and conformity result, not so much
from what people do, as from how others respond to those actions, stresses the
relativity of deviance.
Primary and Secondary Deviance Edwin Lemert has distinguished between the
concepts of primary deviance, relating to activity that is initially defined as deviant,
and secondary deviance, corresponding to a person who accepts the label of
deviant.
Stigma Erving Goffman suggested secondary deviance is the beginning of a
deviant career. This typically results as a consequence of acquiring a stigma, or
a powerfully negative label that greatly changes a person's self-concept and
social identity. Some people may go through a degradation ceremony, like a
criminal prosecution.
Retrospective labeling is the reinterpretation of someone's past consistent with
present deviance. Projective labeling unfairly uses present deviance to evaluate
future actions.
Labeling and Mental Illness Thomas Szaz has argued that the concept "mental
illness" should no longer be applied to people. He says that only the "body" can
become ill and therefore mental illness is a myth. He argues that this concept is
applied to people who are different and who jeopardize the status quo of society.
It acts as a justification for forcing people to comply to cultural norms. The label
of mental illness becomes an extremely powerful stigma and can act as a selffulfilling prophecy.
The Medicalization of Deviance The medicalization of deviance relates to the
transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition. Our society's
view of alcoholism in recent years is a good illustration of this process.
Whichever approach is used, moral or medical, will have considerable
consequences for those labeled as deviant.
Sutherland's Differential Association Theory Edwin Sutherland suggests that
deviance is learned through association with others who encourage violating
norms. This is known as the differential association theory. Survey research
supports this view.
Hirschi's Control Theory Travis Hirschi pointed out that what requires
explanation is conformity. He suggested conformity results from four types of
social controls: attachment, opportunity, involvement, and belief.
Limitations of the social-interaction approach concern a lack of focus on why
society defines certain behavior as deviant and other behavior as not deviant.
Unlike other theories, which focus on the act of violence, the focus of labeling
theory is on the reaction of people to perceived deviance. This theory provides a
relativistic view of deviance and overlooks certain inconsistencies in the actual
consequences of deviant labeling. Further, the assumption that all people resist
the deviant label and the fact that there is limited research on actual response
patterns of members of society to people labeled as deviant are weaknesses to
this approach.
DEVIANCE AND INEQUALITY: SOCIAL-CONFLICT ANALYSIS
Deviance and Power Social inequality serves as the basis of the social-conflict
theory as it relates to deviance. Certain less powerful people in society tend to be
defined as deviant. This pattern is explained in three ways. First, the norms of
society generally reflect the interests of the status quo. Second, even if the
behavior of the powerful is questioned they have the resources to resist deviant
labels. And third, laws and norms are usually not questioned as being inherently
unfair; they are viewed as "natural."
Deviance and Capitalism Steven Spitzer suggested that deviant labels are
attached to people who interfere with capitalism. Four qualities of capitalism are
critical in determining who is labeled as deviant. This list includes: private
ownership, productive labor, respect for authority, and acceptance of the status
quo.
White-Collar Crime The concept white-collar crime, or crimes committed by
people of high social position in the course of their occupations, was defined by
Edwin Sutherland in the 1940s. While it is estimated that the harm done to
society by white-collar crime is greater than street crime, most people are not
particularly concerned about this form of deviance.
Corporate Crime Corporate crime ranges from developing dangerous products
to deliberately polluting the environment.
DEVIANCE AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY Hate Crimes The term hate crime refers
to a criminal act against a person or a person’s property by an offender motivated
by racial or other bias. While having a long history in our society, the government
has been tracking hate crimes only since 1990.
Deviance and Gender Historically, the significance of gender in the study of
deviant behavior has been ignored in sociological research. The behavior of
males and females has tended to be evaluated using different standards and the
process of labeling has been sex-biased. A brief application of the three
sociological paradigms is presented.
CRIME
What is viewed as criminal varies over both time and place. What all crime has in
common is that perceived violations bring about response from a formal criminal
justice system. Crime contains two elements, the act and the criminal intent.
Types of Crime Two major types of crime are recorded by the FBI in its
statistical reports known as the crime index. First, crimes against the person, or
violent crimes, are defined as crimes against people that involve violence or the
threat of violence. Examples are murder, rape, aggravated assault, and robbery.
Second, crimes against property, or property crimes, are defined as crimes that
involve theft of property belonging to others. Examples are burglary, larceny-theft,
auto theft, and arson. A third category, victimless crimes, is defined as
violations of law in which there are no readily apparent victims. Examples are
gambling, prostitution, and the use of illegal drugs.
Criminal Statistics The FBI statistics indicate that crime rates have generally
risen since 1960, although recent years rates have shown a downward trend.
Figure 6-2 (p. 149) shows rates for types of violent and property crime for the
years 1960-1999.
THE "STREET" CRIMINAL: A PROFILE
Age While only 14 percent of the population is between the ages of 15-24, this
age group accounts for roughly 40 percent of all arrests.
Gender Statistics indicate that crime is predominantly a male activity. Males are
three times more likely than females to be arrested. However, recent evidence
suggests the disparity is shrinking.
Social Class While research indicates that criminality is more widespread
among people of lower social standing, most poor people are not criminals.
Expanding the definition of crime to include white-collar crime raises the social
position of the "common criminal" significantly.
Race and Ethnicity The relationship between race and crime is complex. African
Americans, proportionally speaking, are arrested more often for index crimes
than whites. Several factors account for this. Prejudice may lead citizens to more
readily report African Americans as suspects; race and social class are closely
linked to the likelihood of engaging in street crimes; a higher rate of single
parenting means African American children are at much greater risk of growing
up in poverty; and index crimes fail to take into account white-collar crimes.
People of Asian descent have unusually low rates of arrest.
Crime in Global Perspective Relative to European societies, the United States
has a very high crime rate. Figure 6-3 (p. 151) compares rates of handgun
deaths in societies around the world. Several reasons for the relatively high crime
rate in the United States have been offered. First, our culture emphases
individual economic success. Second, the United States is characterized by
extraordinary cultural diversity. Third, the United States has a very high level of
economic inequality. Fourth, our society encourages private ownership of guns.
Finally, the process of "globalization" is linking the world's societies more closely,
allowing crime to more readily cross borders. The illegal drug trade is an example
of this last point.
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The criminal justice system is composed of three components--the police, the
courts, and the punishment of convicted offenders.
Police The police represent the point of contact between the public and the
criminal justice system. They are responsible for maintaining public order by
uniformly enforcing the law.
Courts The courts determine a person's guilt or innocence. Plea bargaining
refers to a legal negotiation in which the prosecutor reduces a charge in
exchange for a defendant’s guilty plea. This saves both time and expense, but
may undercut the rights of the defendants.
Punishment Four justifications for using punishment as part of our criminal
justice system are given. These include:
Retribution Retribution refers to an act ofmoral vengeance by which society
inflicts on the offender suffering comparable to that caused by the offense. In the
Seeing Ourselves box (p. 156), National Map 6-2 shows information on capital
punishment throughout the United States. We are the only industrial nation in
which the federal government imposes the death penalty. However, the states
have broadly divergent death penalty laws.
Deterrence Deterrence is the use of punishment to discourage criminality.
Deterrence emerged as a reform in response to the harsh punishments based on
retribution.
Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is a program for reforming the offender to prevent
subsequent offenses. Reformatories, or houses of correction, exist to provide a
controlled environment in which proper behavior is learned.
Societal Protection Societal protection is a means by which society renders
an offender incapable of further offenses either temporarily through incarceration
or permanently by execution. These justifications of punishment are summarized
in Table 6-2 (p. 155).