Raines
Art History
Elements of Composition, Principles of Design, and Modes of Representation
-This information is basic to the study of art- it will give you a foundation for the understanding
of art.
Why is it important for us to know about the elements, principles, and modes of representation?
-they help us to understand art, and artist’s intentions
-they help us effectively communicate about art (by developing a specific vocabulary
to use)
Not all of these terms apply to all artworks (easily) (ie.: newer art forms, such as performance
art, installation, earthworks).
Some lend themselves better to specific art forms (for example, painting and color).
1. The Elements of Composition (6)- line, shape, texture, color, value, space
I. Line- an uninterrupted actual mark or implied direction going from one point to another. The
path of a moving point through space.
A. Quality of line- the expressive nature of line; personality (bold, thin, wavy, etc.).
Lines may differ in length, width, direction, texture, etc.
B. Psychology of line- lines in art may have psychological effects on the viewer
1. horizontal lines (side to side) imply stability, rest, and calm
2. diagonal lines imply movement, drama, and motion
3. vertical lines (up and down) imply power and strength and/or potential motion
C. Types of lines
1. Actual lines- are actual lines in an artwork. They are visible.
Examples: outlines, contour lines (define shapes), hatching (used for value)
2. Implied lines- are indicated indirectly; suggested. They are not seen in the
usual way. Implied lines may be created by points that the viewer’s eyes
automatically connect.
Examples:
Lines may be implied by the edges of two shapes where one shape ends and
another begins. (Cezanne)
Lines may by implied by the arrangement of objects in a work. (Pyramid
configuration)
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Lines of sight, or eyelines of people in an artwork create implied lines. It is a
natural tendency for us to follow them. (Renoir)
Broken lines are also considered to be implied lines. (Van Gogh)
II. Shape- a two-dimensional area with a recognizable boundary; an enclosed area defined by
elements, such as line, color, texture.
A. Types of shapes
1. Organic shapes are made by nature and are irregular, uneven, free-form. (A
leaf)
2. Geometric shapes are regular, precise and man-made. They can be described
using mathematical formulas. (a triangle, square, circle)
B. Form- refers to objects having three dimensions (length, width, and depth). These
also may be organic or geometric.
III. Texture- the quality of a surface with regard to how it feels to the touch.
A. Quality- types of texture. Influence the viewer’s reaction to the work- (bumpy,
glossy, rough, etc.)
B. Types of texture
1. Simulated (or visual) texture-the illusion of roughness or smoothness of a
surface. You can only see simulated texture. It is visual. Example: trompe loeil
or “fool the eye” texture, Photorealist paintings.
2. Actual (or tactile) texture- the physical roughness or smoothness of a surface.
Example: Meret Oppenheim’s Fur Lined Tea Cup.
IV. Color- has many psychological effects on the viewer
A. Hue- color’s name; identifies color (red)
B. Value- refers to a color’s lightness or darkness. For example, yellow is lighter in
value than purple.
C. Intensity- brightness or dullness of a hue. Its degree (high or low) of purity or
saturation.
D. Tint- add white to a hue
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E. Shade- add black to a hue
F. The color wheel- a way of organizing colors according to how they are made, how
they relate with each other
1. Primary colors (3) - Elemental hues from which all other colors are derived.
RYB
2. Secondary colors (3)- Made by mixing two primary colors in equal amounts.
GOV
3. Tertiary- (6)- Made by mixing one primary and one secondary color in equal
amounts.
*Correct name: primary- secondary. Examples: red-orange, blue-violet
4. Complementary- Colors are opposite each other on the color wheel. When
placed side by side, they enhance each other; create optical effects. Example:
violet and yellow.
5. Analogous- colors are related to, or next to each other on the color wheel.
They have a common hue.
G. Warm colors- red, yellow, orange; advance toward the viewer (fire, sunshine)
H. Cool colors-blue, green, violet; recede away from the viewer (ice, water, snow,
grass)
I. Neutral colors- black, white, grey, sometimes brown
J. Monochromatic- Mono=one; chroma=color; artwork done in one color + black and
white; one color + tints and shades.
K. Optical color- when artists reproduce colors of their subject matter as they see them
or in nature.
L. Arbitrary color- when artists choose colors arbitrarily, by personal preference, for
example, to express feelings. The subject matter’s colors are not as they appear to the
eye, in nature.
V. Value- lightness or darkness of a color; effects of light on an object.
A. Light source- direction light originates from in an artwork
B. Cast shadow- shadow created by the blocking of light by an object
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C. Modelling- when an artist uses value (shading) to make an object look three
dimensional (not flat); example- Mona Lisa’s face. In the Italian Renaissance, this was
called chiaroscuro.
VI. Space- the appearance (or not) of depth on a 2-dimensional surface; receding into space.
An artwork may be flat or deep.
A. Linear perspective- a mathematical system for showing depth
True linear perspective has three elements:
horizon line, vanishing point, converging lines (orthogonals)
Lines converge at a point in the distance.
Invented by Filippo Brunelleschi in 15th C Italy as a means of rendering buildings
seen receding away at an angle on the picture plane.
May use one vanishing point or multiple points
B. Atmospheric, or aerial perspective- the ilusion of space is achieved by simulating the
way we perceive the color and surface textures of distant objects. Further away= paler,
less detail and texture.
C. Intuitive perspective- the illusion of space is achieved by the artist’s intuition of the
way depth is perceived. Objects are made smaller in scale to make them appear to recede
into the background and lines appear to recede into space (but do not meet at a single
vanishing point, as they do with linear perspective).
D. Division of the picture plane (the surface of a painting or drawing)Another way that artist’s show space/ depth on a flat surface is to divide the picture plane
into three horizontal strips, or thirds that include:
1. Foreground- contains objects which seem nearest to us; generally lowest third
of a painting or drawing
2. Background- objects which appear furthest away from the viewer; upper third
3. Middle ground- contains objects in-between the foreground and background;
middle third
E. Placement- is used to show where in space an object is
F. Overlapping- is also used when forms in front overlap those behind.
G. Foreshortening- making an object seem to recede into space by shortening the lines of
perspective or dimension of depth. Ex.: Andrea Mantegna’s Christo Morto.
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H. Negative and Positive Space- Because this is closely related to shape/form,
sometimes this is referred to as positive and negative Shape. It is also referred to as the
figure/ ground relationship.
1. Positive Space- the space that the main object occupies in a work of art
(figure)
2. Negative Space- the space not occupied by/ around the main object (ground)
I. Open or Closed Compositions
1. Closed compositions- are self-contained. The subject matter is contained
within the borders and nothing can penetrate them.
2. Open compositions- allow space to penetrate them. For example, the artist
shows a slice of an entire scene and invites us to imagine what is not known or
outside the boundaries.
2. The Principles of Design (6)- unity, variety, dominance, rhythm/movement, balance,
proportion/scale
The principles of design build upon, use and apply the elements of composition. To use
the principles of design, you must use a higher level of thinking (application). When using the
elements of composition, you simply respond to what you see, for example: does the work
contain mainly warm, cool, or neutral colors? This is using the lower, basic knowledge level of
thinking. When using the principles of design, you must determine how the elements work
within the composition, for example: how is the artwork balanced?
I. Unity- is when the visual elements work together (as a unit)
If an artwork does not have unity, it appears to be a collection of individual parts.
Unity can be achieved through three techniques: proximity, similarity and continuation
1. proximity- artist makes separate objects look unified by placing them close
together (in proximity); grouping of objects- vision moves from one to another.
2. similarity- artist achieves unity by making things similar in color, texture,
shape, form
3. continuation- occurs in an artwork when the viewer’s vision is directed
through the work by a line, edges of shapes, or an arrangement of objects;
movement of the viewer’s vision in a line.
II. Variety- differences within a composition which add visual interest or contrast.
When the artist uses a variety of colors, lines, textures, shapes in an artwork.
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III. Dominance (sometimes called emphasis)- when one element appears to be more
important; attracts more attention than anything else in the composition.
A. The most dominant element is called the Focal Point.
How can you find the focal point?
-size
-contrast/ different from everything else
-location (placement, sometimes the focal point is in the direct center of
the composition)
-lines direct the eye to it (implied lines)
-isolation
Other elements are considered to be subordinate. Sometimes there is an absence of a focal point.
IV. Rhythm and Movement- A sense of flow or visual rhythmic movements in an
artwork. It results from recurring visual elements like lines and shapes, or repeated
positive shapes/ space separated by negative space.
A. Pattern- visual repetition of motifs.
V. Balance- The equal distribution of visual weight or eye attraction on either side of a
composition’s center.
A. visual weight- determined by an object’s size, value, texture, distance from the
center.
B. Four types of balance:
1. symmetrical- looks exactly the same on each side; identical elements
distributed on either side of a vertical axis in the center of the composition
2. approximate symmetry- 2 sides are similar enough to imply a vertical
central axis, and varied just enough to challenge you to identify the
differences
3. asymmetrical- artist achieves the feeling of equally distributed visual
weight with figures and objects that are different- it can still be balanced
(Ex: 2 grapefruits balance= symmetrical; 1 grapefruit and 4 lemons=
asymmetrical)
4. radial- results from the repetitive placement of two or more identical or
very similar elements around a central point (fulcrum). The elements of
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design come out (radiate) from a central point. This occurs frequently in
nature (growth patterns), architecture (domes) or manufactured items
(wheels).
VI. Proportion and scale- (proportion) size relationships of one part to another or parts to
the whole. (scale) size as measured against a standard reference.
A. Hierarchical, or hieratic scale- disregards the actual size of objects in order to
indicate rank, or importance. More important people are larger. Size= power.
(Ancient Egyptian art, such as Ti on a Hippo Hunt from the Old Kingdom).
B. Canon of proportions- fixed rules for size relationships in the human body. A
system to determine relative sizes (parts of the human form). For example, the
average human adult is 7 ½ heads tall. Egyptian and Greek art had their own.
C. Exaggeration and distortion- are deviations from expected, normal
proportions.
3. The Modes of Representation- ways in which artists depict their subject matter.
A. Representational- any of a number of approaches that have to do with the way
something is seen.
1. Realism (realistic)- when artists recreate scenes, objects, or other subject
matter to resemble their natural appearance. Realistic art seeks to imitate visible
reality as close as possible and shows life as it is. For example, a frank look at
everyday reality. Realism is sometimes referred to as Naturalism.
(the Realist movement)
2. Illusionism (illusionistic)- this art is so convincing in its realism, that it may be
mistaken for the real thing. Related concepts: Photorealism, trompe loeil (fool the
eye). This art gives the “illusion” of reality, or a convincing imitation of the
actual appearance.
3. Idealism (idealized)- representative images are depicted according to a concept
of perfection rather than real life. (For example, human figures are young, goodlooking, athletic, etc.)
4. Romanticism (romanticized)- representational art in which the subject is
depicted in a nostalgic, emotional, fanciful or other mysterious way.
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5. Abstract (abstracted)- when artists interpret subjects (figures, objects, scenes)
in a way that is unlike their natural appearance. The subject is distorted in color,
shape, proportion, etc. (Picasso).
6. Stylized- representational art that depicts certain features as nonorganic surface
elements rather than realistically. Representation according to a given style or
convention (Egyptian art).
B. Non-objective (non-representational, pure abstraction)- when artists express
themselves not by using recognizable objects from real life, but by using compositional
elements such as line, shape, color, texture, or value (splatter painting- Jackson Pollock).
These works contain no recognizable subject matter- the subject matter consists of lines,
shapes, forms, etc.