Chapter Audio
Spotlight Video
▲
President John F. Kennedy
Essential Question
Chapter Overview Visit connected.mcgrawhill.com for an overview, a quiz, and other
chapter resources available for United States
Government.
244
Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images
What basic powers of the
presidency directly affect
the other two branches of
government—the legislature
and the judiciary?
SECTION 1
Presidential Powers
Reader’s Guide
Content Vocabulary
Academic Vocabulary
Reading Strategy
★ mandate (p. 248)
★ forum (p. 249)
★ enforce (p. 245)
★ annual (p. 247)
★ medium (p. 249)
Create a graphic organizer
like the one at the right
to list some of the powers
given to the president by
the Constitution.
Powers
of the
President
Issues in the News
I
n October 2007 Rep. John Yarmuth (D-KY) gave fellow
House members buttons saying “Article 1.” It was his way
of reminding them that the Constitution gives the executive
branch very limited powers. Yarmuth is worried because
President George W. Bush has used “signing statements” far
more than any other president. Signing statements are a
president’s official notes on bills signed into law that assert
that the president has a right not to enforce it—at least, under
his or her interpretation of the Constitution. Some scholars
say Bush was merely making a statement about executive power
and that the president would not actually instruct federal agencies not to obey the law. Others say there is no way to be sure.
Michael Clevenger/Louisville Courier-Journal/AP Images
L
ike signing statements, many presidential
powers are not mentioned in the Constitution. Instead, they have developed over time,
reflecting the changing national needs and the personalities of the presidents. The Founders crafted
the office carefully, relying on their understanding
of human nature and on their experience with the
British king and his officials. The Founders also
realized that the executive office would reflect the
personal characteristics of a particular president.
The sources of presidential power and the limitations on the office have interacted throughout
American history. The office may have been
defined by the Constitution narrowly, but many
factors have shaped it into its modern form—the
immediate needs of the nation, the personal energy
and influence of each president, and popular support for a president’s programs.
▲ Representative John Yarmuth wants House
members to remember the limits on
executive power.
Constitutional Powers
The Founders made the president the head of
the executive branch. Having fought a revolution
against the hated king of Britain, the Framers of the
Constitution did not want the leader of the new
executive branch to become a tyrant. However,
despite these concerns, there were two reasons to
give the national government a strong executive.
Need for a Strong Executive
First, the Founders knew that one of the main
weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation was
its lack of an independent executive. Without an
executive, the government had no one to carry out
the acts of Congress. Moreover, this made it difficult for the government to respond quickly to
problems and to enforce laws.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
245
Second, many of the Founders distrusted direct
participation by the people in decision making.
They feared that mass democratic movements
might try to redistribute personal wealth and
threaten private property. Consequently, they
wanted a strong executive branch that would protect liberty, private property, and businesses and
would hold the legislature (the branch that directly
represents popular opinion) in check.
Presidential Powers in Article II
Article II of the Constitution grants the
president broad but vaguely described powers,
simply stating that, “The Executive Power shall
be vested in a President of the United States of
America.”
Sections 2 and 3 of Article II define the president’s powers.
As commander in chief of the
armed forces, the president is mainly responsible for
the nation’s security. As head of the executive branch,
the president appoints, and the Senate confirms, the
heads of executive departments. The chief executive
also conducts foreign policy, making treaties with
the advice and consent of the Senate, and appointing ambassadors. In addition, the president has
some power over the judiciary. He or she appoints
federal court judges, can pardon people convicted
of federal crimes (except in cases of impeachment),
and can reduce a person’s jail sentence or fine.
See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:
1. The Constitution, pages R42–R67.
Election Method
Argentina
4 years
Direct election by the people
Egypt
6 years
Nominated by the legislature
and approved by an absolute
majority of the people
France
5 years
Absolute majority of the
people; direct election
Mexico
6 years
Direct election by the people
Philippines
6 years
Direct election by the people
South Africa
5 years
Elected by the legislature from
its members
United States
4 years
Electoral College system
tro
Term
Co
Country
Co
n
ns
tit
ut
io
Presidential Powers
na
Ap l a
lP
pr rm
ow
ov ed
Ap e
f
er
o
po leg rce
s
i
i
Ap nt e slat s
po xe ion
c
i
Ap nt j utiv
po udg e o
ffi
Di int p es
cia
ss
ls
ol rim
Su ve l e m
sp eg
i
en isl nist
at
e
d
rig ure r
ht
s
Comparing Governments
Source: www.loc.gov/law
Critical Thinking Presidents of different countries around the world
often hold similar powers. What differences are there between the
powers of the presidents of the United States and France?
246
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
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Presidential Decisions
Leadership Style
This Currier and Ives
lithograph shows the
shelling of Fort Sumter
in 1861. By sending
ships to resupply
the federal fort in
Charleston harbor,
President Lincoln
forced the South
Carolina militia to
take action, thus
beginning the Civil
War. How did Lincoln’s
actions reveal his view
of presidential power?
Working with the legislature, the president
ensures that the laws Congress passes are “faithfully executed.” The president delivers an annual
State of the Union message to Congress, proposes
legislation, and can call Congress into special session when necessary.
Informal Sources of Power
The Constitution’s list of presidential powers is
brief and simple, but ever since George Washington’s presidency, the list has expanded greatly.
Today, these powers come from several sources
besides the Constitution.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-USZC4-528
Personal Exercise of Power
Over the years, some presidents have added to
the power of the presidency simply by how they
have handled the job. Each president has defined
the office in unique ways. A number of presidents
have expanded the powers of the executive because
of their beliefs about the office.
In 1803 Thomas Jefferson made the decision to
purchase the Louisiana Territory from France. Nothing in the Constitution, however, stated that a president had the power to acquire territory. Jefferson
decided that the presidency had inherent powers, or
powers attached to the office itself. These were powers the Constitution did not specifically define but
that Article II implied. The Senate agreed with
Jefferson and ratified the Louisiana Purchase treaty.
Theodore Roosevelt expressed the broad view
of presidential power, explaining that it was both
the president’s right and duty to “do anything that
the needs of the Nation demanded, unless such
action was forbidden by the Constitution or by
the laws.” In a letter to a contemporary historian,
Roosevelt explained:
used every ounce of power there was
“ Iinhave
the office and I have not cared a rap for
the criticisms of those who spoke of my
‘usurpation of power’; . . . I believe that the
efficiency of this Government depends upon
its possessing a strong central executive. . . .
—Theodore Roosevelt, 1908
”
Immediate Needs of the Nation
During the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln took
actions that led some people to call him a dictator.
He suspended the writ of habeas corpus and jailed
opponents of the Union without a trial or the legal
authority to do so. He raised an army before getting Congress’s approval. He took illegal action
against the South by blockading its ports. Lincoln
claimed the Constitution gave him the authority to
do what was necessary to preserve the Union. In
the end, the nation agreed with the president.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
247
Franklin D. Roosevelt used the power of the
presidency to expand the role of the federal government in the economy. The economic crisis of
the Great Depression was severe, with 25 percent
of the population without jobs. Roosevelt persuaded Congress to create many new programs to
provide income for the elderly, supply people with
jobs, regulate banks, and set up the federal agencies to run these programs. After Roosevelt,
Americans expected their presidents to take a firm
hand in directing the nation’s economy.
In 2001 the terrorist attacks on New York City
and Washington, D.C., transformed the presidency
of George W. Bush. He had gained office nine
months earlier in a close, bitterly contested election. A poll at the time showed that 40 percent of
the public did not believe Bush won the election
fairly. The terrorist attacks, however, changed everything. Americans now looked to the president for
leadership. Bush responded by declaring that the
“war on terrorism” would be the focus of his presidency. “I will not yield; I will not rest; I will not
relent in waging this struggle for freedom and
security for the American people.” During this crisis, he gained sweeping authority from Congress
to fight terrorism, and his public approval ratings
temporarily soared to 90 percent.
Although Congress sometimes complains about
presidential power, it often grants a president
special powers during emergencies. In 1964, for
example, President Lyndon Johnson reported that
two American destroyers had been attacked in the
Gulf of Tonkin off the Vietnam coast. To allow him
to cope with the situation, Congress passed the
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7, 1964. It
gave the president authority to “take all necessary
steps, including the use of armed force” to protect
Americans in Southeast Asia. Johnson used these
powers to expand the war in Vietnam and in other
parts of Southeast Asia.
Mandate of the People
All presidents like to claim that their ideas and
policies represent a mandate from the people. A
mandate—the expressed will of the people, often
in an election—is one of the greatest sources of
presidential power. The president’s popularity
ratings can change very quickly, however. Modern
presidents have thus learned to use the mass media
to communicate their message and to gain popular
support for what they want to do.
Today, television gives presidents even greater
power to convey their ideas and personalities
directly to the American people. The media called
The Bully Pulpit
Great Communicators
Bettmann/CORBIS
In the early 1900s, President
Theodore Roosevelt referred to
the “bully pulpit”—his forum
for persuading citizens and
advocating his agenda. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt, seen here
with radio microphones, unified
the nation during the Depression
with his “fireside” chats. In the
1980s, Ronald Reagan was
known for being able to connect
with a national television
audience through his speeches.
What repercussions
might follow for a
president who is not a
good communicator?
248
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
President Ronald Reagan “the Great Communicator” partly because of his ability to deliver his message directly to the people through television.
People often judge a president’s ideas by how
appealing he or she appears on television, a fact
presidents know very well and try to use.
Major newspapers, magazines, and the Internet
also provide a forum, or medium for discussion, for
presidential messages. The print media assign
reporters to cover the president full-time. White
House staff make sure these reporters receive a
steady flow of information about the president’s
activities and ideas. One of the staff’s objectives is to
create the image of a president as an active, personable servant of the people.
Limits on Executive Power
The Founders built significant safeguards into
the Constitution against the possibility that presidents would abuse their lawful powers. Congress
and the courts are able to limit the president’s
authority. Besides these constitutional limitations,
the president’s actions can be limited in a number
of other ways.
Larry Burrows/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
Limitation by Congress
The Constitution gives Congress the power to
pass legislation even after a president has vetoed
it. This power to override a president’s veto limits
executive power. For example, in 1973, President
Richard Nixon vetoed the War Powers Act, but
Congress overrode his veto. The War Powers Act
prevented presidents from committing troops to
combat for more than 60 days without congressional approval. Congress felt that Nixon and Lyndon B. Johnson abused their powers as commander
in chief by committing American troops to fighting a long, undeclared war in Vietnam.
What other ways can Congress limit a president? First, the Senate must confirm a president’s
appointees. Second, the House of Representatives
must approve the budget. Third, the House and
Senate can use the impeachment process to remove
the president from office.
In the nation’s history, the House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings against
three presidents. In 1868, just after the end of the
Civil War, the House impeached President Andrew
Johnson over issues related to how southern states
would be reconstructed. The Senate acquitted him
by one vote. In 1974 the House prepared impeachment charges against President Richard Nixon, but
Checks and Balances
Congress
concluded that American involvement in
the Vietnam War was a result of an abuse of
presidential power. It proposed the War Powers
Act in 1973 to limit the president, even
mustering the necessary votes to override the
president’s veto. How does the War Powers Act
reflect the principle of checks and balances?
he resigned before they could be voted on by the
full House. In 1999 the House brought two charges
of impeachment against President Bill Clinton, but
after a short trial, the Senate acquitted him.
Limitation by the Federal Courts
Because of a historic Supreme Court decision,
the federal courts also have the power to limit a
president. In Marbury v. Madison (1803), the
Court said that it had the right to the final interpretation of whether an act of the legislature
or the president violates the Constitution.
This happened several times during the Great
Depression, when the Supreme Court ruled that
some of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New
Deal legislation was unconstitutional.
See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:
1. Marbury v. Madison, page R30.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
249
Youngstown Sheet and Tube
Company v. Sawyer (1952)
This 1950s case focused on an important issue.
Could the president act in areas of authority that
the Constitution delegates to Congress if the Congress failed to act? Before this decision, a president’s
action in similar situations was challenged only if
Congress passed a law assuming its authority.
In 1952 President Harry S. Truman, believing a
strike by steelworkers could threaten national security, ordered his secretary of commerce to seize
and operate most of the nation’s steel mills. The
president reported all of this to Congress, but Congress failed to take action. In earlier cases, Congress had provided procedures for dealing with
similar situations.
The steel companies resisted a government takeover of their mills by suing Commerce Secretary
Charles Sawyer. The case eventually reached the
Supreme Court. Writing for the majority, Justice
Hugo Black noted that no statute authorized the
president to take over the mills. Black argued that
just because Congress had not exercised its powers
to seize the mills did not mean that the president
could do so: “The Founders of this Nation entrusted
the lawmaking power to the Congress alone in both
good and bad times.”
Following the attacks of September 11, 2001,
President George W. Bush attempted to expand
presidential powers as a way to fight terrorism.
This led to several Supreme Court decisions limiting the president’s ability to undertake sweeping
new anti-terrorism measures.
In 2004, for example, the Court ruled in Hamdi
v. Rumsfeld that the president cannot indefinitely
lock up foreigners or U.S. citizens without giving
them a chance to challenge their detention in
court. In 2006 the justices rejected the Bush administration’s use of specially created courts called
military tribunals to try suspected terrorists.
Limitation by the Bureaucracy
The federal bureaucracy sometimes limits presidential powers. Bureaucrats can obstruct presidents’ programs unintentionally by failing to
provide needed information, by misinterpreting
instructions, and by not completing a task properly. Bureaucrats have some discretion to interpret
laws, and at times their interpretations may not
reflect the president’s priorities either intentionally or unintentionally.
Limitation by Public Opinion
Public opinion can also affect a president. In 1968
public dissatisfaction with President Johnson’s conduct of the Vietnam War convinced him to retire
instead of running for reelection. Without favorable
public opinion, no president can carry out a political program. For example, in 1993 President Clinton proposed major changes to the nation’s
health-care system. Various interests groups,
including insurance companies and doctors, began
to campaign against the president’s proposal. When
public opinion turned against the plan, Congress
decided not to act on Clinton’s proposal.
SECTION 1 Review
Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: mandate, forum.
Main Ideas
2. Summarizing In what three ways have former presidents
expanded the power of their office?
3. Explaining Why, during Lyndon B. Johnson’s presidency,
did Congress pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution?
Critical Thinking
4. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion President Woodrow
Wilson said that the president “is at liberty, both in law
and conscience . . . to be as big a man as he can.” Explain
whether this statement is fact or opinion.
250
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
5. Listing Using a graphic organizer like the one below, list
two or more constitutional limits and three other limits on
presidential power.
Constitutional Limits
Other Limits
Writing About Government
6. Descriptive Writing Determine whether you think there
should be greater limits on the president’s power. Compose
several catchy slogans supporting your view and create
signs or buttons that might be used in a rally.
Does National Security Justify Wiretaps?
United States v. United States District Court, 1972
T
he Constitution calls upon the president
to “preserve, protect and defend the
Constitution of the United States.” Can the
president order electronic surveillance of people
without a search warrant if the purpose is to
protect against domestic threats to national
security? The case United States v. United States
District Court addressed this issue in 1972.
The Constitutional Question
In reviewing the case, the Supreme Court
explained:
resolution is a matter of national
“ Itsconcern,
requiring sensitivity both to the
Government’s right to protect itself from
unlawful subversion and attack and to the
citizen’s right to be secure in his privacy
against unreasonable Government
intrusion.
—Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr., 1972
Facts of the Case
In the early 1970s, several antiwar groups were
accused of plotting against the government. President Richard Nixon’s administration began to use
wiretaps without a search warrant to monitor citizens they suspected of such activities. The defendant in the case was accused of bombing an office
of the Central Intelligence Agency in Michigan.
He argued that evidence used against him was
obtained illegally. The government responded that
although it did not have a warrant, the wiretap was
lawful because it was the president’s duty to protect national security. A U.S. District Court ruled
that the evidence was gathered illegally and had to
be made available to the defendant before his trial.
The attorney general filed suit to set aside the district court’s order.
’’
The government argued that such surveillance
was a reasonable exercise of the president’s power
to protect domestic security. Further, the government claimed that judges would not have the
expertise in such complex situations to determine
whether there really was “probable cause.” Finally,
the government argued that secrecy is essential in
domestic security cases; informing a judge in order
to get a warrant would create the risk of leaks.
MF/AP Images
Debating the Issue
Questions to Consider
You Be the Judge
1. Should domestic security cases
be handled differently than
other types of crimes?
2. What could be the consequences
of allowing the wiretapping in
such cases without a warrant?
3. Does the government need a
search warrant to wiretap in
domestic security cases?
The Fourth Amendment
protects citizens from “unreasonable
searches and seizures” by requiring
police to obtain a warrant from a
judge. The judge must decide if
there is “probable cause” before
a search warrant can be issued.
Should the Court make an
exception in cases of national
security? Why or why not?
▼ Lawrence Plamondon, below, arriving
at a federal court in Michigan
SECTION 2
Roles of the President
Reader’s Guide
Content Vocabulary
★ executive order (p. 253)
★ impoundment (p. 253)
★ reprieve (p. 254)
★ pardon (p. 254)
★ amnesty (p. 254)
★ patronage (p. 256)
★ treaty (p. 257)
★ executive
agreement (p. 257)
Academic Vocabulary
Reading Strategy
★ design (p. 253)
★ submit (p. 256)
★ inspect (p. 259)
Create a table to identify the
different roles and duties of
the president.
Role
Duties
Issues in the News
I
W
hen President Richard Nixon impounded
funds, it raised a major issue about the
exact power and duties of a president.
What are the roles of the president? The president
has seven key duties, and five are specified in the
Constitution: serving as head of state, chief executive, chief legislator, chief diplomat, and commander
in chief. Two other duties—economic planner and
political party leader—are not implied in the Constitution but have developed over time.
Head of State
As head of state, the president represents the
nation and performs many ceremonial roles. Serving as host to visiting kings, queens, and heads of
governments, the president is the nation’s chief diplomat. Other ceremonial duties are less vital but are
often covered in the press. In a tradition dating back
252
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
▲ Nixon impounding program funds
to the early 1900s, many presidents throw out the
first pitch to begin the baseball season, light the
nation’s Christmas tree on the White House lawn, or
meet public figures or give awards to distinguished
business leaders, actors, or artists. These activities
are considered a part of the president’s role.
The president is both head of state and chief
executive. In most countries, these two duties are
distinct. One person, a king or queen, or a president without substantial powers, is the ceremonial
head of state, while another person, a prime minister or premier, directs the government.
This difference is important. Much of the mystique of the presidency exists because presidents are
more than politicians. To millions around the world
and to millions at home, the president is the symbol
for the United States. As a living symbol of the
nation, the president is not just a single individual,
but the collective image of the United States.
© Oliphant. Reprinted with permission of UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. All rights reserved.
n the early 1970s, President Richard Nixon directed cabinet
members not to spend certain funds appropriated by
Congress, arguing that the programs were wasteful. Nixon
withheld $8.7 billion designated for programs he believed
were useless. Previous presidents had occasionally impounded,
or withheld, smaller amounts of appropriated monies for a
short time, but no president had used this power on such a
large scale. Congress fought back and passed the Impoundment Control Act in 1974. The act established rules regarding
when, and for how long, a president can impound funds.
Chief Executive
As the nation’s chief executive, the president
sees that the laws of Congress are carried out.
These laws range over a great many areas of public
concern from Social Security, taxes, housing, flood
control, and energy to civil rights, health care,
education, and environmental protection.
The executive branch employs more than
2 million people to enforce the many laws and
programs Congress establishes. The president
is in charge of these employees and the federal
departments and agencies for which they work.
Of course, no president could directly supervise
the daily activities of all these people. At best,
presidents can try to influence the way laws are
implemented so the laws follow that president’s
own philosophy of government.
Bettmann/CORBIS
Tools of Influence
Presidents have several tools to influence how
laws are carried out. One is the ability to issue
executive orders, or rules that have the force of
law. This power is implied by the Constitution
because it charges the presidency with making
certain that “the laws be faithfully executed.” Thus,
executive orders are issued to detail the specific
actions federal agencies must take to implement a
law. For example, President Jimmy Carter used
an executive order to put thousands of acres of
land in Alaska under the control of the National
Park Service.
Executive orders have also been used, however,
to make dramatic new policy. President Harry S.
Truman used an executive order in 1948 to
integrate the armed forces, while President
Franklin D. Roosevelt used one to place Japanese
Americans in internment camps during World
War II. (See image above.)
Another presidential tool is the power to appoint
people to important offices in the executive branch.
Besides cabinet members, presidents appoint
(“with the advice and consent of the Senate”) about
2,200 top-level federal officials—agency directors,
deputy directors, and their assistants. Presidents
try to appoint officials who share their political
beliefs because they will be committed to carrying
out their goals.
A third tool that presidents can use is the right
to fire officials they have appointed. President
Nixon fired his secretary of the interior for opposing his Vietnam policies. It is not always easy,
however, to remove a popular official who has
A Wartime Order Wartime fears of the
Japanese led President Roosevelt to issue an
executive order in early 1942. It authorized
the military to round up Japanese Americans,
including American citizens, and place them
in camps for the duration of the war. Why do
executive orders have the force of law?
congressional and public support. J. Edgar Hoover
was the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigations for 48 years. Several presidents had doubts
about his capacities and conduct, but Hoover was
too popular to fire and held the position until his
death in 1972.
Using a fourth tool, impoundment of funds, a
president can refuse to allow a federal department
or agency to spend money Congress has appropriated. Presidents have practiced impoundment for
years. In 1803 President Thomas Jefferson did not
spend money Congress set aside for new gunboats
until less costly designs were found. Most impoundments have been for routine matters or specific
items. Sometimes that money is appropriated, but
later the president impounds the money because
spending needs have changed. The Congress might
agree with the president’s judgment.
See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:
1. For number of employees by department, see United States Data Bank,
page R100.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
253
Presidential Pardon
able to influence government and society. In 2005
President George W. Bush appointed two justices
to the Supreme Court: John G. Roberts, Jr., as chief
justice, and Samuel Alito. Both appointments were
expected to shift the court’s balance to a more
conservative view.
Reprieves and Pardons
As chief executive, the president also can grant
“reprieves and pardons for offenses against the
United States.” A reprieve grants a postponement
of legal punishment. A pardon is a release from
legal punishment. People who receive them have
usually been convicted of a federal crime. An
exception was in 1974 when President Gerald Ford
granted Richard Nixon a full pardon before he
could be indicted for any crimes he might have
committed during the Watergate scandal. The
pardon was very controversial, but it was fully
within President Ford’s power to grant it.
Amnesty
Gerald
Ford entered the presidency hoping to pull
a troubled country together. His pardon of
Nixon, however, outraged many Americans
who believed the president should be held
accountable to the laws of the land. Why do
you think Ford pardoned Nixon?
President Richard Nixon used this tool in a
more radical manner by impounding huge sums
—$13 billion in a single year—for broad social
programs he opposed. Groups that would have
benefited from the programs took Nixon to court.
The court then ordered the president to spend
the appropriated money. In response, Congress
passed legislation to prevent such wholesale
impounding.
Yet another tool is the power of the president to
appoint officials to the judiciary. With Senate
approval, the president appoints all federal judges,
including the justices of the Supreme Court. By
appointing justices with particular points of view
on constitutional and other issues, presidents are
254
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
Chief Legislator
Congress expects the executive branch to
propose legislation it wishes to see enacted.
This was clarified when President Dwight D.
Eisenhower once wanted Congress to act on a particular problem he was concerned about. The
White House, however, neglected to draft a bill to
deal with the situation. A member of Congress
scolded the president’s staff: “Don’t expect us to
start from scratch on what you people want. You
draft the bills, and we work them over.”
AP Images
Reactions to the President
Finally, the president may grant amnesty.
Amnesty is a group pardon to people for an offense
against the government, often in a military situation. President Jimmy Carter granted amnesty
to young men who evaded the draft during the
Vietnam War. Another controversy involving
amnesty arose in 2007. Some legislators from both
parties proposed amnesty for undocumented
workers who had lived in the United States for a
long time. The proposal was part of a bill to address
many sides of the illegal immigration problem.
Presidential amnesties can be controversial.
Many citizens were angry over Carter’s amnesty
grant. Opposition also arose over President Bill
Clinton’s use of pardons on his last day in office. In
particular, Clinton pardoned a wealthy business
leader indicted for fraud whose ex-wife had
donated money to Clinton’s presidential library.
The President’s Legislative Program
Usually the president describes a legislative
program in the annual State of the Union message
to Congress. It calls attention to the president’s
ideas about how to solve key problems facing the
country. A detailed legislative program presented
to Congress during the year reflects the president’s
values and political beliefs.
The president has a large staff to help write legislation. This legislation determines much of what
Congress will do each year. The president’s office
also presents to Congress a suggested budget and
an annual economic report.
Taking office after the assassination of President
John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson called upon
Congress to enact Kennedy’s programs:
Congress attempted to give the president some
power over individual items by passing the Line
Item Veto Act in 1996. President Clinton began to
use the new power almost immediately, but the
law was challenged as soon as it went into effect.
The law survived the initial challenges, but the
Supreme Court agreed to hear appeals of two cases
on the new veto power in 1998. In Clinton v. City
of New York, the Supreme Court struck down the
law as unconstitutional.
See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:
1. Clinton v. City of New York case summary, page R25.
Presidential Lawmaking
in the ability of the Congress, despite
“ Ithebelieve
divisions of opinions which characterize
our Nation, to act—to act wisely, to act
vigorously, to act speedily when the need
arises. The need is here. The need is now.
—Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963
”
Congress responded by passing a host of new
domestic legislation that the administration
proposed.
Karl Rubenthal/LBJ Library
Tools of Presidential Lawmaking
When the president and the majority of Congress are from different political parties, the president must work harder to influence Congress to
support the administration’s programs. Presidents
often meet with members of Congress to share
their views. They also appoint several staff members to work closely with Congress on new laws.
Presidents may hand out political favors to get
congressional support. They may visit the home
state of a member of Congress to support his or
her reelection. Or, a president may start a new
federal project that will bring money and jobs to a
member’s home state or district.
An important presidential tool in lawmaking is
the veto power. Each bill Congress passes is sent to
the president for approval. The president may sign
the bill, veto the bill, or lay it aside. Presidents
sometimes use the threat of a veto to force Congress to stop a bill or change it to fit his or her
wishes. The threat of a veto may succeed because
Congress generally finds it very difficult to gather
enough votes to override a veto.
Unlike most state governors, the president does
not have the power to veto selected items in a bill.
Political Strategy Soon after becoming
president, Lyndon Johnson used his 22 years
of congressional experience and skill as a
legislator to persuade Congress to pass his
“Great Society” programs. How does the
cartoonist depict President Johnson’s abilities
and success as chief legislator?
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
255
Economic Planner
Party Leader
The president’s role as chief economic planner
has grown rapidly since Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
New Deal. The Employment Act of 1946 gave new
duties to the president. This law directed the president to submit an annual economic report to
Congress. The law also created a Council of Economic Advisers to study the economy and help
prepare a report for the president. In the law, it
was declared for the first time that the federal government was responsible for promoting high
employment, production, and purchasing power.
Since 1946, Congress has continued to pass laws
giving presidents the power to deal with economic
problems. In 1970 Congress gave President Nixon
power to control prices and wages. One year later,
the president put a 90-day freeze on all prices,
rents, wages, and salaries. (The law expired and
was not renewed.)
One of the president’s economic duties is to
prepare an annual budget. The president supervises this work and spends many months with
budget officials deciding which government programs to support and which programs to cut back.
Decisions on the size of the budget, the deficit,
and where monies will be spent all affect the
nation’s economy.
The president’s political party expects the chief
executive to be a party leader. The president may
give speeches to help party members who are running for office or may attend fund-raising activities
to help raise money for the party. The president
also selects the party’s national chair and often
helps plan future election strategies.
Presidents are expected to appoint members of
their party to government jobs. These appointments ensure that supporters will remain committed to a president’s programs. Political patronage,
or appointment to political office, rewards the
people who have helped get a president elected.
Being a political party leader can be a difficult
role for a president. People expect a president, as
head of the government, to represent all Americans. Political parties, however, expect presidents
to provide leadership for their own political
party. Sometimes these conflicting roles cause
problems. When President Bill Clinton compromised with the Republican Congress to enact
legislation in 1996, he was criticized by the more
liberal members of his party. If a president appears
to act in a partisan way, that is, in a way that
favors his or her party, the media and the public
can be critical.
)) ))
))
)
))
in Government
AmeriCorps
))))
))
Joining AmeriCorps lets a student help society at the same
time that he or she earns money to pay for further education.
AmeriCorps is a federal program that allows young people to
earn up to $5,550 for college or graduate school, or to pay for
school loans in return for one year’s service. Volunteers also
receive living allowances and health care services.
AmeriCorps has many local projects for volunteers,
but there are also two national programs. One is a
conservation program, AmeriCorps-NCCC. People from
ages 18 to 24 live at regional campuses and work in teams on
community projects. The second program, AmeriCorps-VISTA,
allows members to work on their own for other organizations.
They can train community volunteers or help set up
neighborhood programs, for example. This approach expands
the number of people who volunteer and helps more people.
)
) )))
articipating
▲
in Government Activity
Volunteer at work
256
1. Gather more information about AmeriCorps by writing
to the Corporation for National & Community Service
at 1201 New York Avenue, NW, Washington, D.C.,
20525, or visit its Web site at www. americorps.org.
2. Prepare a report on your findings to share with the class.
David Rae Morris/epa/CORBIS
)
articipating
Chief Diplomat
The president directs the foreign policy of the
United States, making key decisions about the
relations the United States has with other countries in the world. In this role, the president is the
nation’s chief diplomat.
Because Congress also has powers related to
foreign policy, a struggle continues between the
president and Congress over who will exercise
control of the country’s foreign policy. Presidents
have an advantage in this struggle because they
have access to more information about foreign
affairs than most members of Congress do. The
administration sometimes classifies this information as secret. The Central Intelligence Agency
(CIA), the State Department, the Defense Department, and the National Security Council (NSC)
constantly give the president the latest information needed to make key foreign-policy decisions.
Skilled presidents use this information to plan and
justify actions they want to take. Members of
Congress who lack access to this information
often find it difficult to challenge the president’s
decisions.
In addition, the ability to take decisive action
has added greatly to the power of the presidency
in foreign affairs. Unlike Congress, where the
individual opinions of 435 representatives and
100 senators must be coordinated, the executive
branch is headed by a single person. In a national
emergency, the responsibility for action rests with
the president.
The Power to Make Treaties
As chief diplomat, the president has sole power
to negotiate and sign treaties—formal agreements
between the governments of two or more
countries. As part of the constitutional system of
checks and balances, however, two-thirds of the
Senate must approve all treaties before they can
go into effect.
The Senate takes its constitutional responsibility about treaties very seriously. Sometimes the
Senate will refuse to approve a treaty. After World
War I, the Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles,
the agreement to end the war and to make the
United States a member of the League of Nations.
More recently, in 1978, only after lengthy debates
and strong opposition did the Senate approve two
treaties giving eventual control of the Panama
Canal to the government of Panama.
The Power to Make
Executive Agreements
The president also has the authority to make
executive agreements with other countries. Executive agreements are pacts between the president
and the head of a foreign government. These
agreements have the same legal status as treaties,
but they do not require Senate consent.
Most executive agreements involve routine
matters, but some presidents have used executive
agreements to conclude more serious arrangements with other countries. Franklin D. Roosevelt
lent American ships to the British in exchange for
leases on British military bases. At the time, the
British were fighting Nazi Germany, but the United
States had not yet entered the war. Roosevelt knew
that the strongly isolationist Senate would not ratify a treaty. He therefore negotiated an executive
agreement.
Some presidents have kept executive agreements secret. To prevent this, Congress passed a
law in 1972 requiring the president to make public
all executive agreements signed each year. Some
presidents have ignored the law and kept secret
those agreements they considered important to
national security. In 1969 Congress discovered
that several presidents had kept secret many
executive agreements giving military aid to South
Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines.
Recognition of
Foreign Governments
As chief diplomat, the president decides whether
the United States will recognize governments of
other countries. This power means the president
determines whether the government will acknowledge the legal existence of another government and
have dealings with that government. Presidents
sometimes use recognition as a foreign-policy tool.
For example, since 1961, presidents have refused to
recognize the Communist government of Cuba.
This action indicates American opposition to the
policies of the Cuban government.
Student Web Activity Visit connected.mcgraw-hill.
com. Click on the Student Web Activity for this chapter
and complete the activity about the roles of the
president.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
257
Leading the Armed Forces
▲ Early President In this photo, President Abraham Lincoln reviews
troops at Antietam, Maryland during the Civil War in October, 1862.
▼
Modern President
President Obama greets airmen at Wright-
Patterson AFB, Ohio.
Commander in Chief
Presidents can back up their foreign-policy
decisions with military force when needed. The
Constitution makes the president commander in
chief of the armed forces of the United States.
Power to Make War
The president shares with Congress the power
to make war. In January 1991, President George
H.W. Bush received congressional approval for
military action in Iraq before he ordered a
massive air strike. His actions prevented a serious
constitutional issue that might have divided the
nation if the president had sent troops without
congressional approval as he was prepared to do.
258
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
Several other presidents have sent American
forces into action without a formal declaration of
war. In the early 1900s, several presidents sent
forces into Latin America to support leaders who
were friendly to the United States. In the late
twentieth century, when President George H.W.
Bush ordered an invasion of Panama to overthrow
the dictator Manuel Noriega, he did not seek congressional approval.
In 2001 President George W. Bush began his
“war on terrorism” by sending troops to Afghanistan without asking Congress for a declaration of
war. Subsequently, Bush asked for congressional
approval for a much larger military action against
Iraq. The president claimed Iraq had weapons of
mass destruction and “gathers the most serious
Gift of Edgar William and Bernice Chrysler Garbisch, 1963
Presidential Authority Most modern presidents do not directly
lead their troops as Washington did. How do modern presidents
indirectly lead their troops?
dangers of our age in one place.” In October 2002
Congress passed a resolution that authorized the
president to use the U.S. armed forces in Iraq “as
he deems necessary and appropriate.”
Military Operations and Strategy
Generals, admirals, and other military leaders
run the armed forces on a day-to-day basis. The
president, however, is responsible for the key military decisions that represent overall policy and
strategy.
In 1794 President George Washington exercised
his constitutional authority over the military when
defiant whiskey distillers in western Pennsylvania
refused to pay the federal tax on their product. It
was Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton who urged the president to take action against
the rebels by mobilizing some 15,000 state militia
troops. Hamilton rode west with the troops, while
Washington went to Pennsylvania to inspect
them. When the troops arrived in Pittsburgh, the
rebels retreated in the face of this convincing show
of strength.
Several presidents have had a military background. Besides Washington, they have included
Andrew Jackson, William H. Harrison, Zachary
Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt,
and Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Neither Woodrow Wilson nor Franklin D.
Roosevelt, presidents during World War I and
World War II had any military experience. Some
presidents with limited military experience have
had to command military operations. Presidents
Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, for example,
made key military decisions in the Vietnam War.
President Jimmy Carter sent a special military force
into Iran in 1980 to try to rescue American hostages. In 2001 terrorist attacks on New York City
and Washington, D.C., led President George W.
Bush to launch a military campaign against terrorist groups in several countries. Bush sent troops
into Afghanistan, Iraq, the Philippines, and other
terrorist-training areas.
As commander in chief, the president has the
authority to order the use of atomic weapons, a
daunting responsibility. President Nixon said,
“I can walk into my office, pick up the telephone,
and in twenty minutes 70 million people will
be dead.”
As commander in chief, the president has more
than military duties. During a war, Congress is
likely to give the president special powers at home
as well as abroad. During World War II, Franklin
D. Roosevelt demanded and received from Congress power over price controls, gas and food
rationing, and the industries needed to produce
tanks, guns, and other war materials.
The president may also use the military to control serious turmoil in the nation. Presidents have
used federal troops to control rioting in American
cities. In case of a natural disaster, such as a flood,
the president may send needed supplies or troops
to help keep order.
All these roles combined—head of state, chief
executive, chief legislator, economic planner, party
leader, chief diplomat, and commander in chief—
make the president of the United States the most
powerful person in the world.
SECTION 2 Review
Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: executive order, impoundment,
reprieve, pardon, amnesty, patronage, treaty, executive
agreement.
Main Ideas
2. Describing Which three foreign relations duties of the
president are based on the Constitution?
3. Identifying Which officials may the president appoint?
Critical Thinking
4. Understanding Cause and Effect Which decisions by a
president affect the direction of the nation’s economy?
5. Organizing Using a graphic organizer like the one below,
describe the different duties of the president’s roles as head
of state and chief executive.
Head of State
Chief Executive
Writing About Government
6. Expository Writing Imagine a typical day in the life
of an American president. Prepare an agenda for the
president’s day. Be sure to keep the seven duties of
the president in mind when creating your agenda.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
259
Is the War Powers Act
Constitutional?
ISSUES
to
Debate
The War Powers Act of 1973 was inspired by the Vietnam War. Many believed
the president should not have sent so many American soldiers to Vietnam without
a formal declaration of war. Congress wanted to prevent this from happening
again. The act sets various deadlines for the president to notify and get congressional approval for sending troops abroad. Since the Constitution gives both the
president and Congress war-making powers, the act remains controversial.
YES
NO
The War Powers Act is constitutional. The legislation was necessary to maintain a proper balance
of power between the executive and legislative
branches. The Framers of the Constitution gave
Congress the power to declare war, or ultimately
decide whether to enter a war. As commander in
chief, the president has the power to lead U.S. forces
only after the decision to wage war has been made
by Congress. It is dangerous to encourage presidents to act alone, assuming that Congress will rally
around the president after he has committed a sufficient number of troops to combat. The president
can commit troops in an emergency, but the Framers never intended them to be committed indefinitely—or for so long that war is really inevitable.
The War Powers Act provides some real control for
Congress by setting clear time limits and improves
communication between the president and Congress in a crisis. The War Powers Act also promotes
stability because it moderates a president’s response
to a crisis since he or she knows that actions may
ultimately be vetoed by Congress.
The War Powers Act interferes with the president’s authority as commander in chief. It restricts
the president’s effectiveness in foreign policy and
should be repealed. The act restricts a president’s
power to send troops into action in an international crisis. If the president wants to conduct the
best foreign policy—and use American military
superiority to help solve world crises—he or she
needs flexibility. The time limits in the act highlight the fact that the War Powers Act is unconstitutional as well as impractical. Further, the
obligation of a deadline presents the image of a
divided nation to the world. It gives the enemy
hope that the president will be forced by domestic
pressure to withdraw troops after a short period.
This can actually increase the risk to American
soldiers who are sent into action. As stated in the
Constitution, the president is meant to command
the armed forces, thus he or she must be able to
commit troops without interference.
260
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
▲
1. Analyzing Why would the time limit
provision be a cause for controversy?
2. Explaining How does the War Powers
Act attempt to balance power?
3. Deciding With which opinion do you
tend to agree? Explain your reasoning.
President Lyndon B.
Johnson signs the Gulf of
Tonkin Resolution, which
gave him power to increase
U.S. involvement in the
Vietnam War.
MPI/Getty Images
Debating the Issue
SECTION 3
Styles of Leadership
Reader’s Guide
Content Vocabulary
Academic Vocabulary
Reading Strategy
★ de facto (p. 266)
★ covert (p. 266)
★ executive
privilege (p. 266)
★ survey (p. 261)
★ tension (p. 261)
★ generate (p. 262)
As you read, create a graphic organizer like the one below to
list the reasons for presidential isolation.
Reasons for Presidential Isolation
Issues in the News
“T
his is a problem that must have started with George
Washington,” said an aide to Richard Nixon when
asked about the president’s isolation. “If everybody went in
immediately whenever he needed something, the White
House wouldn’t work.” Some senators were so desperate for
attention that they blurted out ideas in White House reception lines. President Dwight Eisenhower was known for
letting his chief of staff serve as a buffer, while President
Lyndon B. Johnson was just the opposite. Johnson saw or
telephoned hundreds of people almost daily—but he did
most of the talking.
CORBIS
E
very president has a unique style of leadership.
In the summer of 1981, President Ronald
Reagan and his assistants prepared complex
legislation to cut federal taxes. One day the president’s secretary of the treasury was working out
details of the tax bill with key congressional leaders.
At one point, the president stopped by to see how
things were going. “Would you like to join us?” the
secretary asked with a smile. “Heck, no,” the president replied, “I’m going to leave this to you experts.
I’m not going to get involved in details.”
Reagan’s response illustrated one aspect of his
leadership style. He focused on what his aides
called the “big picture” and let others in the Executive Office work out policy details. President Jimmy
Carter, Reagan’s predecessor, took a different
approach. He spent many hours studying policy
details and often became directly involved with his
assistants to sort through them.
▲ President Nixon in a quiet moment
Increased Responsibilities
When the Founders wrote the Constitution, they
were thinking that Congress, not the president,
would lead the nation. At best, the president was to
be the nation’s chief administrator and, in time of
war, its commander in chief. Instead the powers
and duties of the president have grown steadily
over the years. Public opinion surveys clearly show
that Americans look to the president to keep the
peace and to solve economic and social problems.
Sometimes presidents demonstrate leadership
by introducing bold new policies. President
Truman did this in 1948 when he announced
measures to end discrimination against African
Americans. More often, presidents demonstrate
leadership by responding to crises, problems, or
opportunities as they occur. President Richard
Nixon took advantage of tensions between the
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
261
Styles of Presidential Leadership
TK.
▲
Different Styles
▲
President Lyndon Johnson’s
leadership style was often
called the “Johnson
Treatment.” It involved
flattering, cajoling, and
arm-twisting to persuade
others. Here he discusses
strategy with Supreme
Court Justice Abe Fortas.
Presidential
Relationships
Soviet Union and China to open diplomatic
relations between the People’s Republic of China
and the United States. President Bill Clinton made
the difficult decision to intervene in a civil war
in Bosnia.
Leadership Qualities
and Skills
What kinds of qualities and skills do presidents
need to lead the nation? Several qualities common to
all good administrators can be identified. Many
presidents have more than one of these qualities,
and a number of great presidents have had them all.
Understanding the Public
A president must know and understand the
American people. The most successful presidents
have a genuine feel for the hopes, fears, and moods
of the nation. Understanding the people is necessary to gain and hold their support.
Public support, in turn, can give a president real
leverage in influencing lawmakers. Since Congress
is a representative body, it is very sensitive to the
amount of public support a president can generate.
When a president is popular, presidential proposals
262
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
and policies are better received by Congress than
when the public holds a president in low regard.
When Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded to the office of
president, Congress passed his Great Society legislation. However, when Johnson became unpopular
during the Vietnam War, he encountered fierce
opposition in Congress. His effectiveness as a leader
was almost destroyed.
Failure to understand the public mood can prove
disastrous for a president. In 1932, when the nation
was mired in the Great Depression, President
Herbert Hoover believed that the public did not
want government to take an active role in confronting the nation’s economic problems. Actually, with
millions out of work, Americans wanted their
problems solved by any means, including federal
intervention. Hoover’s failure to understand
people’s attitude cost him the presidency. In 1932
he lost to the Democratic candidate, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, in a landslide.
Ability to Communicate
Successful presidents must be able to communicate effectively and to present their ideas in a way
that inspires public support. President Herbert
Hoover met infrequently with the press and only
answered questions that were written in advance.
(l)Yoichi R. Okamoto/LBJ Library, (r)Paul E. Alers/NASA
Which president’s
leadership style do
you think is most
effective? Explain.
In contrast, Franklin D. Roosevelt was a master at
communicating with the public. He held weekly
press conferences during which he answered all
questions. After his famous “fireside chats” over the
radio, Roosevelt received as many as 50,000 letters
of public support per day.
A president who cannot communicate
effectively will have a hard time being a strong
leader. President Carter, for example, did not win
much support for his policies. President Reagan,
on the other hand, was a very effective communicator. The press dubbed him “the Great Communicator” because of his ability to sell his ideas to
the public.
A United Military
Throughout much of
the nation’s history, the U.S. armed forces were
racially segregated. For example, about one
million African American men and women
served in segregated units during World War II.
In 1948 President Harry S Truman issued an
executive order forcing the military to integrate
African American and white units. These
integrated units first emerged during the
Korean War.
Sense of Timing
A successful president must know when the
time is right to introduce a new policy, to make a
key decision, or to delay such actions. During the
crisis in the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s,
President George H.W. Bush agreed that
American economic aid would help encourage
democratic reforms there. He decided to delay
acting on this policy, however, until the Soviet
political situation was clearer and more stable. On
the other hand, when some Soviet republics
declared independence, Bush was quick to recognize their sovereignty.
Skillful presidents often use their assistants
or cabinet secretaries to test a position on a
controversial issue. One way is to deliberately leak
information to the press about something that is
being considered. Another device is to have a
cabinet secretary or an aide make a statement
about the issue or give a speech on it. If public and
congressional responses are favorable, the president then supports the position and may implement the policy. If reaction is unfavorable, the idea
may be quietly dropped, or the president may begin
a campaign to shape public opinion on the issue.
Openness to New Ideas
Good leadership also requires the capacity to be
flexible and open to new ideas. As events in Eastern
Europe and the Soviet Union demonstrated in
the early 1990s, situations can change rapidly in the
modern world. Consequently, an effective president
must be receptive to new solutions to problems.
Presidents who are flexible are willing to engage
in informal give-and-take sessions with their advisers. Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F.
Kennedy liked to hear their staffs argue differing
positions. In contrast, President Ronald Reagan
did not tolerate serious dissension among his staff.
President Bill Clinton was known for liking to
listen to all kinds of opinions, too, as well as for
getting involved with details. George W. Bush has
been described as someone who acted more on
instinct. He preferred to get brief summaries of
policy options and make quick decisions. “He
never thought about reversing course,” one former
adviser said.
Ability to Compromise
A successful president must be able to compromise. The nature of politics is such that even the
president must be willing to give up something to
get something in return. Presidents who are successful leaders are able to recognize that sometimes
they have to settle for legislation that provides only
part of the programs they want. Presidents who will
not compromise risk accomplishing nothing at all.
A famous dispute at the end of World War I
between President Woodrow Wilson and the
Congress is often cited as an example of a president
refusing to compromise and losing everything in the
end. Wilson had represented the nation at the Paris
Peace Conference negotiations to end the war. He
lobbied the other nations involved with the treaty to
include a plan for a League of Nations, a global
organization whose goal was to prevent war.
See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:
1. The Fourteen Points, page R90.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
263
An Inaccessible President
An Imperial
Presidency Here
President Nixon makes a
rare trip to the White House
gates to greet citizens.
Nixon surrounded himself
with aides who agreed
with him, creating an
atmosphere in which all
opinions reflected his
own. Nixon thrived on the
power of the presidency,
and critics dubbed him
“King Richard.” How
might Nixon’s attitude
have limited his ability
to govern?
Political Courage
Successful presidents need political courage
because sometimes they have to go against public
opinion to do what they think is best. It takes courage to make decisions that will be unpopular.
President Abraham Lincoln made this kind of
decision during the Civil War. The early years of
the war went very badly for the North. Despite
some Union victories, casualties were very high,
and the war’s end seemed nowhere in sight. As
time passed, the war became increasingly unpopular, and the president came under intense public
264
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
and political pressure to negotiate peace. Despite
his belief that his decision would mean his defeat
in the 1864 election, Lincoln chose to continue the
war to preserve the Union.
Presidential Isolation
Information and realistic advice are key ingredients for successful decision making. As presidents
have become more dependent on the White House
staff, however, the danger is that they will become
isolated from solid information and sound advice.
Special Treatment
Modern presidents get very special treatment.
One adviser to President Johnson noted:
life of the White House is the life of
“ The
a court. It is a structure designed for one
purpose and one purpose only—to serve
the material needs and desires of a
single man. . . . He is treated with all the
reverence due a monarch. . . . No one ever
invites him to ‘go soak your head’ when
his demands become petulant and
unreasonable.
—George Reedy, 1970
”
In this kind of atmosphere, it is easy for presidents to see themselves as deserving only praise
and to consider their ideas above criticism.
National Archives and Records Administration
When the treaty came before the Senate for
ratification, many senators opposed it. They did
not want permanent ties of any kind to Europe
and its problems. They specifically objected that
the League of Nations plan would take away the
right of Congress to declare war. (The League
called for members to take collective action against
any aggressor nation.)
Faced with these objections, President Wilson
still refused to modify the treaty. Wilson faced a
significant problem, however: If changes were
made to the treaty to please the Senate, it would
also have to be renegotiated with foreign powers.
An angry Wilson decided to go on a public speaking tour to build support for the treaty. The tour
ended suddenly when Wilson suffered a stroke.
The Senate rejected the treaty, and the United
States never joined the League of Nations.
Voicing Opinions
Presidents can easily discourage staff members
from disagreeing with them or giving unpleasant
advice. Lincoln once asked his cabinet for advice
on a proposal he favored. Every member of the
cabinet opposed it—to which Lincoln responded,
“Seven nays, one aye; the ayes have it.”
No matter how well advisers know the president
personally, many advisers stand in awe of the office
of the president. A close adviser and friend of
President Kennedy put it this way: “I saw no halo,
I observed no mystery. And yet I found that my
own personal, highly informal relationship with
him changed as soon as he entered the Oval Office.”
An assistant to President Nixon had similar feelings. He explained that even after working closely
with Nixon, “I never lost my reverent awe of the
president, or the presidency, which for me were
synonymous.” Such feelings can make it difficult
for staff to stand up to the president or voice criticism. In the end, this may mean that the president
does not hear all sides of an issue.
Access to the President
A veteran political observer once noted that
“power in Washington is measured in access to the
president.” Top White House staff are closer to the
president than any other government officials.
Presidents have different styles of managing
staff. Franklin D. Roosevelt liked having staff
members who had different ideas and would fight
for them. Lyndon B. Johnson was much less open
to dissent.
William Safire, one of the speechwriters for
President Nixon, tells a story that shows what can
happen to the careless staffer who happens to
disagree with the president. Safire once challenged
the accuracy of a statement that Nixon made.
When Nixon insisted that he was correct, Safire
produced evidence to show that the president was
wrong. As a result, Safire recalls, “For three solid
months I did not receive a speech assignment from
the president, or a phone call, or a memo, or a nod
in the hall as he was passing by.”
Woodrow Wilson’s closest adviser, Colonel
Edward House, admitted that he constantly praised
his boss. As for bad news, one presidential adviser
explained that the strategy everyone followed
was “to be present either personally or by a proxy
piece of paper when ‘good news’ arrives and to be
certain that someone else is present when the news
is bad.”
Making a Difference
Ed Reinke/AP Images
J
immy Carter served as president of the United States from 1977 to 1981.
After leaving office, he continued to work on domestic and international
problems like global health and human rights. For his peacemaking
efforts, Carter has been nominated seven times for a Nobel Peace Prize.
He was awarded the prize in 2002. The focal point of Carter’s efforts is his
Carter Center in Atlanta, founded in 1982. He has traveled to Ethiopia,
Sudan, North Korea, and Bosnia to promote peace.
“Peace can be made in
Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, are working to eradicate a deadly disease
the neighborhoods. . . .”
called guinea-worm disease that affects people in India, Pakistan, and
—Jimmy Carter
16 African countries. By teaching people to filter their water, the death rate
from this disease has decreased.
At home, Carter and his wife are involved in Habitat for Humanity, building houses for the poor with other
volunteers. Carter, who is now in his eighties, says, “To work for better understanding among people, one does
not have to be a former president. . . . Peace can be made in the neighborhoods, the living rooms, the playing
fields, and the classrooms of our country.”
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
265
In Consultation
however, was very strong and restricted access.
Although most presidents appoint their close
friends to the White House staff, Bush appointed
them to the cabinet instead. As one presidential
aide explained, “The cabinet has played a very
important role in all major decisions. [The president] wants them to be running things—not the
White House staff.”
Many observers believed that the leadership
changes Bush made were positive. They argue that
by listening to officials not so closely tied to White
House operations, the president heard a greater
variety of views.
Staying in Touch
The Dangers of Isolation
Not only do top staffers have easy access to the
president, but they also use their closeness to
control others’ access. Few messages of any kind
reached President Dwight D. Eisenhower unless
his chief of staff, Sherman Adams, saw them
first. H.R. Haldeman played a similar role for President Nixon.
President Reagan at first depended heavily on
several top advisers. During his second term, however, his new chief of staff, Donald Regan, severely
restricted access to the president. One Reagan
staffer called Regan the de facto president, meaning that although Regan did not legally hold the
office, he exercised power as if he were president.
Like Nixon, President Reagan became increasingly
isolated. This isolation made it more believable
when the president claimed he was unaware of the
covert, or secret, activities of his National Security Council staff in the Iran-Contra affair.
Perhaps in response to the events of the Nixon
and Reagan presidencies, President George H.W.
Bush tried to reverse the trend to consolidate
power in the White House. His chief of staff,
266
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
Executive Privilege
Presidents do not want the information from
their advisers to become public while they are still
deciding on policies. To keep their White House
discussions confidential, modern presidents have
sometimes used executive privilege. Executive
privilege is the right of the president and other
high-ranking executive officers, with the president’s consent, to refuse to provide information to
Congress or a court.
Although the Constitution does not mention
executive privilege, the concept rests on the principle of separation of powers. Presidents since
George Washington have claimed that executive
privilege is implied in the powers granted in Article II. Congress has disputed executive privilege.
Members claim that their oversight powers give
them the right to get all necessary information
from the president.
Getty Images
Executive Privilege Presidents need
confidential discussions with their advisers,
as Barack Obama seems to be having with his
vice president here. How does the Congress
view executive privilege?
Most political observers warn that despite a
president’s best intentions, power inevitably drifts
toward the White House. Keeping in direct touch
with the public can be very difficult, if not impossible, for a modern president. The need for cabinet
members to protect the interests of their departments and the constituent groups they serve
always influences the advice they give.
In 1993 President Clinton brought plans for
major domestic legislation to Washington. Dealing with White House staff problems became a
major distraction, however. The president relied
on key staffers for input in brainstorming sessions
that could last for hours. Many sessions were
inconclusive, and the president’s agenda lost
momentum. To increase efficiency, the president
found it necessary to reorganize the staff.
Limits of Executive Privilege
Presidents have long claimed that executive
privilege is necessary for another reason—it protects their communication with executive branch
staff. Without this protection, they argue that they
would be unable to get frank advice from their
assistants.
Until recently, neither Congress nor the
courts had much need to question members of
the White House staff. These presidential aides
traditionally had little influence on policy-making.
The various cabinet departments made key
policy decisions, and Congress could call department heads to testify as part of its oversight function. But as more policy has been made in the
Executive Office of the President, the constitutionality and limits of executive privilege have
become controversial.
United States v. Nixon
Landmark Case In 1974 the Supreme Court
decided a major case on executive privilege.
President Nixon had secretly tape-recorded his
conversations with key aides about the Watergate
cover-up. In United States v. Nixon, the Court
unanimously ruled that the president had to
surrender the tapes to the special prosecutor
investigating the scandal. Although the Court
rejected Nixon’s claim of executive privilege in this
case, it ruled that executive privilege is supported
by the Constitution. In Chief Justice Warren
Burger’s words:
and those who assist him must
“ AbePresident
free to explore alternatives in the process
of shaping policies and making decisions,
and to do so in a way many would be
unwilling to express except privately.
—Chief Justice Warren Burger, 1974
”
The Court’s decision did not end the controversy.
Although executive privilege is legally recognized,
the question of how far it extends to presidential
advisers has gone unanswered.
President George W. Bush invoked executive
privilege many times, four times just in the summer of 2007 alone. In one instance, Congress
wanted information on the firing of eight federal
prosecutors. Democrats believed the prosecutors
were fired because they were not sympathetic to
the administration’s positions on the Iraq War.
Congress subpoenaed the former White House
counsel and another top staffer to testify before
the House Judiciary Committee on the matter.
When they refused, the committee brought suit in
a federal court to force them to appear. As this
back-and-forth struggle suggests, arguments over
executive privilege will likely continue to cause
conflict between the president and Congress. In
the words of Justice Kennedy:
executive privilege is asserted, coequal
“ Once
branches of the Government are set on a
collision course.
”
—Justice Anthony Kennedy, 2004
SECTION 3 Review
Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: de facto, covert, executive
privilege.
Main Ideas
2. Analyzing How do presidents test public opinion before
announcing new policies?
3. Explaining How do good communication skills help a
president gain public support?
Critical Thinking
4. Synthesizing How can a president’s willingness to let
staff express disagreements on issues help the president
make better decisions?
5. Organizing Using a graphic organizer like the one below,
identify six qualities of presidential leadership and give an
example of each.
Qualities
Examples
Writing About Government
6. Persuasive Writing Suppose that you are the president’s
chief assistant for legislative affairs. The president has asked
for your advice on whether the opinions of interest groups
should be a factor in making policy decisions. Write a memo
supporting your position.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
267
Are Elections Free and Fair?
The presidency is the only office that
requires a nationwide election. Because of
this, how presidents are elected is extremely
important. The Founders wanted small states
to have a role in the election so they set up the
Electoral College system. This system means
that occasionally the winner of the popular
vote loses the election. Over time, other
aspects of electing presidents has changed.
˛
As you read the time line, use the checklist
to determine if these changes have made
U.S. elections freer and fairer.
˛
Free and Fair
Election Checklist
✓ All adult citizens
can vote.
✓ Nominations are
open to all.
✓ Votes are counted in
a transparent manner.
✓ All sides trust results.
✓ Every vote is equal.
Presidential Elections: A History
George Washington
unanimously elected
president by the
Electoral College.
1824
The first election in
which most states allow
free white males to vote
for the electors.
Andrew Jackson wins the
popular vote, but loses
the election.
268 The Progress of Democracy
1870
Fifteenth Amendment
guarantees the right to
vote regardless of race.
Minorities are still often
prohibited from voting.
(t)National Archives and Records Administration, (b)Robb Scharetg/Jupiter Images
1792
The United States
(tl)Flip Schulke/CORBIS, (tr)Robert King/Newsmakers/Getty Images, (b)Private Collection, Peter Newark American Pictures/Bridgeman Art Library, (t)National Archives and Records
African
Americans
vote in a
Mississippi
primary.
The Fifteenth
Amendment
and the Voting
Rights Act
ensured that
minorities have
the right and
the opportunity
to vote.
Voting Rights Act outlaws
poll taxes, literacy tests, and
other methods of preventing
people from voting.
1920
Nineteenth Amendment
guarantees the right of
women to vote.
1951
1965 1971
Franklin D. Roosevelt
was elected
president four times.
After his death, the
22nd Amendment
was passed to
prevent any
president from
maintaining power
for so long. The
Twenty-second
Amendment
limits presidents
to two terms
in office.
Twenty-sixth
Amendment
lowers the voting
age to 18. Many
states’ voting age
had been 21.
A Florida election
official manually
examines a ballot
for irregularities
after the 2000
presidential election.
The U.S. Supreme
Court later held that
the recount was
unconstitutional,
violating the
Fourteenth
Amendment,
because ballots
were not treated
the same throughout
the state.
2000
2008
Supreme Court
rules that requiring
a state I.D. to vote
is not an undue
burden on voting.
The Progress of Democracy 269
Are Elections Free and Fair?
Although many countries around the world
are moving toward democracy, the process has
been uneven in some places. Many countries
have made efforts to hold free and fair elections
with varying degrees of success. Other countries
have held fixed elections in order to gain
legitimacy. For example, in Iraq under Saddam
Hussein, the official tally often showed him
winning with more than 99 percent of the vote.
The new Iraqi government has made great
strides in reforming the electoral process to
make it free and fair.
˛
˛
Free and Fair
Election Checklist
✓ All adult citizens
can vote.
✓ Nominations are
open to all.
✓ Votes are counted in
a transparent manner.
✓ All sides trust results.
✓ Every vote is equal.
As you read, use the checklist to help evaluate
elections around the world.
Brasilia, Brazil: 2010
Yuri Cortez/AFP/Getty Images, AFP/Getty Images
Brazilian president Luiz Inácio da Silva’s second,
four-year term in office was coming to an end and he
was constitutionally prohibited from running for a
third, consecutive term. No candidate received
absolute majority in the first round,
so a second round, or run-off
election, was required to be held.
Lula’s designated successor, Dilma
Rousseff won the run-off, becoming
Brazil’s first female president.
270 The Progress of Democracy
The World
Beijing, China: 2007
Former vice president
Zeng Qinghong casts
a ballot for the new
leadership of the
Communist Party of
China. The Communist
Party controls China’s
political systems and
media outlets.
Rangoon, Myanmar: 2010
This was the first general election
in Myanmar since 1990. New
election laws were announced in
early 2010 which allowed the
military government to have the
final say over election results.
Colombo, Sri Lanka: 2010
The first general election after the
conclusion of a civil war, the Sri
Lankan presidential election was
marred by violence and
accusations of fraud. The winner,
President Mahinda Rajapaksa,
was accused of using state
resources to fund his reelection
campaign. State-owned news
media, too, was accused of not
providing adequate coverage of
opposition candidates.
(t)Xinhua, Ju Peng/AP Images, (b)Bishop Asare/epa/CORBIS, Tim Fiach/Getty Images
Harare, Zimbabwe:
June 2008
Morgan Tsvangirai, shown
here at a pre-election rally,
withdrew from a run-off
election in 2008 after many
of his voters were beaten
and killed by supporters of
President Robert Mugabe. To reduce tensions,
Tsvangirai formed a coalition government as Prime
Minister with Mugabe in 2009.
Critical Thinking
Free and Fair Elections
1. Which countries above do not meet the
criteria of having free and fair elections?
Which criteria do they fail to meet?
2. Select a country and research its most
recent election. Was that election free and
fair? What changes could be made to make
the election free and fair?
The Progress of Democracy 271
Assessment and Activities
Reviewing Vocabulary
On a separate sheet of paper, choose the letter of the content
vocabulary word(s) defined in each phrase.
a. executive order
b. reprieve
c. de facto
d. mandate
e. pardon
f. amnesty
g. line-item veto
h. treaty
i. covert
j. forum
Chapter Summary
Presidential Powers
★ Formal powers are granted in Article II of the
Constitution.
★ Informal sources of power include the president’s
personal exercise of power, the immediate needs of
the nation, and public mandates.
★ Powers can be limited by Congress, the federal
courts, the bureaucracy, and by public opinion.
1. expressed will of the people
2. medium of discussion of presidential messages
3. the power to accept or to reject only parts of a
congressional bill
4. expunging someone from legal punishment
5. presidential decree that has the force of law
6. postponement of a person’s legal punishment
7. existing “in fact” rather than officially or legally
8. something that is secret
Reviewing Main Ideas
Section 1 (pages 245–250)
9. Listing What are four limits on presidential power?
Section 2 (pages 252–259)
10. Explaining What is the president’s role as party leader?
Section 3 (pages 261–267)
11. Interpreting Why can failing to understand the public’s
mood weaken a president’s power?
12. Analyzing How do presidents become isolated?
Roles of the President
Critical Thinking
★ Head of State—Performs ceremonial roles
★ Chief Executive—Sees that laws of Congress are
carried out
★ Chief Legislator—Proposes legislation
★ Economic Planner—Prepares federal budget
★ Party Leader—Supports party members
★ Chief Diplomat—Directs foreign policy
★ Commander in Chief—Commands armed forces of
the United States
13.
Presidential Leadership Skills
★ Understanding of the public
★ Ability to communicate
★ Sense of timing
★ Openness to new ideas
★ Ability to compromise
★ Political courage
272
UNIT 3: The Executive Branch
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Essential Question Give examples of how the
president has influence over the other two branches of
government.
Synthesizing When has Congress allowed expansion of a
president’s economic power?
Discussing Why is compromise such a vital ingredient for
a president to be able to maintain support of the people?
Analyzing How could Congress have prevented President
Thomas Jefferson from purchasing the Louisiana Territory?
Drawing Conclusions What are the dangers in depending
only on the cabinet for advice? Only on presidential aides?
Understanding Cause and Effect Use a graphic organizer
to show why President Lyndon B. Johnson chose not to run
for reelection in 1968.
Cause
Effect/Cause
Johnson
chooses not to
run for
reelection
Effect
Self-Check Quiz
Visit connected.mcgraw-hill.com and click on the United States
Government Self-Check Quizzes for additional test practice.
Document-Based Questions
Analyzing Primary Sources
Interpreting Political Cartoons
Read the excerpt below and answer the questions
that follow.
Analyze the cartoon and answer the questions that follow.
Base your answers on the cartoon and your knowledge of
Chapter 9.
George Washington knew that his two terms as the
nation’s first president would set the precedent for future
officeholders. Washington’s Farewell Address, written
near the end of his second term in 1796, gives his ideas on
presidential duties and powers regarding both domestic
and foreign policy.
On office terms:
“
The period for a new election of a citizen to
administer the executive government of the
United States being not far distant, and the time
actually arrived when your thoughts must be
employed in designating the person who is to
be clothed with that important trust, it appears
to me proper, especially as it may conduce to
a more distinct expression of the public voice,
that I should now apprise you of the resolution
I have formed, to decline being considered
among the number of those out of whom a
choice is to be made.
”
On foreign policy:
In the execution of such a plan, nothing is
more essential than that permanent, inveterate
antipathies against particular nations, and
passionate attachments for others, should be
excluded; and that, in place of them, just
and amicable feelings towards all should be
cultivated.
★★★★
★★★
P articipating
★
2001 Mick Stevens from cartoonbank.com
19. What is the first precedent that George Washington set in
declining to run for another term of office? Why do you
think he did this?
20. George Washington also warned against carrying grudges
against other nations. What does this warning say about
the developing powers of the presidency?
★
★
”
21. According to the cartoon, what do the American people
expect of their president?
22. How must presidential candidates present themselves to
the public?
in Government
★★★
“
23. Like the nation’s president, city mayors must know how
residents view their policies. Design a poll to find out
what people in your town think of the mayor’s recent
decisions. Then explain your poll results in a report.
CHAPTER 9: Presidential Leadership
273