JUNIOR
1
S Y
C
O
N
2 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 1 V o l . 20
T
E
N
T
N o . 3
S
UNLOCKING THE MYSTERY OF AGING
In the end, it seems that the key to aging gracefully is
to find a balance between trying to stay young and
accepting that aging is inevitable.
BIOCHEMISTRY: INSIDE YOUR CELL
It’s more-than-meets-the-eye; each of us is
actually composed of millions and millions of
microscopic structures called cells.
THE WORLD RUNS ON OIL
ani Editor:
Dear Bato Bal
g to say...just
I’ve got nothin
’s cool!
site and wow! It
checkin’ out ur
ience much
I better study sc
d
guys...bye!! Goo
harder. Thanks,
luck!!!
Agnes Aparece
namitemail.com
bsb_agnes @dy
For eons the world has been practically
running on oil, but the question is, how much
longer can earth supply the world with oil?
PETRIFIED FOREST: WHEN LIFE TURNS TO ROCK
How can a piece of wood turn into a piece of
rock? This is the saga of the petrified forest.
R E G U L A R F E AT U R E S
3 Science & Technology News
5 Filipino Scientists and Inventors
Medical Facts and Fallacies
9 Livelihood Technology / I’d Like to Know
10 Cyber World
14 Earth Care
16 Investigatory Projects
BOARD OF ADVISERS
Violeta Arciaga, Jaime F. Bucoy
Jose C. Calderon, Victoria V. Cervantes,
Juanita M. Cruz, Belen P. Dayauon
CONSULTANT
Merle C. Tan, Ph.D.
DIWA OFFICERS
Lourdes F. Lozano Executive Editor
Amada J. Javellana
WilliamS.Fernando Managing Editor
Executive Vice President
Alfie “eLf” V. Mella Magazine Editor
Enrique A. Caballero,
19 Pseudoscience
Reynaldo M. de la Cruz,
William S. Fernando,
23 More Activities To Do
JoseMariaT.Policarpio, Elma L. Ropeta,
24 Mind Games
EDITORIAL BOARD
Saturnino G. Belen Jr. President
Virgie Naigan Art Director
JoseValerianoP.Linay Cover Design
Jose Valeriano P. Linay Layout Design
Silvano C. Santiago Illustrator
Lourdes F. Lozano Vice Presidents
R
BATO BALANIOR for Science and Technology is published bimonthly by Diwa Scholastic Press, Inc. Bato Balani is one of Diwa’s Scholastic Enhancement Materials (SEMOR ). The SEMO
trademark refers to a new genre of scholastic publication, including a selection of premium-quality magazines. Copyright 2000. Articles in this publication may be reprinted provided due acknowledgement
is given. All communications should be addressed to THE EDITOR, G/F Star Centrum, Gil Puyat Ave., Makati City, Philippines, Telephone numbers: 843-4761 to 66.
2
JUNIOR
High Fiber Diet:
Not For Cancer
S
everal years ago, studies
polyp removed. The group was
linked high fiber diet to
randomly divided into two and
prevention of colon cancer.
were asked to follow a certain diet.
But, early this year a study
After four years, the first group had
by the National Cancer
an average daily intake of 35 grams
Institute led by Dr. Arthur Schatzkin shows
of fiber, while the other group had
that high fiber diet has actually nothing to
20 grams. Yet members of both groups
do with the prevention of cancer. The study
developed the same number of new polyps.
involved 2,079 men and women of ages 35
Source: Time Magazine, May 15, 2000
and above who have had their pre-cancerous
Beware of Vitamin
Megadoses
B
iochemist Norman
The recommended daily dosage of
Krimsky of the Tufts
vitamin C for men is 90 mg and 75 mg for
University
in
women. A smoker may have an additional
Massachusetts,
35 mg a day because one effect of cigarette
reported that taking too
smoking is vitamin C depletion. It is
much of vitamin C may cause diarrhea and
necessary to remember that no adult should
may interfere with cancer treatment, while
ingest more than 2000 mg of Vitamin C in a
too much vitamin E may give you greater
day.
chances of bleeding.
But how do we know if we are taking
Source: Time Magazine, May 8, 2000
in too much or just enough?
JUNIOR
3
Aspirin
A
Power
spirin, the most
brain leads to the development of the disease.
familiar drug taken
This explains why people who take anti-
for the usual pains
inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, for
and aches, has been
other reasons are less likely to develop
found to help prevent the development of
Alzheimer’s Disease.
According to Dr. Richard Lipton of theAlbert
Einstein College of Medicine in New York,
research shows that inflammation within the
Zinc Is In
T
he now famous zinc is not only
good for colds. Studies show
that
consuming
zinc
supplements lowers the risk of
contracting pneumonia by 42% and diarrhea by
25%.
Good sources of zinc are breastmilk, beef,
and chicken meat. The recommended daily dosage
for infants is 5 mg while it is 10 mg for
preschoolers.
Source: Time Magazine, January 17, 2000
4
JUNIOR
Alzheimer’s Disease.
Source: Reader’s Digest, USA Edition. March 2000
Dr. Clara Y. Lim-Syliangco
National Scientist
Dr. Lim-Syliangco is an
internationally known biochemist. She has
made important research discoveries in
environmental mutagens. Her other work
on medicinal plants confirmed the value of
herbal medicine.
Dr. Lim-Syliangco’s achievements
led to the designation in 1986 of the
University of the Philippines-based
laboratory where she works as the
International Training Center for Detection
of Chemical Mutagens, by the Council of
Research Planning in Biological Sciences
in Washington, D.C.
She is also the author of five books
in organic chemistry, biochemistry, genetic
toxicology, and molecular nutrition, over 80
scientific articles published in science
journals, and 13 scientific papers presented
to international conferences.
Among the most important awards
she received are Lingkod Bayan Presidential
Award for Research in Mutagenicity,
Clastogenicity, and Antimutagenicity of
Philippine Medical Plants (1988), UP
Outstanding Faculty Award (1984),
Fulbright Achievement Award in Science
(1988), and National Research Council of
the Philippines Achievement Award (1989).
Dr. Lim-Syliangco finished her
studies in Associate in Arts with highest
honors (1974), Bachelor of Science magna
cum laude (1948), and Bachelor of Science
in Chemistry magna cum laude (1949) all
at Siliman University. She completed her
Master of Science in Chemistry (1953) at
the University of the Philippines and Doctor
of Philosophy in Biochemistry and Organic
Chemistry (1957) and Post-doctoral work
(1963-65) at the University of Iowa.
She is the founder of the
Philippine Environmental Mutagen Society,
Organic Chemistry Teachers’Association,
and the Philippine Biochemical Society.
On September 29, 1994, then
Pres. Fidel V. Ramos conferred to Dr. LimSyliangco the rank and the title of National
Scientist, one of only few in the list of the
National Academy of Science and
Technology.
Colds and Rain
Fallacy: Getting yourself wet with
rainwater will make you catch colds.
Fact: Common colds, or coryza, is an
infection of the mucous membranes lining
the nose and throat, resulting in a stuffy,
runny nose, sneezing and coughing, and
sometimes a sore throat and headache.
Contrary to common belief, a cold is
contracted through droplet infection and
direct contact with other people who have
colds. The virus which causes colds lodges
in the respiratory tract. When we cough,
sneeze or even breathe, we release droplets
into the air. These droplets may contain the
virus. When others inhale these droplets,
the virus enters the respiratory tract, where
it incubates and develops into full-blown
colds.
Colds virus thrives most frequently
during rainy days. This is the reason why
the weather is conveniently blamed for the
widespread occurrence of the infection.
JUNIOR
5
C H E M I S T R Y
I
By Ernesto Buensuceso Ferreras Jr.
n 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, the Spanish
governor of Haiti and Puerto Rico, started a
voyage in search of the legendary Fountain
of Eternal Youth, whose waters “made the
old young again.” He failed in his quest. No
such fountain exists. Today, molecular
biologists are looking for a different elixir of youth: the
secret that our cells and genes hold, governing old age.
How do we age?
Aging is the tragic side effect of life. Recent
studies have revealed the effects of normal aging and
the problems that come with old age. People aged
65 years and older are generally considered old.
Consider the following characteristics that develop in
people as they grow old.
Old people start having difficulty in recognizing
others. This is usually caused by the weakening of
vision, brought about by the thickening of the lenses
of the eyes. Hearing problems develop as well. The
eardrum and the three tiny bones of the middle ear
become less flexible. The skin wrinkles and begins to
sag. Muscles waste away and fat accumulates. Slight
movements elicit pain. The joints wear out; while bones
become porous and brittle, a condition called
osteoporosis.
6
JUNIOR
Old people are at a greater risk of having heart
attacks and other cardiovascular disorders like
thickening of the walls of the arteries, which limits blood
supply to the brain, and cholesterol build up along with
calcium in the blood vessels, which raises blood
pressure. Other major body organs like the liver, kidneys,
and lungs begin to deteriorate. For some reason, these
organs lose elasticity. These health problems are
common especially among old people who in their youth
had engaged heavily in unhealthful habits such as
cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, and improper diet.
Simple coughing becomes a difficult thing to
do, as the diaphragm weakens. The hair grows thin and
turns gray. And as the aging brain slowly loses its
tissues, memory deteriorates–recalling events and
remembering simple things become heavy tasks.
Why do we age?
Scientists believe that aging is the by-product
of normal metabolic and biochemical processes,
necessary for survival. Others believe that aging is caused
by hormones and other molecules that alter the activity
of genes. Various hypotheses on why we age have come
out from researches concerning biological aging.
Hayflick phenomenon. The best-known theory
of aging is called the Hayflick phenomenon, named after
Leonard Hayflick, an American microbiologist. In his
experiment with human cells in a tissue culture, he found
out that human cells divide for only a limited number of
times before they die. This suggests that aging is
programmed into cells.
Telomere Theory. Before a cell divides, it copies
its chromosomes to give each new cell a complete set.
At the ends of chromosomes are small structures of
repeated DNA bases called telomeres. The telomeres
protect the ends of every chromosome. Each time a
cell divides, the telomeres get shorter. This process is
repeated until the telomeres become so short that the
cell can no longer divide, and it becomes vulnerable to
damage and decay. In short, the telomeres act as an
aging clock. However, scientists have discovered an
enzyme called telomerase that can prevent telomeres
from shortening, thereby making cells immortal.
The Error Theory. One of the most prominent
genetic concept is the Error Theory. A cell contains
23 pairs of chromosomes in its nucleus. The
chromosomes consist of coils of DNA, or
deoxyribonucleic acid. They hold all the information about
the cell in the sequence of their paired nucleotides —
cytosine paired with guanine, and adenine with thymine,
in a double helix. The DNA is damaged when radiation
or molecules called free radicals, knock out a nucleotide.
The DNA repairs the damage by using the
complementary nucleotides as a guide. However,
unrepairable damage occurs during cell division, when
the helix splits down the middle. The DNA will insert a
nucleotide randomly, often causing a mutation. Although
DNA always repairs itself, eventually, the mutations
would accumulate. This results in aging and death of
the cell. Aging then, may be thought of as simply
unrepaired damage or deterioration.
Oxydative Stress and Dysdifferentiation. Other
scientists believe that aging is mostly a matter of physical
wear and tear — especially from exposure to oxygen.
During metabolism, nutrients and oxygen interact in the
mitochondria to make energy for the cell, such as
glucose, the basic form of cellular energy. When cells
burn glucose, some oxygen molecules become
electrically charged, turning to highly reactive free
radicals. Free radicals, such as molecules of hydroxyl
and superoxide, are like a form of cell pollution: they
have an unpaired electron. They can melt particles of
cell membranes and consume bits of DNA, thereby
damaging the cells. This process is called oxidative
stress.
Just how does DNA damage result in aging? It
is through a process called dysdifferentiation, which is
essentially the development in reverse. All humans evolve
from a single fertilized egg that develops by dividing and
differentiating, so that many different types of cells
emerge, such as blood, brain and muscle cells.
Free radicals can change the proper
differentiated state of the cell. For instance, brain cells
have been found to produce hemoglobin, a protein
produced by blood cells. Kidney cells may begin to
function like liver cells, and stomach cells may begin to
produce proteins, specific to the intestines. As these
cells produce their unnatural products, they become
less efficient. Over time, the cells age and die.
Anti-Aging Therapies
Today’s research on longevity includes
techniques and therapies that slow down the rate of
aging. As a positive result of antibiotics, vaccine, public
sanitation and preventive medicine, many old people
will become centennarians in the years ahead. The
longest-lived human was Jeanne Calment, a
Frenchwoman, who was recorded to have lived for 122
years.
JUNIOR
7
CHEMISTRY
Genetic Engineering. Genes can influence life
span. Lately, scientists have discovered genetic
mutations that appear to affect aging. Studies have
shown that a gene mutation shortens life by interfering
with the body’s ability to repair the damage caused by
metabolism. But mutation of the gene called age-1
lengthens life by enhancing the ability to reduce, resist,
or repair the damage done.
Scientists also discovered the clock gene,
which ticks away inside every living cell, helping tell
our bodies where we are in our daily activities, from
morning to night. Now, they are searching for a sort of
clock that may tell how fast we age. For instance, in a
mutant fruit fly, researchers were able to find the gene
that caused it to live for about one-third longer than the
rest of the flies in the bottle. Scientists called it the
Methuselah gene.
Anti-oxidants. Most cells in the body make
various anti-oxidants to neutralize free radicals before
they have a chance to destroy the DNA. Examples of
anti-oxidants are enzymes, such as superoxide
dismutase (SOD) and caltase. Scientists discovered
that longer-lived species had more SOD to protect
against radicals, than did shorter-lived species.
People with abnormally low levels of total antioxidant load might age abnormally fast. However,
supplements will boost their anti-oxidants until the
optimum level is reached. But if you are already at the
optimum level of anti-oxidant protection, consuming antioxidant dietary supplements may not slow down aging.
Increasing one anti-oxidant reduces the level of all other
anti-oxidants.
Exercise. Exercise can do a lot to enhance
the body. Among other things, exercise builds muscles
and burns fats, makes the heart and lungs work more
efficiently, and increases the flow of badly needed blood
to the brain.
However, beware of strenuous exercise. When
you exercise, you burn more oxygen, produce more
radicals, and also generate more anti-oxidant protection.
But if you can trick the cells into thinking that exercise
was taking place when it wasn’t, then you might
increase the anti-oxidant levels while free-radical
damage stays the same. But the big problem is how to
do it.
Diet. Some scientists believe that the secret
to longevity is to eat less. There are practically hundreds
of diet therapies claiming that life can be extended or
health can be enhanced. Nutritionists recommend a
diet that is low in fat to minimize the number of calories
consumed.
8
JUNIOR
Studies had shown that low-calorie diets can
double the average life span in a large number of
mammalian species, like rats. The animals are aging at
a slower rate, thereby increasing the maximum life span
— the age reached by the oldest survivor of a population.
Scientists believe that diet restriction seems to trigger
the release of a neurotransmitter or hormone, and this,
in turn, extends life. If animal results can be carried over
to humans, our life spans, then, will be extended as
much as 50 percent.
Read, Learn and Interact. “Always sharpen the
saw,” contemporary writer Stephen R. Covey said. Adults
who keep on sharpening their skills through reading,
learning, and interacting with others are far less likely
to lose their memory or decline into senility than those
who retreat into themselves as they age.
Studies have shown that seniors who have
emotional support from friends and family members have
lower levels of stress hormones circulating in their blood,
and are less likely to die in the near future than those
who feel lonely and isolated. Health does seem to be
enhanced by giving and sharing.
Through all the studies presented, it seems that
the key to aging well is to find a balance between trying
to stay young and accepting the fact that aging and
death are inevitable.
1. How do cells age and die?
2. Why should strenuous exercise be avoided?
3. Discuss various advancements in research that
aim to slow down the aging process.
Anti-oxidant – a substance that inhibits oxidation or reactions
promoted by oxygen
Hormone – a product of living cells that circulates in body fluids
and produces a specific effect on cells remote from its point of
origin
Nucleotide – any of several compounds that are the basic
structural units of nucleic acids (as RNA and DNA)
References:
1. Alexander, Brian. “Don’t Die, Stay Pretty: Introducing the
Ultrahuman Makeover.” WIRED, January 2000.
2. Encarta ’97 Encyclopedia. 1996. Microsoft Corporation.
4. Weintraub, Pamela. “Interview: Richard Cutler.” OMNI,
October 1986.
5. Weiss, Rick. “Aging — New Answers to Old Questions.”
National Geographic, Nov. 1997.
Q:
Jasper Camaña
St. Mary’s Academy
Why do we dream?
Pasay City, Metro Manila
Dreams occur during the REM, or the rapid eye movement
A:
phase of sleep. During this phase of sleep, our closed eyes
move rapidly and our brain activity peaks.
When awake, our brains receive and transmit messages
through billions of brain cells to their destinations, that keep our
bodies in constant motion. When we are asleep, our subconscious
mind is awake. Scientists theorize that dreams are the brain’s
attempt to piece together random information left over from
your waking stage.
Source: http://www.scienbob.com
When we are asleep, our subconscious mind is awake.
PINEAPPLE PRESERVE
INGREDIENTS
Pineapple, sugar, water, 12-oz. jars
PROCEDURE
1. Peel the pineapple and remove its eyes.
2. Slice or cut into cubes, as desired.
3. Wash and drain. Pack the pineapples into sterilized 12-oz. jars.
4. Pour water into the jars, and then drain.
5. Make syrup using one part sugar and one part water. Bring to a boil.
6. Allow the syrup to cool before pouring it into the jars of pineapple.
Remove the air bubbles.
7. Refill with syrup. Half-seal the jars.
8. In a boiler, sterilize the half-sealed jars for 25 minutes.
9. Remove the jars from the boiler and allow to cool.
10. Seal the jars and store at room temperature.
JUNIOR
9
CONDITIONALS
AND
LOOPING
Many programs are designed to respond to
different inputs. In the last issue we learned how to input
data from the keyboard. In this issue we will look at
some new commands which allow certain responses
from the computer given particular inputs.
IF-THEN Command
The IF-THEN command is fairly simple to use
and easy to understand, first let us briefly look at the
structure:
IF <condition> THEN
<statements>
ELSE
<statements>
END
If the <condition> is true, the statements after
the THEN statement are executed. If the <condition> is
false then the statements after the ELSE are executed.
It should also be noted that the ELSE is an optional
attribute of the IF-THEN. Study the example:
INPUT “Enter any integer except 0”; num
IF num>0 THEN
PRINT “The number you entered is positive”
ELSE
PRINT “The number you entered is negative”
END
10
JUNIOR
If the number entered is greater than zero then
the following statement will be executed. If the number
entered is less than zero then the statement after the
else will be executed. Maybe you are thinking now what
about the zero? Well, it is possible to add additional
conditions inside the IF-THEN, as in the next example:
INPUT “Enter any integer except 0”; num
IF num>0 THEN
PRINT “The number you entered is
positive”
ELSEIF num=0
PRINT “The number you
entered is zero”
ELSE
PRINT “The number you
entered is negative”
END
Let’s follow this program. The first part that gets
evaluated is the first condition (which you can also call
the main condition) or the “num>0”. If this is false then it
will go to the second condition in the sequence which is
the “num=0” condition. Only when the second condition
is evaluated as false does the ELSE statement take
effect. As a rule, once a condition is met within the IFTHEN, all other conditions are ignored.
GOTO
The GOTO command is a tempting thing to use
but one should be careful in its use to avoid “spaghetti
coding” which means making a program which jumps
around loosing any logical structure. What does this
command do? It instructs the computer to jump to a
specified program line. Take a look at the example:
CLS
top: INPUT “Choose a number
between 1 and 10”; num
IF num>10 THEN
GOTO top
ELSEIF NUM < 1 THEN
GOTO top
ELSE
PRINT “Now you see
how the GOTO works!”
END
The line “top:” is not a command rather it is a
label. It acts like a “bookmark” to the program code.
The command “GOTO top” tells the computer to go to
the label top and execute the commands right after “top:”.
Labels can take any form you want however it should
always end with a colon. When calling the label with a
GOTO you need not place the colon.
FOR-NEXT
Let’s suppose you want to print your name on
the screen 100 times, how do we do that without having
to type 100 PRINT statements? Luckily for us there are
commands which are constructed for tasks like this
called loops. The FOR-NEXT command is one example.
FOR <numeric variable> = <start value> to <end
value> STEP <increment> <statements>
NEXT
By default the increment value is 1 so if you
omit the STEP attribute the computer assumes the
increment value is 1. Now look at the example:
CLS
INPUT “Enter your name:”, name$
FOR I = 1 to 100
PRINT name$
NEXT
END
This program will print the name entered 100
times on screen. The variable “I” will start with a value of
1 and will keep on increasing by one until it reaches the
ending value of 100.
JUNIOR
11
BioChemistry:
Inside Your Cell
by ERNESTO A. PANG JR.
T
he word cell comes from the Latin
word cella, meaning a small room.
That’s why we have such phrases as
prison cells or monastery cells. That
is also why in 1665, the Englishman
Robert Hooke, secretary of the Royal
Society of London, identified that plant tissues such as
cork have certain vesicular structures — and he called
such structures as cells. This was later supported by
the Italian Marcello Malpighi, who founded the science
of microscopic anatomy. Actually, Hooke did not find
cells in the cork but dead walls of formerly living
cells. The universal presence of cell nuclei in
tissues was recognized in 1833 by the British
botanist Robert Brown (1773-1858). From then
on, a lot of other studies on cells and their
structures have been made, especially on the
concept of a cell being the fundamental unit of
life, credited mainly to the German biologists
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804-1881) and Theodor
Schwann (1810-1882) who published works on this in
1839.
Typical plant or animal cells have dimensions
of around 5 to 20 microns (one micron is one-millionth
of a metre). Bacteria cells are smaller still, measuring
on the order of two microns, the smallest discovered
being 0.2 micron. The largest cells are the yolks of
bird’s eggs: the largest recorded is of the now-extinct
elephant bird, Aepyornis, of Madagascar, at eight pounds
or 3.5 kilograms. The largest egg of a living
species is of the ostrich with a yolk
measuring one pound or 0.45 kilogram.
Small organisms, such as rotifers, a
kind of microscopic water animal, have
very few cells. Human beings however
have cells numbering to 1014, with three
million of our red blood cells dying and replaced every
12
JUNIOR
second — but then this just
represents less than one tenmillionth of our total cell number.
For a moment in time, the cell was thought to
be a homogenous droplet of organic material called
protoplasm, or the ‘living substance.’ But then this was
disproved upon closer study of cell structures and
division in the later half of 19th century and start of 20th
century. It was known that the cell consisted of a variety
of well-defined smaller components. About 70 to 80
percent of water is inside a cell, which also has some
other dissolved salts and small organic compounds.
Its most characteristic components are proteins
and nucleic acids. Some cells, especially of
plants and bacteria, have an external cell wall.
In higher plants, these walls are made of
cellulose, while bacteria secrete slimy material
to produce capsules around themselves; animal
cells meanwhile don’t have cell walls. All cells
however have the same primary parts: the cell
membrane, cytoplasm, and the nucleus.
The cell membrane is the most important part
of the cell, since it holds together the different parts of
the cell and acts as a boundary between the external
environment and the internal. The major function of the
cell membrane is to control the passage of substance
into and out of the cell. Because it is somewhat like oil,
substances soluble in oil or organic solvents, like ether,
carbon dioxide and oxygen, can pass through very easily;
substances soluble in water however like sugar and salt
cannot. Thus, the membrane
maintains a different chemical
environment inside the cell from the
outside. But of course, certain watersolubles might still enter the cell since
the cell has to take up substances needed for
metabolism and release waste materials through the
membrane. Therefore, the cell employs the help of
proteins that act as ‘pumps’ to transfer elements insideout and vice-versa. This is called active transfer and it
requires energy provided by the metabolism of the cell.
‘Cell drinking’ also happens when large molecules such
as proteins are ‘drunk in’ by the cell. If certain kinds of
proteins are near the cell, they stimulate the cell to sink
in, close off, and break off the vacuole formed, leaving
the protein inside. Much the same also happens in
phagocytosis: amoebas eat this way with larger
particles. White blood cells inside our bodies also do
this, engulfing bacteria and viruses that attack our
systems. The cytoplasm is likewise made up of
substances that make up the membrane. It also houses
several of the organelles of the cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of
internal membranes, forming tubes and vesicles,
extending from the surface of the cell to the nucleus. It
is often told that that these tubules open at the cell
surface so they act as some sort of microcirculatory
system through which the outside makes contact with
the cell; this has been proven on muscle cells, but it
still has not been determined out if it is universal.
Ribosomes are half protein and half ribonucleic acid, or
RNA, and they cover the surface of the endoplasmic
reticulum. They act as ‘docks’ for messenger RNA’s
and amino acid carried by transfer RNA’s.
The Golgi apparatus is concerned with the
secretion of proteins to the outside of the cell, adding
sugar groups to protein, and supplying these proteins
to the manufacture of the membranes. It consists of
stacks of disc-shaped vesicles and is a part of the
endoplasmic membrane.
Lysosomes meanwhile are small sac-like
vesicles that bud off from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain destructive enzymes used
to break down large molecules such as
proteins, and these enzymes are
released only when needed. In the case
of inhalation of asbestos, particles may
enter the cell and cause rupture of
these lysosomes.
Mitochondria
are
the
powerhouses of the cell. They convert
fuels, such as sugar and fats, into a form
of energy usable by the cell and therefore
by the body as a whole. In plant cells, the
mitochondrion has chlorophyll, a pigment that absorbs
light which is the plant’s main source of energy.
Chlorophyll is the pigment that causes the leaves to
turn green.
The plasma
membrane lies
between the
wall and the
cytoplasm
Parts of a Plant Cell
Rigid wall of cellulose
Chloroplasts trap the
Sun’s energy and
make the cell’s food
Vacuoles are large
storage spaces
containing a water
fluid called cell sap
Nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
The nucleus is bounded by a double membrane.
The very narrow space in between the two membranes
is called the perinuclear space. This is where the other
end of the endoplasmic reticulum leads to form the end
of the cell. There are also small holes viewed possibly
only by an electron microscope and are said to be the
passageways of larger molecules such as messenger
RNA’s. Most of the genetic material, the DNA, are inside
the chromosomes of the nucleus. These chromosomes
consist of long strands of double-helical DNA, unto which
basic protein is attached. The number of chromosomes
depends upon every species. Humans have
46 chromosomes each, or 23 pairs.
1. What are the three primary parts of the cell?
2. Differentiate an animal cell from a plant cell.
3. How does the cell maintain its internal chemical
environment?
Enzyme - a protein acting as a catalyst in a
biochemical reaction
Asbestos - a fire-resistant, fibrous mineral used in
fireproofing, electrical insulation, etc.
Reference:
Collier’s Encyclopedia Vol. 5, 1997
JUNIOR
13
They’re
Abusing
Our
Environment!
14
JUNIOR
T
he Philippines is
one of the richest
countries
in
terms
of
biodiversity.
The country was once
known for its vast rainforests.
These forests were home to a
diverse species of plants and
animals.
Tragically, rampant logging,
quarrying and misuse of these natural
resources have depleted what once were
habitats teeming with flora and fauna.
Oftentimes we hear the terms
endangered and threatened species. An
organism is considered to be endangered if its
population becomes very small in number that
its extinction becomes inevitable. A species is
said to be threatened if, although it is still found
in great numbers, the rate of its decrease is very
fast that it could lead to its extinction.
provide cure for diseases are derived from plants
found in forests.
Our environment is part of a very fragile
ecosystem where the effects of exploitation
can ripple throughout the entire food chain.
Even humans who lord it over and are at the
top of this food chain will not be spared from
the effects of irresponsible and abusive
plunder of earth’s limited resources. Once
the forests are gone, possible sources of
vaccines and medicines to combat modern
illnesses will be no longer available. The oceans
and seas will yield less and less fishes and will
be the cause for many people to go hungry.
It is, therefore, important that all of us
become aware of this danger and our part to
prevent the exploitation of our resources
before it is too late.
There are many reasons why organisms
become threatened, endangered or extinct, but they
can be summed up into one word -- abuse.
1. What are the usual human activities
that cause the depletion of our natural
resources?
2. What harmful effects can destruction
of forests pose to humankind?
Filipinos living in areas near bodies of water
depend largely on fishing for livelihood. However, some
of these people tend to get abusive. They use
dynamites, fine nets, electricity, and even chemicals,
all for the purpose of getting more than what they usually
get. With these methods, large and small fishes alike
are killed.
Another harmful effect concerns the destruction
of coral reefs. This has a devastating impact on other
marine animals. Aside from being hiding places for
fishes, coral reefs serve as breeding grounds for most
of them.
The forest is not spared from destructive human
activities such as illegal logging and the kaingin system
of clearing the forest. Like coral reefs, forests serve as
breeding grounds for and home to many species of plants
and animals. Forests have a major contribution to our
ecosystem. The benefits that these forests give
humankind is priceless. A lot of modern drugs that
Kaingin system - a farming method, also
known as the slash-and-burn type of
agriculture, wherein people use fire,
which they skillfully control, in order
to clear a specific portion of the forest
that they plan to cultivate
References:
Bagarinao, Teodora. “Nature Parks, Museums, Gardens and
Zoos for Biodiversity Conservation and Environment.”
Education: The Philippines,” Ambio:A Journal of Human
Environment. vol. XXVII, May 1998.
Miller, G. Tyler. Environmental Science: Working With the Earth.
Sixth ed. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 1997.
http://www.nubook.com (p.14-15)
JUNIOR
15
I N
C O O P E R AT I O N
W I T H
T H E
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLGY
Sawdust as
Substitute
for
Commercial
Golf Tees
ABSTRACT
With the high deforestation rate that
we are experiencing, recycling or substituting
is recommended for materials made of
wood, especially for those which are easily
discarded. One such kind is a golf tee.
Sawdust, which is a waste material,
was used in this research. This wood byproduct was molded to form a golf tee,
comparable to that of the commercial golf
tee.
A mold was prepared and the sawdust
gathered was sieved in the Wiley mill. Two
different binders were tried and were mixed
with the sawdust. The mixture was allowed
to dry before detaching the produced tees
from the mold.
Characteristics and properties of the
golf tees formed were recorded and
compared. The recycled golf tees were then
given to a set of panelists (golfers) for rating.
Results show that the commercial wooden
golf tee was still preferred by most golfers
even though the properties present in the
commercial golf tee were also present in the
experimental golf tees produced in this
research.
INTRODUCTION
Golf tees are made of different
materials such as wood and plastic. More
often than not, golfers lose or break these
tees. Golf tees are used by golfers to elevate
16
JUNIOR
the ball from the ground before the start of
play. Plastic tees pose a problem to the
environment because they are
nonbiodegradable. On the other hand, using
wooden tees, in one way or another, will
add to the demand for wood.
This research aims to produce
recycled golf tees which are made of
sawdust, a by-product of wood.
First of all, utilizing sawdust will
maximize the use of wood extracted from
our forests. Secondly the availability of a
recycled golf tee, or any other recycled wood
product, will introduce a cheaper and
comparable alternative for users and buyers.
Lastly, this research, focusing on recycling
waste materials, will help promote zerowaste management.
Testing for the right kind of preform
to be used was included in this project.
Production of golf tees was on a limited
laboratory scale.
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
The researchers used a golf tee as an
example of such disposable wood products.
Sawdust was utilized as a substitute
in making a golf tee.
An adhesive was needed in binding
the sawdust. Adhesives are materials capable
of fastening materials together by means of
surface attachment. The types of natural
adhesives include animal-derived adhesives
(such as blood, gelatin, and casein),
vegetable-derived products (such as soybean
oil and wheat flour), and forest-derived
products (pine resins and cellulose
derivatives). The group used resin as the
adhesive for this research. Resin is an
adhesive that usually hardens into brittle,
amorphous, solid substances upon exposure
to air. Resin was obtained by making cuts in
the tree bark, and the globules that flowed
from the cut were collected. Wood, glue,
and premix resins were considered as
alternatives.
A preform was fabricated to form the
desired shape of the golf tee. Clay, plaster
of paris, and rubber were the types of
preform used by the group. Clay, which is
moldable and tenacious was first used.
Second to be tried was plaster of paris.
Because of its property of swelling and
filling all interstices upon drying, plaster of
paris is used extensively in making casts
for statuary, ceramics, dental plates, fine
metal parts for precision instruments and
surgical splints. It is also like cement but the
latter is much stronger than the plaster when
they both harden. The last preform to be
used is made of rubber. Rubber is a natural
or synthetic substance characterized by
elasticity, water repellance, and water
resistance.
Ranking using a rating scale was used
to test the acceptability and quality of the
golf tees.
MATERIALSAND METHODS
A. Gathering of Materials. Before the
experiment, sawdust, binders, and materials
for the mold were gathered. Sawdust, the
main component of this research, was
obtained from a hardware store, along with
the plaster of paris and clay. The rubber mold
was fabricated. The adhesive to be tested,
the premix resin with hardener, and the wood
glue were bought from a chemical shop.
B. Sieving of Sawdust. Sawdust was
screened for large particles and was placed
in the Wiley mill for grinding. The powdered
sawdust was then stored until the adhesive
was ready for mixing.
C. Fabrication of Mold. Testing for
the most efficient mold is included in this
study. Three molds were made and these
were made of clay, Plaster of Paris, and
rubber.
1. Clay Mold. Control golf tees
were embedded in an upright position and
were then slowly pulled out, creating a mold
with an opening on the top portion.
2. Plaster of Paris Mold. Powder
form plaster of paris was placed in a container
and water was poured to form a thick liquid
mixture. The mixture was poured into a
carton to form the first half of the mold.
Plastic golf tees were immediately placed
on top of the mixture, partly embedded, and
were left to dry. After the first layer had
hardened, it was lined with a soap-and-water
solution to facilitate easy separation of the
cast. The second layer was then poured over
the first layer completing the plaster of paris
mold. Lastly, the mold was split and the
plastic golf tees were taken out. The mold
was placed in the oven to remove excess
moisture.
3. Rubber Mold. The rubber
mold was fabricated in a machine shop. It
has two parts like that of the plaster of paris
mold, but it could only hold one golf tee at a
time.
D. Addition of Adhesive to Sawdust.
The adhesive was prepared by mixing
premix resin with hardener using 90% resin
and 10% hardener. Four treatments of
different ratios of the sawdust and resin were
prepared. The four mixtures were: 60-40,
50-50, 40-60, 30-70 percent of sawdust to
resin binder, respectively. These four ratios
were also used for a different adhesive, wood
glue.
E. Molding of Mixture. The mixtures
of sawdust and resin and sawdust and wood
glue were then tried on each of the three
molds. After the mixtures have hardened,
JUNIOR
17
the golf tees produced were separated from
the mold. Each was screened for defects
and unwanted protrusions were sanded.
F. Statistical Test. The experimental
golf tees were then given to a set of panelists
for qualitative rating using Friedmann’s
statistical test. Characteristics to be
considered were durability, weight, and
appearance. A control wooden golf tee was
also rated for comparison.
preform among the three. The shape of the
recycled tee was very pronounced. It had
the hardness needed and the golf tee was
easy to detach from the mold.
The 40-60 binder-sawdust ratio was
used because this ratio was able to balance
the maximum amount of sawdust needed.
This ratio produced a semi-liquid mixture,
which was porous and possessed the needed
strength.
SELECTED REFERENCES:
Allen, K.W. 1979. The Nature of
Adhesives.
Britt, K.W. 1970. Handbook of
Pulp and Paper Technology, 2nd ed.
Mabesa, Kinda, Sensory
RESULTSAND DISCUSSION
SUMMARYAND CONCLUSION
Initially, modeling clay for the mold
was used. Results were noted down and
tabulated.After the first mold was completed,
another one made of plaster of paris was
tried out. Lastly, a fabricated preform made
of rubber was used. The results were then
compared in terms of the properties and
characteristics of the golf tees formed.
This research, which suports zerowaste management, was able to produce golf
tees made of sawdust. The experiment
showed that the clay mold was the most
efficient among the three preforms because
it was able to follow the shape of the control
golf tee (wood). And not only were the
recycled tees easy to detach, the mold was
also reusable. Tabulated results using
Friedmann’s statistical test showed that there
is significant difference in the preferences
of the panelists for the three kinds of golf
tees.
The same setup and procedure were
applied using a different binder, wood glue.
Similar results were obtained. Only, golf tees
mixed with resin had greater stress
resistance.
Before mixing the binder to the
sawdust, four different ratios were tried to
see which would be appropriate for the golf
tees to be produced.
The fabricated golf tees were rated
by the set of panelists using Friedmann’s
test, the test used for determining the
acceptability of the three kinds of golf tees.
Panelists ranked the samples using a scale
of 1-5, where 1 stands for the least preferred
and 5 the most preferred sample.
There is a significant difference in
the preference of the panelists for the
different kinds of golf tees.
Based on the characteristics of the
formed golf tees, the clay mold was the best
18
JUNIOR
Between the two binders used, resin
proved to be more durable and acceptable to
the panelists. The hardness and compactness
of the golf tee was also influenced by the
amount of adhesive added to the sawdust.
Evaluation of Foods: Principles and
Methods
Microsoft Encarta, 1994.
Adhesive, Clay, Founding, Gypsum,
Resin, and Rubber
RESEARCHERS:
Jonathan Aguirre
Benjamin Liñan
Rossette Yabut
ADVISER:
Ms. Juanita Cruz
Philippine Science High
School
Quezon City, Philippines
RECOMMENDATIONS
The group would like to recommend
that further researches be done on the
following: introduction of different golf tee
preforms that will be able to withstand
pressure and will be reusable; the use of a
nonsynthetic, biodegradable binder; finished
product to be subjected to more tests for
sufficiency of data; and use of sawdust as
substitute for many important wood
products.
Submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements in Research II. No
part of this article may be used or
reproduced in any form whatsoever
without written permission from PSHS,
Diliman, except in the case of brief
citations embodied in scientific articles
and reviews.
This section aims to present various practices and/or beliefs that have gained popularity over the years, and are
claimed by its advocates as grounded on sound scientific principles. They have yet, however, to be formally accepted by the
general scientific community as scientific. For any of it to be considered scientific, controlled and measurable conditions must
be able to replicate the phenomenon or activity. “Pseudo-“ means false and it is best for the public to be made aware of the facts
behind these practices and beliefs.
Psychic Surgery
O
ne of the more dubious
worldwide distinctions
earned by Filipinos is in
the area of faith healing.
Psychic surgery is “a
type of non-surgery performed by a nonmedical healer.” Filipino “psychic surgeons”
have had frequent run-ins with the police in
the Philippines, the United States and even
the Russian states. None of these Filipino
faith healers have been able to present
themselves for scientific investigation.
Psychic surgery is the perceived
surgery performed on a human patient
without the use of any medical instruments
and using solely the “surgeon’s” hands, to
make an incision on the body and extract or
remove parts of or internal organs claimed
to have been diseased. Additionally, faith
healers cultivate an image of themselves as
divine agents, claiming to receive their
healing powers from a divine source.
Despite the lack of any scientific
evidence and many authoritative publications
debunking the practice, there is a loyal
following and set of believers who support
these faith healers. Believers can only offer
anecdotal evidence that they know of such
person who had been cured by psychic
surgery, and so on and so forth.
There have been efforts exerted by
the scientific community to evaluate psychic
surgery. Filipino faith healers have been
invited to various scientific fora and asked
to demonstrate their craft. None has taken
up the invitation.
In the instances where “cured”
patients were subjected to medical scrutiny,
these patients did not reveal any surgery
performed on them through X-rays and
other diagnostic instruments. Suspicion that
psychic surgery is a fraud will remain among
the scientific community until it is validated
and collaborated by hard medical
investigation.
shamanism… Psychic surgery is a
procedure in which sleight-of-hand is used
to create an illusion that patients can be cured
with surgery that leaves no skin wound…The
real danger of psychic surgery lies in sick
people ignoring proper medical care in their
search for a miracle, often returning to their
medical doctors only when it is too late.”
Psychic surgery is big business
among its practitioners. In the Philippines,
many Filipinos continue to believe in and
patronize these healers. It is important to
remember that none of these so-called healers
have had any formal medical training, and
are merely preying on the gullibility of people
who are desperate for cheap cures to their
illnesses.
References:
The danger posed by psychic
surgery, however, remains a major
consideration. In the website of the British
Columbia (Canada) Cancer Agency, a
clearinghouse for information pertaining to
cancer research, it addresses the issue of
psychic surgery: “Psychic surgery is a
modern expression of traditional Filipino
JUNIOR
www.bccancer.bc.ca
“Psychic Surgery in the Philipines,”
American Journal of Clinical
Hypnosis, July 1988.
www.berkeleypsychic.com
www.therapies.com
19
C H E M I S T R Y
The World
Runs on Oil
By Ernesto Buensuceso Ferreras Jr.
Looking for oil is like searching for buried
treasure worth billions of dollars.
The quest for oil is one kind of adventure.
Geologists and oil explorers scour the remotest jungles
of the earth, trek the deserts, voyage into polar regions,
and journey thousands of feet under mountains, beneath
oceans, and ice caps in search of petroleum. All these
ventures help meet the world’s insatiable demand for
oil. But alas! the world’s known reservoirs of liquid oil
are fast depleting. Hence, the endless search for oil.
Many of the things that we employ everyday
are manufactured from materials extracted from the
processing of oil. For example, a cup you drink from
may be made from polyethylene.You sit down on a seat
cushion of polyurethane. Your car may have a plastic
interior paneling. You may even wear a polyester jacket.
So, you’re practically wearing, sitting on, and drinking
from oil. But motor vehicles, one machine that dominates
our lives, have long been running on fuel derived from
petroleum.
Besides being an energy source, fossil fuels
serve as raw materials for the production of industrial
chemicals and for products such as paints, synthetic
rubber, explosives, plastic and synthetic fibers,
pesticides, drugs, and fertilizers. These basic chemical
products are known as petrochemicals.
How Oil Was Formed
The original source of the chemical energy
stored in fossil fuels, such as oil, is the sun. Over eons,
green plants on land and in the seas have converted
solar energy to chemical energy into glucose and other
organic molecules through photosynthesis.
Petroleum or crude oil was formed by the
20
JUNIOR
decomposition of marine organisms. From the place
where oil is pumped out, whether on land or above the
water, the place was once, most likely, a vast shallow
sea millions of years ago. The remains of tiny marine
plants and animals steadily settled onto the basin floor
enmeshed with the fine sands and silts. Such deposits
became the source rocks for the formation of crude oil.
The sediments grew thicker and sank into the
seafloor under their own weight. As this compound
accumulated, its lower layers naturally became denser
and were pressed more deeply into the earth’s crust,
where the temperature of the mixture rose. As additional
deposits piled up, the pressure on the ones below
increased several thousand times, and the temperature
rose by several hundred degrees. Hence, heat, pressure,
and the action of bacteria transformed it into liquid
petroleum and natural gas.
The mud and sand hardened into shale and
sandstone; carbonate precipitates and skeletal shells
hardened into limestone; and the remains of the dead
organisms were transformed into crude oil and natural
gas in vast underground pools.
Oil is naturally buoyant. Once the petroleum
formed, it flowed upward in the earth’s crust because it
has a lower density than the brines that saturated the
interstices of the shales, sands, and carbonate rocks
that constituted the crust of the earth. The crude oil and
natural gas rose into the microscopic pores of the
coarser sediments lying above.
Sometimes, ascending oil ran into an
impermeable layer of rock such as shale, shaped like
an inverted bowl. These dome-shaped caprocks, or traps,
prevented the oil from rising farther. If there was a large
formation of porous rock just under the trap, the rising
oil accumulated in a network of tiny pores. These porous
rocks are known as reservoir rocks. The fluids lie not in
pools, but within the spaces of the porous rocks.
A significant amount of the oil, however, flowed
out of the surface of the earth or onto the ocean floor.
Most of the oil made by the earth has probably
succeeded over the eons in escaping out onto the
surface, where it was destroyed by sunlight, bacteria,
and oxygen.
The Quest for Oil
Oil explorers, like detectives, look for
undulations and faults of past movement in the earth’s
crust that form traps for petroleum. Scientists employ
many tools to assist them in identifying potential areas
for drilling. Among the tools are satellite images and
airborne radar that help geologists map the earth’s
surface. Aerial surveys measure magnetic fields, while
magnetotelluric surveys measure magnetic and electrical
fields. Variations in the magnetic and electrical fields
may signal an oil-bearing rock layer.
Seismic surveys carried out on land and water
record differences on how rocks deflect shock waves.
The techniques involve explosions that set off ground
tremors. Sound waves produced reflect off rock formation
deep underground. They reveal details of the structure
and interrelationship of various layers in the subsurface.
Scientists also use sniffers to detect traces of gaseous
hydrocarbons that may bubble upward from an oil
reservoir.
Drilling an exploratory well — on land or offshore
— is the only way to find out exactly what lies
underground. Drilling into the crust and retrieving
samples of the rock layers encountered, scientists can
determine the chemical composition of the rocks. And,
in a process called down-hole logging, a probe lowered
into the well detects various properties of the rocks it
passes through.
Even with these different types of information,
drilling for oil is hit or miss. A well can come close to a
field and still strike nothing. An oil field, once found,
may comprise more than one reservoir. Indeed, several
reservoirs may be stacked one above the other. The
largest deposits are in the Middle East, which contain
more than half the known oil reserves.
The Gift of Oil
Oil bestowed humankind the gift of progress.
Societies progressed and technology advanced
tremendously, fueled by oil and its derivatives. However,
there’s one drawback to the continuing use of
technologies that depend on oil: environmental pollution.
The use of fossil fuels is a major source of air and water
pollution, not to mention global warming.
Environmentalists and governments alike are pushing
for the modernization of technology in machines that
run on fossil fuels. In this way, the amount of pollution
from burning fossil fuels can be lessened.
Many scientists believe that the end of the fossil
fuel era is near. If present trends continue, oil reserves
will be used up in about 50 years time. That will give us
time to look for alternative forms of energy that must
replace petroleum. Energy from the sun, tides, and wind
has already been harnessed, though on a limited scale.
Power is available from a wide range of sources if we
only have the money, time, and a sense of urgency to
tap them.
Petroleum is the most precious resource on
our planet; we should use it wisely. It is now high time
for us to be concerned about using oil — to be concerned
for the way we live, for our diminishing resources, and
for our planet Earth.
1. What vital industries depend heavily on the use of
petroleum and other oil products?
2. Describe the processes that turned the remains of
plants and animals into petroleum and natural gas.
3. Explain the different methods or techniques employed
in the search for oil.
Alkanes – hydrocarbons that contain only single covalent bonds;
the simplest organic molecules
Aromatic compounds – unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbon
compounds; also called arenes
Cracking – a controlled process by which hydrocarbons are
broken down or rearranged into smaller, more useful molecules
Polyurethane – any of various polymers used in making resins,
flexible and rigid foams, and elastic rubber-like substances
References:
1. Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1996. Microsoft Corporation.
2. Hapgood, Fred. “The Quest for Oil.” National Geographic,
August 1989.
3. Miller, G. Tyler, Jr. Chemistry: A Contemporary Approach. 1976.
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc.: California, USA.
4. Wilbraham, Antony C., Dennis D. Staley & Michael S. Matta.
Chemistry, 4 th Edition. 1997. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc.: California, USA.
JUNIOR
21
C H E M I S T R Y
Petrified Forest:
When Life Turns to Rock
L
By Jenny Mae Z. Sombrito
ooking at the picture below, what do you
see? You might say, pieces of logs lying
around maybe washed by a flood or a
volcanic eruption. That description is not
far from the truth.
These are logs alright, but you can hardly call
them wood. If you try to poke it with a nail, you might
get the shock of your life. The ‘log’ would be as hard as
a piece of rock!
Not a stone carving either, the picture shows
us some trees that turned into rock – they are called
petrified trees, collectively known as a petrified forest.
Petrified forests are preserved in many states
in the US – in New York, Wyoming, and California. The
most famous Petrified Forest in the United States of
America is in North Arizona, part of which is shown on
the picture below.
Petrified forests are made up of tree trunks that
were buried in mud,
sand or volcanic ash
millions of years ago
and have turned into
stone. What exactly
happened is that,
minerals
slowly
replaced the natural
wood fibers of the trees,
turning them into stone.
The replacement of
minerals usually takes
millions of years before
the process is completed.
How it actually happens
is not really clear, as they
cannot reproduce the
process
inside
the
laboratory, where it can be properly observed and
measured. Although they do have a picture of the
process.
22
JUNIOR
Petrification is caused by water that seeps
through the mud and sand into the buried logs. Before
the wood completely decays, the empty cells of the
wood is filled in with minerals brought by the water. This
process continues, with the minerals replacing the wood
fibers, until the structure becomes solid stone. The
minerals seeping in takes on the form of the original
tree, so the stone still shows every detail of the original
wood structure, even under the microscope. In fact,
some petrified trees are exact mineral replicas of the
living tree, with the cell structure still visible.
The formation of petrified forests may undergo
any of the three processes: (1) replacement,
(2) permineralization, and (3) carbonization.
In replacement, the water dissolves away the
original substance of the trees, even animals. As the
substance dissolves, minerals replace it.
Permineralization takes place when minerals
fill in the small air spaces in the tissues of the trees, or
bone and shells in the case of animals, without changing
the original shape. The actual tissue remains,
strengthened by the minerals.
Lastly, carbonization is the process by which
leaves or the soft parts of the animals turn to carbon.
Other chemicals escape leaving a record of the shape
of the plant or animal as a thin film of carbon.
The last condition needed is time. Water seeps
in through the wood tissue very slowly, so it takes an
enormous amount of time to completely fill in or substitute
the tree with minerals.
Looking for more evidences, someday
scientists may finally paint us a picture of how the earth
developed and changed over time. And maybe, help us
find better ways of taking care of our only home by
showing us how nature was able to balance the forces
of destruction and the forces of creation.
References:
Petrified Forests. World Book Encyclopedia. World Book Inc, USA.
1987
Fossil. World Book Encyclopedia. World Book Inc, USA. 1987
http://www.optonline.com/comptons/ceo/03706_A.html
http://lupus.northern.edu:90/natsource/earth/Petrif1.htm
Soap Making
Detergents are cleansing substances made from chemical compounds rather than fats
and lye. Most detergents are derived from petroleum. Some refined petroleum products are made
to react with concentrated sulfuric acid. These products are called “soapless or synthetic detergents.”
Soap, on the other hand, are cleansing agents made from alkali acting on natural oils and fats.
In this activity, we will create soap using laboratory equipment and materials.
MATERIALS
Cooking oil (5 cm 3 ), sodium hydroxide
(concentrated, 40 cm 3), water, table salt, castor oil,
sulfuric acid (2 cm3), two (2) beakers, tripod, asbestos
gauze, burner, matchsticks, stirring rod, test tube,
medicine dropper.
PROCEDURE
1.Pour the cooking oil and the sodium hydroxide into the beaker.
Caution: Avoid skin contact with the sodium hydroxide. In case of contact,
wash the area with running water.
2.Place the asbestos on the tripod before placing the beaker.
3.Heat the beaker using the burner.
4.Constantly stir the mixture. Lower the fire once the mixture boils.
5.Continue stirring for about half an hour while adding a little water to
replace the evaporating liquid.
6.Remove from heat.
7.Meanwhile, boil 40 cm3 of water together with the table salt to make a
saturated salt solution.
8.Add the salt solution to the cooking oil and sodium hydroxide solution.
Thoroughly mix the solutions by stirring them vigorously.
9.Allow the mixture to stand overnight or until a solid layer is formed.
10. Carefully remove the solidified layer from the beaker, then rinse under
running water.
11. Get a small sample of the detergent. Immerse it in a small amount of
water and stir until soapsuds appear.
12. Record your observations.
JUNIOR
23
It looks Greek to me! What comes next?
A
a
b
B
TEN BEARS IN LITE
F
C
D
g
d
b g
Unscramble the letters and rearrange the words to form
names of famous scientists.
D
F
?
D
D
q ÑF
q
D
F
D
q
D
A CASE IN TOWN
?
I DO THE SAMSON
ds de dm dw
A
B
SCRAMBLED
C
D
C R O S S W O R D
ACROSS
1 Small mountain
5 Unit used in measuring sound
8 -e-r-l; relating to the nervous system
9 —a-; upper part of human body,
containing mouth, other sense
organ,
a n d
brain
11 ——on; a large monkey with a
prominent muzzle
14 Holmium
15 The gray or black residue of
combustion
17 Strong winds accompanied by rain
or
snow
19 A platform extending over water,
used
to moor
ships or boats
21 Cerium
22 Rhodium
23 Rhenium
24 Automated teller machine
26 Osmium
27 Scent; smell
28 -a-e-; device producing an intense
24
1
2
3
4
5
11
10
14
23
21
24
12
14
15
16
19
18
21
7
9
8
17
6
13
20
23
24
22
25
26
27
28
33
JUNIOR
29
30
34
31
32
narrow beam of light
30 —ce-, an inflammatory lesion, as
on the
stomach
33 Undersized; weak, feeble
34 Minute fragments resulting from
wearing down of siliceous rocks
DOWN
2 Indium
3 Lutetium
4 A place for scientific research or
experiment
5 A nonmetallic element used in
safety
matches, fertilizers
6 Helium
7 C—e; a set of laws or rules
10 ——le; a tissue composed of fibers
capable of contracting and relaxing
12 Barium
13 The central part of certain fruits
14 Same as 14 across
16 Used especially as a greeting
18 Tellurium
20 Erbium
25 Mendelevium
28 Same as 3 down
29 Tin
31 Lanthanum
32 Radon