International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(10), pp. 448-456, 2013
Available online at http://www.ijsrpub.com/ijsrk
ISSN: 2322-4541; ©2013 IJSRPUB
http://dx.doi.org/10.12983/ijsrk-2013-p448-456
Full Length Research Paper
Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Associated with Fresh and Frozen Shrimp
(Palaemonetes sp.) and Their Public Health Significance
Leera Solomon*, Chimezie J. Ogugbue, Gideon C. Okpokwasili
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science, College of Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Port
Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323,Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author: E-mail: sololeera@yahoo.com
Received 14 September 2013; Accepted 26 September 2013
Abstract: Bacteria associated with fresh and frozen shrimp were investigated to characterize the major bacterial pathogens of
public health significance and to determine their antibiotic resistance profiles. Twenty (20) pieces of shrimp were analyzed
using ICMSF recommended procedures. Fresh samples had an average total culturable heterotrophic bacterial (TCHB) count
of 2.60 x 107cfu/g and total coliform bacterial (TCB) count of 2.99 x 105cfu/g while frozen samples had average count of
9.11x106cfu/g for TCHB and1.66 x 106cfu/g for TCB.The density of THCB and TCB in the fresh samples was significantly
higher than that obtained for the frozen samples (p<0.05). A total of 290 bacteria were isolated, comprising 168 isolates from
fresh samples and 122 isolates from frozen samples. The percentage of single isolate from fresh samples were: Proteus (6.5%),
Escherichia (11.9%), Salmonella (8.3%), Staphylococcus (10.7%), Shigella (7.1%), Citrobacter (9.5%), Serratia (8.3%),
Enterobacter (10.1%), Klebsiella (10.7%), Aeromonas (8.9%) and Vibrio (7.7%) while frozen samples had Pseudomonas
(16.4%), Bacillus(4.9%), Streptococcus(15.6%), Alcaligenes (14.8%), Micrococcus (9.8%), Proteus (3.3%), Aeromonas
(5.7%), Lactobacillus (11.5%), Moraxella (4.1%), Achromobacter (6.6%), and Flavobacterium (7.4%).Consumption of
bacterial contaminated shrimps have been reported to be responsible for gastroenteritis, diarrhea, bacillary dysentery and
typhoid fever in humans.Antibiogram of selected isolates indicated their multiple antibiotic resistances to all antibiotics. The
highest resistance (100%) was recorded against streptomycin, cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, erythromycin, chloramphenicol,
augmenting, gentamycin and amoxycilin. Ofloxacin (12.5%) recorded the least resistant followed by Ciprofloxacin (25%).
Environmental sanitation and proper handling will reduce bacterial pathogens in shrimp and enhance its nutritional value.
Key words: Bacterial contaminated shrimps, public health significance, multiple antibiotic resistances, nutritional value.
freezing and thawing pose health risk to seafood
consumers (Banwart, 1989; Ibe, 2008) and therefore,
call for concern. Bacteria from shrimp are of public
health significance when consumed live with the
shrimp or prior to ingestion of their toxin deposited in
it (Nester et al., 1998; Iwamoto et al., 2010; Jablonski
et al., 2001; Jeyasekaran et al., 2006, Adedeji et al.,
2012).The consumption of bacterial contaminated
seafood has been implicated in major seafood-borne
diseases such as salmonellosis or gastroenteritis with
symptoms of fever, bloody diarrhea, abdominal cramp
and vomiting (Hatheway, 1995).
In Nigeria, fresh and frozen fish and shellfish
(Figure 1 and 2) are marketed on open tables with
flies buzzing all over. The unsanitary condition of
food markets all over the places, call for concern over
the bacterial quality of foods (Anthonio, 1995;
Solomon and Ibe, 2012).The implication of this is the
transmission of bacterial food-borne diseases caused
by E. coli, Vibrio, Salmonella, Staphylococcus and
Bacillus (ICMSF, 1986, Iwamato et al., 2010;
Clemson University, 2012). Microbiological standards
for shrimp set by Codex Alimentarius Commission
1. INTRODUCTION
Shrimp (Palaemonetes sp.) are crustaceans belonging
to the category of living things called arthropods.
They live in schools in both fresh and salt water
habitat (Gillett, 2003). Because of their high calcium,
iodine and protein content, they are often farmed and
used as an accompaniment to fried rice and as a
versatile ingredient in many cuisines worldwide.
Shrimp is an unusual source of the xanthophylls
carotenoid called astaxanthin. It is also an excellent
source of protein and selenium. This shellfish is a very
good source of heart-healthy vitamin B12 and a good
source of energy-promoting iron, phosphorus, and
niacin; anti-inflammatory omega-3-fatty acids;
immune-supportive zinc; and bone-healthy copper and
magnesium (Larsen et al., 2011; Mahaffy et al., 2008;
Smith and Guentzel, 2010).
Shrimp are a good potential source of revenue and
a substantial contribution to livelihood in coastal
communities. The increased importation of frozen sea
foods which are stored under fluctuating temperatures
due to power outages and thus, undergo cycles of
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Solomon et al.
Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Associated with Fresh and Frozen Shrimp (Palaemonetes sp.) and Their
Public Health Significance
(FAO/WHO, 1982) on fish and fisheries products
emphasized rejection of frozen shrimp with total
viable count (TVC) above 105cfu/g, Staphylococcus
aureus above 102 cfu/g and the detection of
Salmonellasp. Seafood is a reflection of the quality of
the overlaying waters. The most important aspect of
bacterial contamination in shrimp is the production of
shellfish-borne infection and intoxication in shrimp
consumers (Meng and Doyle, 1997).
The millennium developmental goals (MDGs)
report has highlighted the impact of disease burden
and the insufficiency in food supply especially protein
sources as a major developmental concern in the
developing word. Considering the massive
consumption
and
economic
importance
of
Palaemonetes spp., it is imperative that the public
needs to be informed of its nutritional qualities, and
the public health implications resulting from the
consumption of bacterial-contaminated shrimp
products.
Fig. 1: Fresh shrimp sold in an open market in PH
Fig. 2: Frozen shrimp sold in a supermarket in PH
Pathogenic bacteria found to be associated with
shrimps include but are not limited to Salmonella sp.,
Shigella sp., Esherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, V.
parahaemolyticus,
Campylobacter
jejuni,
Pseudomonas sp., Alcaligenes sp., Acinetobacter sp.
and Yersinia enterocolitica, Moraxella spp.,
Achromobacter
spp.,
Staphylococcus
aureus,
Flavobacterium sp., Bacillus cereus, Clostridium
botulinum and Listeria monocytogenes (Aribisala,
1975, Elliott and Michener, 2003; Iwamato et al.,
2010) and in aquaculture shrimp products, these
bacteria of public health importance (Adedeji et al.,
2012) mainly originate from the environment rather
than from poor standards of hygiene and sanitation
(Anthonio, 1995; Jeyasekaran et al.; 2006, Ekpo et al.,
2010).
There is a public health concern that some of these
bacteria which were not resistant previously are
acquiring resistance to antibiotics probably by
acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA called the R
plasmids or transposons, cellular mutation and efflux,
alternation of the target cell structure such that the
antibiotics no longer affects it; prevention of the
antibiotics from reaching its target cell structure and
antibiotics inactivation by microbial enzyme
(Jeljaszewicz et al., 2000; Russel and Path; 2001;
Lery, 2002). Resistant bacterial species may cause
infection that cannot be treated by conventional
antibiotics (Khachtourians, 1998). The pathogens
associated with shrimp are endowed with virulence
factors that enable them cause diseases (NAS, 1964;
Adedeji et al., 2012).
Few studies have been carried out in Nigeria to
determine the sensitivity of isolates identified from
fresh and frozen shrimp to antibiotics and the public
health significance. This research therefore, seeks to
estimate and characterize the bacterial pathogens
associated with fresh and frozen shrimp sold in retail
markets and to determine their antibiotic resistance
profiles. The public health risks associated with the
consumption of bacterial contaminated shrimps are
also highlighted. Shellfish hygiene, environmental
sanitation and proper use of prescribed antibiotics will
reduce these risks and enhance a healthy citizenry and
lifestyle across the globe.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Sample collection
The sampling plans recommended by the International
Commission on the Microbiological Specifications for
Foods (ICMSF, 1986) for the determination of total
counts, total coliforms and other food-borne
pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella
sp, V. parahaemolyticus and E. coli were adopted.
Shrimp samples were collected from two retail
markets in Port Harcourt Township, Nigeria. The
fresh samples were purchased from an open market
while the frozen samples were obtained from a
supermarket. Twenty (20) pieces of each product were
purchased, wrapped in sterile aluminum foil and
placed into clean polythene bags and then transported
to the laboratory in an ice box within 4 hours of
449
International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(10), pp. 448-456, 2013
collection for microbiological analyses and antibiotic
susceptibility tests within 24─48 hours.
susceptibility of the test organism to each antibiotic
was determined and interpreted as either sensitive (S)
or resistant (R) by measuring zones of inhibition
around the antibiotic disc (Jeljaszewicz et al., 2000;
Akubuenyi et al., 2011). The zone size interpretation
chart of Kirby-Bauer (1999) was used for the in vitro
determination of the bacterial resistance to the various
antibiotics used.
2.2. Enumeration of total culturable heterotrophic
bacteria (TCHB) and total coliform bacteria (TCB)
Each of the fresh and frozen shrimp samples (5g) was
homogenized in 45ml sterile physiological saline in a
stomacher (Lab Blender 400) for 5 minutes.
Subsequently, a 10-fold serial dilution of the samples
was performed using 5 dilution blanks and spread
plated in duplicate on Nutrient agar (Difco Lab) for
TCHB and MacConkey agar for TCB counts. Discrete
colonies that developed after incubation at 370C for 24
hours were sub-cultured on nutrient agar to obtain
pure cultures. The purified isolates were preserved on
nutrient agar slants at 40C until used for microscopic
characterization and biochemical analyses. To screen
for Salmonella sp. and Shigella sp., the samples were
enriched in Selenite F broth for 8 hours and then
spread plated on Salmonella-Shigella agar. The
inoculated plates were placed in an inverted position
and incubated for 24─48 hours. The samples were
also enriched on alkaline peptone water (pH 8.3) and
then spread plated on thioglycholate citrate bile salt
sucrose (TCBS) agar to isolate Vibrio species.
2.4. Characterization
bacterial isolates
and
identification
of
The bacterial isolates were characterized and
identified based on their motility, microscopic
morphology, colonial morphology and biochemical
characteristics as described in Medical Laboratory
Manual for Tropical Countries (Cheesbrough, 2005)
and with reference to the Bergey’s Manual of
Systematic Bacteriology (Krieg and Holt, 1994) and
Manual of Microbiology: Tools and Techniques
(Kanika, 2011).
2.5. Statistical analysis
The data generated in the study were subjected to
statistical analysis to determine level of significance
using chi-square (x2). A value of p<0.05 was accepted
as significant and p>0.05 was considered not
significant.
2.3. Antibiotic susceptibility studies
Selection of antibiotics was based on their usage in
treating the major food-borne diseases and food-borne
intoxication including gastroenteritis, typhoid fever,
salmonellosis,
bacillary
dysentery,
botulism,
shigellosis, diarrhea, cholera, and listeriosis. Twelve
(12) antibiotics were studied. The antibiotics tested
were:augumentin(30µg/ml)ofloxacin(5µg/ml),cotrima
xozole(25µg/ml),streptomycin(10µg/ml),ciprofloxacin
(10µg/ml),tetracycline(30µg/m),erythromycin(5µg/ml
),gentamycin(10µg/ml),chloramphenicol(30µg/ml),
amoxicillin(25µg/ml), ceftriazone (30µg/ml) and
pefloxacin (5µg/ml). The antibiotic susceptibility tests
of selected isolates were performed based on the
standard disc diffusion method (Bauer et al., 1999).
Overnight cultures of the bacterial isolates were
inoculated into peptone water and incubated at 370C
for 3─4 hours.
The density of the bacterial culture required for the
assay was adjusted to 0.5 McFarland standards (1.0 x
108 cfu/ml) and then used to lawn (100µl) previously
dried sterile nutrient agar plates using the spread plate
method. The plates were dried for 15 minutes and then
used for the susceptibility test. With sterile forceps,
antibiotic impregnated paper discs were aseptically
placed on the surface of the nutrient agar medium at
equidistance to each other and plates incubated
overnight at 370C in an incubator. The degree of
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data obtained for TCHB and TCB counts in fresh
and frozen shrimp samples are as presented in Tables
1─5. The THCB counts of fresh shrimp samples
ranged from 1.89 x 107 to 3.1 x 107 cfu/g with an
average count of 2.60 x 107cfu/g while, their TCB
counts ranged from 2.72 x 105 to 3.1 x 105 cfu/g
giving an average count of 2.99x 105cfu/g (Table1).
The THCB counts for frozen shrimp samples ranged
from 8.00 x 106 to 9.90 x 106 cfu/g and the TCB
counts ranged from 8.50 x 104 to 1.00 x 105 cfu/g,
giving an average counts of 9.11 x106 cfu/g for TCHB
and 1.63 x 106 cfu/g for TCB (Table 1).
The density of THCB and TCB in the fresh shrimp
samples was significantly higher than that obtained
for the frozen shrimp samples (p<0.05) and this may
be attributed to the low temperature (-210C) at which
the frozen shrimp samples were stored. This
observation also buttresses the point raised by Ibe
(2008) that the traditional markets have more
unsanitary and poorer food handling practices that the
supermarkets in Nigeria. A total of 168 bacterial
isolates obtained from the fresh shrimp samples were
identified. These isolates were predominantly
members of the family Enterobacteriaceae (Table 2).
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Solomon et al.
Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Associated with Fresh and Frozen Shrimp (Palaemonetes sp.) and Their
Public Health Significance
Likewise, a total of 122 bacterial species were isolated
from frozen shrimp samples irrespective of previous
frozen storage. Some of the identified bacterial
isolates
(Pseudomonas,
Streptococcus
and
Alcaligenes) from frozen shrimp (Table 2) are known
psychrophiles (Prescott et al., 1999; Cheesbrough,
2004; Kanika, 2011).
The results obtained on the cultural, motility,
microscopic and biochemical characterizations of the
bacterial isolates from fresh and frozen shrimp
samples are as shown in Table 3.
Table 1: Total culturable heterotrophic bacterial (TCHB) and total coliform bacterial (TCB) counts from fresh and frozen
Shrimp samples at 35±20C
Isolate codes
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
*Av. TVC
Fresh shrimp samples
TCHB (cfu/g)
TCB (cfu/g)
1.89 x 107
3.07 x 105
7
1.99 x 10
3.0 x 105
3.10 x 107
3.1 x 105
7
2.90 x 10
2.72 x 105
7
3.10 x 10
3.05 x 105
2.60 x 107
2.99 x105
Isolate codes
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
*Av. TVC
Frozen shrimp samples
TCHB (cfu/g)
TCB (cfu/g)
9.90 x 106
1.00 x 105
6
9.05 x 10
8.50 x 104
8.00 x 106
8.70 x 104
6
9.40 x 10
9.00 x 104
6
9.20 x 10
8.95 x 104
9.11x 106
1.63 x 106
*Average total viable counts (Av.TVC) are composite mean value of duplicate counts
Table 2: Frequency of isolation of Bacteria genera from fresh and frozen Shrimp samples at 35±20C
Bacterial genera from
fresh shrimp samples
Proteus
Citrobacter
Serratia
Enterobacter
Klebsialla
Staphylococcus
Escherichia
Aeromonas
Salmonella
Shigella
Vibrio
No. of positive
samples
11
16
14
17
18
18
20
15
14
12
13
(%)frequency
6.5
9.5
8.3
10.1
10.7
10.7
11.9
8.9
8.3
7.1
7.7
Bacterial genera from
frozen shrimp samples
Pseudomonas
Streptococcus
Alcaligenes
Bacillus
Micrococcus
Proteus
Aeromonas
Lactobaccillus
Moraxella
Achromobacter
Flavobacterium
Prior to this study, Salmonella had been isolated
from fresh, frozen, canned and sun dried marine fish
products (Jeyasekaran et al., 2006). Salmonella is
apparently carried by fresh shrimp and other seafood
products especially if they are cultured or washed in
sewage polluted water or by contamination during
processing. According to ICMSF (1986), Salmonella
and Vibrio cholera should not be found in sea food
products. However, in the present study, Salmonella
was isolated from the fresh shrimp products and were
considered unacceptable for human consumption
although, most shrimp are cooked prior to
consumption and therefore, cause negligible health
risks to the consumers except for cross contamination
in the kitchens (Huss, 1994; USDA, FSIS, 2008).
Resistance patterns of bacterial isolates from fresh
shrimp showed their multiple antibiotic resistances
(Table 4). The highest resistance (100%) of all
isolates was recorded against eight (8) antibiotics
(Amoxycillin,
Augumentin,
Chloramphenicol,
Gentamycin,
Erythromycin,
Tetracycline,
Streptomycin and Cotrimaxozole). Ofloxacin (66.7%)
No. of positive
samples
20
19
18
6
12
4
7
14
5
8
9
(%) frequency
16.4
15.6
14.8
4.9
9.8
3.3
5.7
11.5
4.1
6.6
7.4
followed by Ciproflaxacin (77.8%) and Ceftriazone
(77.8%) were the least resistant. Resistance pattern of
single isolates indicated that Five (5) isolates
(Salmonella, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, Bacillus and
Proteus) showed 100% resistance to all antibiotics
tested in the study (Table 4).
Resistance profiles of bacterial isolates from frozen
shrimp also showed that all isolates demonstrated
multiple antibiotic resistances (Table 5). All isolates
showed 100% resistance to six (6) antibiotics
(Chloramphenicol,
Gentamycin,
Erythromycin,
Tetracycline, Streptomycin and Cotrimaxozole).
However, only Salmonella isolated from frozen
shrimp showed resistance to all the twelve (12) tested
antibiotics. Ofloxacin (12.5%) followed by
Ciprofloxacin (25%) were the least resistance (Table
5).
Previous works reported Escherichia as the main
antimicrobial resistance carrier in fecal flora, as
resistance in the other genera was rare especially in
the absence of antimicrobial selection (Osterblad et
al., 2000; Guardaasi et al., 1998).
451
International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(10), pp. 448-456, 2013
Table 3: Characterization and identification of selected Bacteria isolates from Shrimp samples
Lactose
Maltose
Catalase
A
+
A
+
Creamy,
deep blue
Entire,
whitish
Milky,
Flat
Smooth,
reddish
Creamy,
reddish
Entire,
reddish
Raised,
Reddish
Reddish,
Circular
Irregular,
reddish
Reddish,
Entire
Reddish,
Circular
Reddish,
Raised
Cocci in
chains
Cocci in
clusters
Rods,
Singly
Rods
in pairs
Rods,
Singly
Rods,
singly
Rods,
Singly
Bacilli
_
+
AG
AG
A
A
A
+
_
+
+
A
A
+
A
+
_
+
A
A
A
A
A
+
_
+
A
A
A
+
_
_
A
A
+
_
+
_
_
AG
+
_
Bacilli
_
Rods,
singly
Rods,
singly
Rods,
singly
Probable isolates
Galactose
A
VP
Fructose
+
Methyl red
Glucose
+
Indole
Gram reaction
_
Citrate
Motility test
Rods,
single
Coagulases
Morphological
Characterization
Irregular,
purple
Oxidase
Cultural
characterization
Biochemical characterization
_
_
+
_
_
+
Bacillus sp.
_
_
_
+
+
Streptococus sp.
_
+
+
_
_
+
Staphylococcus sp
+
_
_
_
_
_
Lactobacillus sp.
A
+
_
_
_
+
+
_
Proteus sp.
_
_
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
Pseudomonas sp.
G
+
AG
+
_
_
_
+
+
_
Escherichia coli
A
G
AG
AG
+
_
_
_
_
_
+
Klebsiella sp.
+
A
G
_
G
+
_
_
+
_
+
_
Salmonella sp.
_
+
AG
A
_
AG
+
_
_
_
_
+
_
Shigella sp.
+
_
+
A
+
A
+
_
_
+
_
_
+
Enterobacter sp.
+
_
+
AG
A
G
A
+
AG
+
_
_
+
_
_
_
Serratia sp.
+
_
+
A
A
G
+
A
+
_
_
+
_
+
_
Citrobacter sp.
*A/G (acid and gas), A (acid), G (gas), Positive (+), Negative (-), Voges-Proskauer’s (VP).
Table 4: Antibiograms of bacterial isolated from fresh Shrimp measured in micrograms per milliliter (µg/ml)
Klebsiella
Escherichia
Pseudomonas
Streptococcus
Staphylococcus
Bacillus
Proteus
% Resistance of
all isolates
Shigella
Disc
Potency
(µg/ml)
Salmonella
Antibiotics tested
Amoxycillin
Augumentin
30
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
100
Chloramphenicol
Gentamycin
30
10
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
100
Erythromycin
5
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
Tetracycline
30
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
Ciprofloxacin
Streptomycin
Cotrimaxozole
Ofloxacin
10
10
25
5
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
S
S
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
77.8
100
100
66.7
Pefloxacin
5
R
R
R
R
R
S
R
R
R
88.9
Ceftriazone
% Resistance of single
organism
30
R
100
S
83.3
R
100
S
75.0
R
91.7
R
83.3
R
100
R
100
R
100
77.8
*Resistance (R) and sensitive (S)
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Solomon et al., 2013
Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Bacteria Associated with Fresh and Frozen Shrimp (Palaemonetes sp.) and Their
Public Health Significance
Table 5: Antibiograms of bacteria isolated from frozen shrimp measured in micrograms per milliliter (µg/ml)
Disc
Potency
(µg/ml)
Salmonella
Shigella
Klebsiella
Escherichia
Pseudomonas
Streptococcus
Staphylococcus
Bacillus
% Resistance
of all isolates
Antibiotics tested
Amoxycillin
Augumentin
Chloramphenicol
25
30
30
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
S
S
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
87.5
87.5
100
Gentamycin
10
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
Erythromycin
5
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
Tetracycline
Ciprofloxacin
Streptomycin
Cotrimaxozole
Ofloxacin
Pefloxacin
Ceftriazone
% Resistance of single
isolate
30
10
10
25
5
5
30
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
100
R
R
R
R
S
R
S
83.3
R
S
R
R
S
R
R
83.3
R
S
R
R
S
S
S
66.7
R
S
R
R
S
R
R
66.7
R
S
R
R
S
R
R
83.3
R
S
R
R
S
R
R
83.3
R
S
R
R
S
R
R
83.3
100
25
100
100
12.5
87.5
75.0
*Resistance (R), sensitive (S)
Results obtained in this study have shown that
other genera are capable of acquiring multiple
antibiotic resistances (MAR) capability, surpassing
Escherichia. The spectrum of resistance observed
when traced to Escherichia indicates that the MAR
genes responsible for the distinct property noticed in
the study might also be innate in some of these
bacterial genera. Gram negativity was more
widespread than Gram positivity. This observation is
in line with that of Jeljaszewicz et al. (2000).In a
related study, numerous resistant human pathogens
were
isolated,
including
Escherichia
coli,
Enterococcus sp., Salmonella sp., Shigellaflexneri,
Staphylococcus sp., and Vibrio sp. (Jeyasekaran et al.,
2006). The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
in foods of animal origin is a potential health threat
(USDA, FSIS, 2008; Courvalin and Weber, 2005)
because resistance can be transferred among bacteria,
and antibiotic-resistant pathogens may not respond to
antibiotic treatments (Lery, 2002). Multi-Drug
Resistant (MDR) Organisms have been isolated from
Sea-foods by other workers in Nigeria (Adebayo et
al., 2012) and from waste waters (Akubuenyi et al.,
2011). Hence, the widespread sale of this product may
provide an avenue for rapid dissemination of
antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
There is a public health concern that some bacteria
which were not harmful previously are emerging as
pathogens probably transmitted by food (NAS, 1964,
ICMSF, 1986). This has been attributed to several
factors such as changes in the organisms making them
virulent, new methods of isolation of organisms, and
improved skills of Microbiologists in rapid testing and
detection methodologies. Presence of enteric and fecal
bacteria such as Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., Vibrio
sp. and E. coli on shrimp samples is an indication that
the organisms were cultured in water polluted by
domestic sewage (Frazier and Westhoff, 1978; Wafaa
et al., 2011).
Escherichia coli have been implicated in
gastroenteritis leading to dysentery and bloody
diarrhea (Meng and Doyle, 1997). Shiga toxinproducing E. coli strains 0157:H7 and 0111: NM
found in hamburger products, caused bloody diarrhea
and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) (Banwart,
1989; USDA, FSIS, 2008).Salmonella sp. causes
salmonellosis, resulting from enterotoxin and
cytotoxin produced by the bacteria (Frazier and
Westhoff, 1978). Salmonella sp. is also responsible
for typhoid fever, salmonellosis and gastroenteritis
with symptoms of fever, cramp, vomiting and diarrhea
(NAS, 1964).
Typhoid fever may lead to septicemia and ulcers in
severe cases (Banwart, 1989; USDA/FSIS, 2008).
Shigella sp. causes bacillary dysentery resulting to
cramps, diarrhea with blood and mucus (Frazier and
Westthoff, 1978).Vibrio parahaemolyticus causes
diarrhea and fever while V. choleraeis known to cause
cholera with symptoms of rice water stool, vomiting
and rapid dehydration (NAS, 1964; Nester et al.,
1998). Staphylococcus aureus has been implicated in
food poisoning leading to vomiting and diarrhea while
Bacillus cereus causes gastroenteritis (Safe Food and
Public Health, 2008).
Staphylococcus aureus produce an enterotoxin
responsible for staphylococcal enterotoxicosis or
453
International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge (IJSRK), 1(10), pp. 448-456, 2013
staphylococcal intoxication (Frazier and Westthoff,
1978; Evenson et al., 1988). Bacillus cereus
gastroenteritis is due to an exoenterotoxin released
during lyses of B. cereus in the intestinal tract (Ekpo
et al., 2010; Elliott and Michener, 2003). The number
and type of indicator bacteria on shrimp varied with
the contact environment and preservation method used
(NAS, 1964; Meng and Doyle, 1997; Tobor, 1984;
USDA, FSIS, 2008).
harzards andrisks associated with fish
consumption. NY. Sci. J., 5(9): 33-61.
Anthonio QBO (1995). Fish Marketing Survey in
Kainji Lake Basin, Report Prepared for the
Nigerian-German (GTZ) Kainji Lake Fisheries
Promotion Project.
Akubuenyi FC, Arikpo GE, Ogugbue CJ, Mfongeh
JF, Akpanumun EV (2011). Antibiotic
resistance profile of wastewater isolates
obtained from University of Calabar teaching
hospital and general hospital Calabar, Nigeria.
Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 25: 22432250.
Aribisala OA (1975): The quantitative and qualitative
bacteriology of shrimp and the role of bacteria
in shrimp spoilage. Annual report. Min. Agric.
Rural dev. Disc. Nigeria.
Banwart GJ (1989). Food borne agents causing
illness. 195-369. In Basic Food Microbiology.
2nd Ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Bauer AW, Kirby WMM, Strerris JC, Turk M (1999).
Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standard
singledisk method. American Journal of
Clinical Pathology, 45: 493-496.
Cheesbrough M (2002). District Laboratory Practice
in Tropical Countries, 2 Microbiology.
Cambridge University Press, 132-143.
Clemson University Cooperative Extension (2012).
Food
borne
illness
relatedto
Seafood.www.clemson.edu/extension/hgric/food
/food_safety/illness/hgic.
Courvalin P, Weber JT (2005). AntimicrobialDrugs
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Evenson MI, Hinds MW, Bernstein RS, Bergdoll
(1988). Estimation of human doseof
staphylococcal enterotoxin A from a large
outbreak of staphylococcal food poisoning
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Microbiol., 7: 311-316.
Ekpo MA, Nyandu YMC, Ating M, Anele CC (2010).
Distribution of pathogenic bacteria in fresh
water fishes (Chrysichthysnegrodigitatus and
Synodontisrobbianus) in Oku-Iboku River,
AkwaIbom State, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of
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FAO/WHO (1982). Codex Alimentarius Commission.
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4. CONCLUSION
Shrimps are often contaminated with pathogens of
fecal origin when bodies of water in which they grow
are polluted with fecal matter or during harvesting and
processing. Nonetheless, incidence of these bacteria in
fish, shrimp or similar foods of aquatic habitats may
also be due to cross-contamination. All the identified
genera in this study showed multiple antibiotic
resistances (MAR), with the highest resistance
recorded against the most commonly used antibiotics.
Gram-positive bacteria were usually more
susceptible to antibiotics than are Gram negative
bacteria. The consumption of shrimp with high load of
multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens could pose a
grave problem to the health of the citizenry. The
spread of food-borne diseases via shrimp can be
reduced by enforcing microbiological criteria for safe
foods already documented by the International
Commission on Microbiological Specifications for
Foods (ICMSF, 1986). A legislation to discourage
harvesting of shrimps in fecal polluted water bodies
should be made and enforced to prevent the spread of
food-borne diseases due to the consumption of
contaminated shrimp products.
Environmental sanitation, proper handling and
personal hygiene are required to prevent crosscontamination of shellfish products sold in retail
markets. Also, constant refrigerator temperature
should be maintained during frozen storage to prevent
growth
of
potential
psychrophilic
bacteria
contaminants. Correct applications of prescribed
antibiotics for the treatment of food-borne bacterial
diseases are advised to contain multiple antibiotic
resistances (MAR) amongst pathogenic bacteria.
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Solomon, Leera is a M.Sc. student in Environmental Microbiology & Bioremediation,
Department of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
E-mail: sololeera@yahoo.com
Chimezie J. Ogugbue, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Microbiology and HOD,
Department of Microbiology Technology, School of Science Laboratory & Technology,
University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
E-mail:ceejay55us@yahoo.com
Gideon C. Okpokwasili, PhD, FNSM, is Professor of Microbiology, University of Port Harcourt,
Nigeria and an Environmental Microbiology & Bioremediation Consultant.
E-mail: gidsilman@yahoo.com
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