Part I: Foundations of American Democracy
advertisement
Part I: Foundations of American Democracy 1 PEO PLE , POLITI CS, AN D PAR TI CI PATI O N 2 y shd u stdy am dem now? Or, Why Should You Study American Democracy Now? 4 How Technology Has Changed Politics 5 The Political Context Now 5 Civic Engagement: Acting on Your Views 7 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Does the Youth Vote Matter? 8 What Government Does 8 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Party Identification by Age 9 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Challenges for the Government of Afghanistan 10 Types of Government 12 The Origins of American Democracy 12 Democracy’s Origins in Popular Protest: The Influence of the Reformation and the Enlightenment 13 The Modern Political Philosophy of Hobbes and Locke 13 The Creation of the United States as an Experiment in Representative Democracy 14 Political Culture and American Values 15 Liberty 15 Equality 16 Capitalism 17 Consent of the Governed 17 Individuality, Family, and Community 17 The Changing Face of American Democracy 18 A Population That Is Growing—and on the Move 18 An Aging Population 18 A Changing Complexion: Race and Ethnicity in the United States Today 19 Changing Households: American Families Today 21 Why the Changing Population Matters for Politics and Government 21 Ideology: A Prism for Viewing American Democracy 22 Liberalism 23 Conservatism 24 Other Ideologies on a Traditional Ideological Spectrum: Socialism and Libertarianism 25 Neoconservatism 26 A Three-Dimensional Political Compass 26 har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd iv 2 TH E CONSTITUTION 32 What Is a Constitution? 34 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Congress Call for a Second Constitutional Convention? 35 The Creation of the United States of America 36 Colonization and Governance of America 36 British Policy Incites a Rebellion 37 The Common Sense of Declaring Independence 39 The State Constitutions 40 The Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) 41 Crafting the Constitution: Compromise, Ratification, and Quick Amendment 42 Consensus 43 Conflict and Compromise over Representative Democracy 44 Conflict and Compromise over Slavery 46 Congress Sends the Constitution of the States for Ratification 47 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 50 The Federalist–Anti-Federalist Debate 50 The Bill of Rights (1791): Establishing Civil Liberties 52 The Constitution as a Living, Evolving Document 53 Formal Amendment of the Constitution 53 Interpretation by the U.S. Supreme Court 54 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Constitutional Principles in Recent Second Amendment Cases 55 TH E CONSTITUTION O F TH E U N ITE D STATE S O F AM E R I CA 61 11/19/10 12:36 PM 3 F E D E R ALISM 8 0 An Overview of the U.S. Federal System 82 Unitary System 83 Confederal System 83 Federal System 83 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : The United States of Europe 85 Constitutional Distribution of Authority 87 Concurrent Sovereign Authority 88 National Sovereignty 89 State Sovereignty 90 The Supreme Court’s Interpretation of National versus State Sovereignty 92 National Obligations to the States 93 State-to-State Obligations: Horizontal Federalism 94 The New Judicial Federalism 95 Evolution of the Federal System 95 Dual Federalism 96 Cooperative Federalism 96 Centralized Federalism 96 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Deil Wright’s Models of Intergovernmental Relations in a Federal System 97 Conflicted Federalism 97 Landmarks in the Evolution of Federalism: Key Constitutional Amendments 99 Further Evolutionary Landmarks: Grants-in-Aid 100 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should State Governments Lower the Minimum Legal Drinking Age to 18? 103 Federalism’s Continuing Evolution: Mandates 103 Today’s Federalism: Intergovernmental Relations 104 Part II: Fundamental Principles 4 CIVIL LI BE R TIES 110 Civil Liberties in the American Legal System 112 The Freedoms Protected in the American System 113 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Balancing the Constitutional Tension 114 The Historical Basis for American Civil Liberties: The Bill of Rights 114 Incorporation of the Bill of Rights to Apply to the States 116 Freedoms of Speech, Assembly, and the Press: First Amendment Freedoms Supporting Civic Discourse 118 The First Amendment and Political Instability 118 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : The Election Protests in Iran 119 Freedom of Speech 121 Freedom of Assembly and Redress of Grievances 124 Freedom of the Press 124 Freedoms of Religion, Privacy, and Criminal Due Process: Encouraging Community and Community Engagement 125 The First Amendment and Freedom of Religion 125 The Right to Privacy 128 The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments: Ensuring Criminal Due Process 132 Freedoms in Practice: Controversy over the Second Amendment and the Right to Bear Arms 135 Competing Interpretations of the Second Amendment 137 Citizens Engaged: Fighting for a Safer Nation 137 Civil Liberties in Post-9/11 America 138 Perceived Intrusions on Free Speech and Assembly 138 Perceived Intrusions on Criminal Due Process 139 Discrimination Against Muslim Americans 140 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY ABOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should U.S. Authorities Use Ethnic Profiling in the Interest of National Security? 141 har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd v 5 CIVIL R I G HTS 1 4 6 The Meaning of Equality Under the Law 148 Slavery and Its Aftermath 151 Slavery in the United States 151 Reconstruction and the First Civil Rights Acts 153 Backlash: Jim Crow Laws 153 ■ G LOBAL C OMPAR I SONS : Modern Forms of Slavery 154 Governmental Acceptance of Discrimination 155 The Civil Rights Movement 156 Fighting Back: Early Civil Rights Organizations 156 The End of Separate but Equal 156 Rosa Parks’s Civil Disobedience on a Montgomery Bus 157 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Strategy of Civil Disobedience 157 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : A Famous Image from the Civil Rights Era 158 The Government’s Response to the Civil Rights Movement 159 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 160 Other Civil Rights Legislation of the 1960s 160 The Impact of the Civil Rights Movement 161 The Movement for Women’s Civil Rights 162 The First Wave of the Women’s Rights Movement 162 The Second Wave of the Women’s Rights Movement 164 Other Civil Rights Movements 167 Native Americans’ Rights 167 Citizens of Latin American Descent 168 Citizens of Asian Descent 170 Citizens with Disabilities 171 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgendered Citizens 172 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Hate Crimes Be Punished More Severely Than Other Crimes? 175 Affirmative Action: Is It Constitutional? 174 How Affirmative Action Works 174 Opposition to Affirmative Action 175 Contents v 11/19/10 12:36 PM Part III: Linkages Between the People and Government 6 POLITI CAL SO CIALI Z ATION AN D PU BLIC OPINION 182 7 I NTE R EST G RO U PS 212 Political Socialization and Civic Participation 184 The Process of Political Socialization 185 Participating in Civic Life 185 Agents of Socialization 186 Family Influences on Activism and Attitudes 186 The Media’s Ever-Increasing Role in Socialization 187 Schools, Patriotism, and Civic Participation 187 Churches: The Role of Religion 188 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Abortion Be Legal? 189 Peers and Group Norms 190 Political and Community Leaders: Opinion Shapers 190 Demographic Characteristics: Our Politics Are a Reflection of Ourselves 190 Measuring Public Opinion 195 The Origins of Public Opinion Polls 196 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : International Opinion of the United States 196 How Public Opinion Polls Are Conducted 198 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Examining Americans’ Ideology 199 Types of Political Polls 201 What Americans Think About Politics 202 The Most Important Problem 203 Public Opinion about Government 203 The Value of Interest Groups 214 Interest Groups and Civic Participation 215 Pluralist Theory versus Elite Theory 215 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Amnesty Be Extended to Illegal Workers in the United States? 217 Key Functions of Interest Groups 217 The Downside of Interest Groups 218 Who Joins Interest Groups, and Why? 219 Patterns of Membership 219 Motivations for Joining Interest Groups 220 How Interest Groups Succeed 222 Organizational Resources 222 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Amnesty International 223 Organizational Environment 225 Types of Interest Groups 225 Economic Interest Groups 225 Public and Ideological Interest Groups 227 Foreign Interest Groups 230 Interest Group Strategies 230 Direct Strategies to Advance Interests 230 Indirect Strategies to Advance Interests 232 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : The Influence of Issue Networks 234 Interest Groups, Politics, and Money: The Influence of Political Action Committees 235 vi 8 POLITI CAL PAR TI ES 242 Parties Today and Their Functions 244 Defining a Political Party 244 How Parties Engage Individuals 245 What Political Parties Do 245 The Three Faces of Parties 246 The Party in the Electorate 247 The Party Organization 248 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : The People’s Opinion of the Parties 250 The Party in Government 250 Political Parties in U.S. History 252 The First Party System: The Development of Parties, 1789–1828 252 The Second Party System: Thee Democrats Democrats’ Rise to Power, 1828–1860 253 The Third Party System: The Republicans’ Rise to Power, 1860–1896 253 The Fourth Party System: Republican ublican Dominance, 1896–1932 254 The Fifth Party System: Democratic ocratic Dominance, 1932–1968 255 A New Party System? 256 Two-Party Domination in U.S. Politics olitics 257 The Dualist Nature of Most Confl onflicts 257 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Political Parties ies in Northern Irelandd 258 The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 259 Continued Socialization to thee Two-Party System 259 Election Laws That Favor the Two-Party System 259 The Two-Party System Today: In Decline or in Resurgence? 260 The Party’s Over 260 The Party’s Just Begun 261 Third Parties in the United States es 261 Types of Third Parties 262 Impact of Third Parties 263 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Are Third Parties Bad or Good for the United States? 264 New Ideologies, New Technologies: The Parties in the Twenty-First Century 265 Struggling for the Heart of the Republican Party: Moderates, Neocons, and a Tea Party Movement 2655 Democrats Today 266 Changing Both Parties: The Internet 266 Contents har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd vi 11/19/10 12:36 PM 9 E LECTIONS, CAM PAI G NS, AN D VOTIN G 272 Political Participation: Engaging Individuals, Shaping Politics 274 Elections in the United States 275 Nominations and Primary Elections 275 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should the United States Have a National Primary? 277 General Elections 278 Referendum, Initiative, and Recall 278 The Act of Voting 279 The 2000 Election and Its Impact 279 Types of Ballots 280 Why Ballot Design Matters 280 Voting by Mail 281 Running for Office: The Choice to Run 282 Formal Eligibility Requirements 283 Informal Eligibility Requirements 283 The Nature of Political Campaigns Today 284 The Professionalization of Political Campaigns 284 Media and New Technologies: Transforming Political Campaigns 285 Revolutionizing the Campaign: New Technologies 286 Regulating Campaign Contributions 287 Regulatory Loopholes: Independent Expenditures 288 Regulatory Loopholes: Soft Money 288 The Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002 289 Regulatory Loophole: 527s 289 The Growth of PACs 290 Presidential Campaigns 292 Party Conventions and the General Election Campaign 292 The Electoral College 293 Who Votes? Factors in Voter Participation 293 Education Level—the Number One Predictor of Voting 293 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Exploring Voter Turnout in the United States, 2008 294 The Age Factor 294 Race and Voter Participation 295 Income—a Reliable Predictor of Voting 296 Party Competitiveness and Voter Turnout 296 How Voters Decide 296 Major Factors in Voter Decision Making 297 Campaign Influences on Voter Choice 297 Why Some People Do Not Vote 298 Lack of Efficacy 298 Voter Fatigue and Negative Campaigns 298 The Structure of Elections 299 The Rational Abstention Thesis 299 The Impact of Nonvoting 299 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Elections in India 300 10 TH E M E D IA 306 The Modern Media 308 The Political Functions of the Media 309 Providing Information 309 Interpreting Matters of Public Interest and Setting the Public Agenda 309 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Confidence in the Media 310 Providing a Forum for Conversations About Politics 311 Socializing Children to Political Culture 311 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Talk Radio, Saudi Style—Mubasher FM 312 The Press and Politics: A Historical View 312 The Early Role of the Press 313 Yellow Journalism and Muckraking 313 A Widening War for Readership 314 The Media Go Electronic: The Radio and Television Revolutions 315 How Radio Has Opened Up Political Communication 316 Television and the Transformation of Campaigns and Elections 317 The Media Revolution Continues: The Internet and Cellular Technology 319 The Internet and Civic Engagement 319 The Internet as a Source of News 320 The Internet’s Influence on Political Participation and Campaigns 321 Today’s Blogosphere 322 Media Convergence 323 The Negative Political Impact of the Internet 323 The Internet and Free Speech 324 A Biased Media? 325 Regulation of the Media: Is It Necessary? 326 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Congress Regulate the Internet Infrastructure? 328 Contents har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd vii vii 11/19/10 12:36 PM Part IV: Institutions of Government 11 CON G R ESS 3 34 12 TH E PR ESIDENCY 366 The Origins of Congress 336 ■ G LOBAL C OMPAR I SONS : Japan’s National Diet 337 Congressional Elections 338 Incumbency 338 Reapportionment and Redistricting 339 Powers of Congress 341 Functions of Congress 342 Representation Comes in Many Forms 342 Policy Making: A Central Responsibility 344 Oversight: A Check on the Executive Branch 344 Agenda Setting and Civic Engagement 345 Managing Societal Conflict 345 The House and the Senate Compared 345 The Legislative Process 347 Introducing a Bill 347 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Navigating Congress 348 The Bill in Committee 349 Debate on the House and Senate Floor 350 Presidential Action 351 Congressional Leadership 351 Leadership in the House of Representatives 352 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Congress Limit Greenhouse Gas Emissions? 353 Leadership in the Senate 353 Decision Making in Congress: The Legislative Context 354 Political Parties and Partisanship in Decision Making 354 Colleagues and Staff: Trading Votes and Information 357 Interest Groups: Influence Through Organization 357 The President’s Effect on Decision Making 358 The People and Their Elected Representatives 358 Presidential Elections 368 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should We Abolish the Electoral College? 369 Presidential Roles in the Domestic Sphere 370 Chief Legislator 370 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Should Time Limits Be Placed on Lawsuits That Claim Discrimination? 372 Chief Economist 373 Party Leader 374 Presidential Roles in the Foreign Policy Sphere 374 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Parliamentary Systems 375 Chief Diplomat 375 Commander in Chief 376 viii Overlap in the Domestic and Foreign Policy Roles: Chief Executive and Chief of State 377 Chief Executive 377 Chief of State 377 The President and the Executive Branch 377 The Vice President’s Role 378 The Cabinet 379 The Executive Office of the President 379 Presidential Succession 382 When the President Dies in Office 382 When the President Cannot Serve: The Twenty-Fifth Amendment 383 Sources of Presidential Power 383 The Constitution: Expressed Powers 384 The Constitution: Inherent Powers 384 Statutory Powers 385 Special Presidential Powers 385 The People as a Source of Presidential Power 387 The President and the Bully Pulpit 387 The President and Public Approval 387 The Media as a Tool of Presidential Influence 388 The Evolution of Presidential Power 389 Early Presidents and the Scope of Presidential Power 389 The Watershed 1970s: The Pentagon Papers,Watergate, and the “Imperial Presidency” 390 The Post-Watergate Presidency 392 Impeachment: A Check on Abuses of Presidential Power 392 Evaluating Presidential Leadership 393 Women in the White House 393 The First Lady 394 When a Woman Is Elected President 394 13 TH E BUR E AUCR ACY 400 Bureaucrats and Bureaucracy 402 Who Are the Bureaucrats? 402 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Public Service Commitment to Serving the People 404 Bureaucracy: An Organizational Structure 404 Federal Bureaucrats 405 Political Appointees 405 Civil Servants 405 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Equal Educational and Employment Opportunity and Stratified Occupational Segregation 408 State, Local, and Shadow Bureaucrats 410 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Faith-Based Organizations Receive Public Funding to Deliver Social Services? 411 Contents har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd viii 11/19/10 12:36 PM The Evolution and Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy 411 Departments 413 Independent Administrative Agencies 414 Independent Regulatory Commissions 415 Government Corporations 415 Executive Office of the President 416 Hybrids 416 Federal Bureaucrats’ Roles in Public Policy 416 Agenda Setting 417 Policy Formulation 417 Policy Approval 417 Resource Allocation 418 Policy Implementation 418 Policy Evaluation 419 Federal Bureaucratic Accountability 419 Accountability to the People 419 Accountability to the Courts 421 Accountability to Congress 421 Accountability to the President 422 Internal Accountability 423 Can Bureaucratic Performance Be Improved? 423 The Best-Performing Bureaucracies 424 Does Contracting Out Improve Performance? 424 Citizens’ Role in Bureaucratic Performance 425 14 TH E J U D I CIA RY 4 30 The Origins of the U.S. Judiciary 432 The Constitution and the Judiciary Act of 1789: Establishing the Supreme Court and the Federal District Courts 432 Marbury v. Madison and the Principle of Judicial Review 433 The Judiciary Act of 1891: Expanding the Federal Courts 433 The Basis of U.S. Law 434 Common Law 434 Code Law 436 Sources of U.S. Law 436 The Federal and State Constitutions 436 Statutes 437 Judicial Decisions 437 Executive Orders 437 Administrative Law 438 The Federal Court System 438 Jurisdiction of Federal Courts 438 The Structure of the Federal Courts 439 Selecting Judges for the Federal Bench 441 The Senate’s Role in Appointment and Confirmation 442 Judicial Competence 442 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should There Be a Constitutional Amendment Mandating a Retirement Age for Supreme Court Justices? 443 Ideology and Selection to the Bench 444 Representation of Demographic Groups 444 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : The Demographic Balance of the Supreme Court 445 The U.S. Supreme Court Today 446 The Supreme Court’s Jurisdiction 446 Choosing Cases for Review 446 On the Docket: Considering the Case 447 Meeting in Conference: The Deliberative Stage 448 Deciding How to Vote: Voting Blocs on the Court 448 Writing the Opinion 449 The Supreme Court Today: The Roberts Court 449 Judges as Policy Makers 450 Activism Versus Restraint 451 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Judges as Policy Makers: The Death Penalty Worldwide 452 Competing Legal Interpretations 453 Checks on the Courts 453 The Inner Ring: Legislatures and Chief Executives 453 The Gatekeepers: Participants in the Judicial Process 454 Intra-Court Constraints 455 The Outer Ring: The Users 455 Part V: Public Policy 15 ECONO MI C POLI CY 4 62 Economic Health and the American Dream 464 The American Economy 465 Economic Theories That Inform Economic Policy 466 Laissez-Faire Economics: An Unrealized Policy 466 Keynesian Economics 467 Supply-Side Economics 469 Monetarism 469 Should One Economic Theory Predominate? 470 Measuring Economic Health 470 Traditional Measures of Economic Health 470 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : GDP and Unemployment Rates: What Do They Measure? 471 Other Measures of Economic Health 472 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : National Economies and Human Development 473 har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd ix Fiscal Policy and Its Impact on the Health of the Economy 473 Tax Policy 474 Spending Policy 475 Creating Fiscal Policy Through the National Budget Process 475 Deficit Spending, Debt, and Economic Health 477 Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve System 478 Regulatory Policy 479 Business Regulation 480 Social Regulation 481 Trade Policy in the Global Economy 482 Trade Policy: Protectionist or Free Trade? 483 International Trade Agreements 483 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Is Free Trade Merely a Race to the Bottom? 485 The U.S. Economy, the Global Economy, and the American Dream Today 484 Contents ix 11/19/10 12:36 PM 16 D O M ESTI C POLI CY 492 Citizen Engagement and Domestic Policy 494 Tools of Domestic Policy 496 Law and Regulations 496 Direct Provision of Public Goods 496 Cash Transfers 496 Loans, Loan Guarantees, and Insurance 497 Contracting-Out 498 Environmental Policy 498 Environmental Degradation 498 Environmental Protection 499 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Clean Water for a Healthy World 501 Energy Policy 502 Energy and Global Warming 502 National Energy Policy 503 Income Security Programs 505 Social Security 505 Unemployment Compensation 507 Minimum Wage 507 Earned Income Tax Credit 508 Temporary Assistance to Needy Families 508 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Do TANF Monthly Benefits Keep Families Out of Poverty? 509 Government Definitions of Poverty 510 Health Care Policy 511 Medicaid 511 Medicare 512 The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act 512 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should All People Be Required to Have Health Insurance? 513 Homeland Security 514 Four Challenges for Policy Makers 514 The Importance of Intergovernmental Coordination 514 Immigration Policy 515 Authorized and Unauthorized Immigration 515 Proposed Immigration Policy Reforms 516 har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd x 17 FO R E I G N POLI CY AN D NATIONAL SECU R IT Y 522 The Tools of U.S. Foreign Policy 524 Diplomacy 524 Trade and Economic Policies 524 The Military Option 526 Who Decides? The Creators and Shapers of Foreign Policy 527 The President and the Executive Branch 527 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Do the Geneva Conventions Apply When Terrorists Have So Drastically Altered the Rules of War? 529 Congress 530 The Military-Industrial Complex 530 The Media 531 Public Opinion 532 Private Citizens 532 U.S. Foreign Policy in Historical Context: Isolationism and Intervention 533 The Constitutional Framework and Early Foreign Policy Making 533 Hegemony and National Expansion: From the Monroe Doctrine to the Roosevelt Corollary 534 World War I and the End of U.S. Isolationism 536 Internationalism and the League of Nations 536 World War II: U.S. Foreign Policy at a Crossroads 537 The Postwar Era: The United States as Superpower 537 International Agreements and Organizations 537 The Cold War: Superpowers in Collision 540 U.S. Efforts to Contain Communism: Korea, Cuba, and Vietnam 541 Détente: A Thaw in the Cold War Chill 542 The Reagan Years and Soviet Collapse 543 Post-Soviet Times: The United States as Solo Superpower in an Era of Wars 544 U.S. Foreign Policy After 9/11 545 The Bush Doctrine: A Clash of Civilizations 545 The Obama Doctrine: A New Tone in U.S. Foreign Policy 547 Future Challenges in American Foreign Policy 547 The Ongoing Threat of Terrorism 547 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : The United States and Iran—A Complex History 548 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : International Approval of U.S. Leadership 549 Environmental Issues 550 Technology’s Potential in Foreign Affairs 550 11/19/10 12:36 PM Part VI: State and Local Government 18 STATE AN D LO CAL G OVE R N M E NT 5 56 Direct Democracy: Letting the People Decide 558 Referenda and Initiatives 559 Recall of Elected Officials 560 ■ G LOBAL C ONT E X T : Direct Democracy in Europe 561 State Constitutions and Local Charters 562 The Elements of State Constitutions 562 Local Charters: How Much Local Discretion? 563 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Washington, D.C. Become the Fifty-First State of the Union? 564 Diversity in Political Cultures, People, Environments, and Resources 564 Political Culture and Its Effect on Governing 565 People: Dealing with Demographics 565 Environment and Resources: Variations in Needs and Tax Capacity 566 State and Local Government Budgets 567 Balanced Budgets 567 State and Local Expenditures on Day-to-Day Domestic Matters 568 State Government Revenues 570 Local Government Revenues 571 The Federal Government as a Fiscal Equalizer 572 Responsibilities of State and Local Governments in National Politics 573 States in National Politics: Formal Roles 573 States in National Politics: Informal Functions 573 Institutions of State Government 575 Legislative Branch: Formulating and Approving Policy 575 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : How Representative Is Each State’s Legislature? 576 Executive Branch: Putting Policy into Action 577 Judicial Branch: Resolving Questions of Law 578 Local Governments 580 General-Purpose Local Governments 580 Single-Purpose Local Governments 582 19 I NTRO D U CTIO N TO TE X AS G OVE R N M E NT 58 8 20 TH E STATE CONSTITUTION 608 Texas Society 590 Settlement Patterns in Texas History 590 Urban and Rural Contrasts 592 Population Growth and the Changing Political Climate 593 Latinos—High Population Growth and Increasing Political Clout 594 African Americans—Steady Population and Political Participation 595 Asian Americans—Moderate Population Growth and Political Inroads 595 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Political Culture in the States 596 The Political Culture of Texas 596 The Economy of Texas 598 Economic Regions 599 Economic Sectors 600 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Texas Exports Today 601 Consequences of Economic Change 602 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Some U.S. Cities Declare Spanish Their Official Language? 603 Texas Constitutions 610 Constitutions Under the Republic of Mexico 610 The Republic of Texas Constitution of 1836 610 Statehood Constitution of 1845 611 The Civil War and Reconstruction Constitutions of 1861, 1866, and 1869 611 The Constitution of 1876 612 Political Culture and Constitutions 613 Principles of State Constitutions 613 Separation of Powers in State Constitutions 614 Bill of Rights in State Constitutions 614 Supreme Law of the State 614 The Structure of State Constitutions 615 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Students Be Allowed to Carry Handguns on Campus? 616 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Considering State Constitutions 617 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Constitutional Amendments Among the States 618 Revising State Constitutions 618 Patterns of Amending 619 Process of Amending 619 Prospects for Amending 621 Contents har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd xi xi 11/19/10 12:36 PM 21 PAR TI CI PATION AN D I NTE R EST G RO U PS I N TE X AS POLITI CS 626 Opportunities for Participation 628 Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access 628 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Why Don’t More Texans Vote? 629 Poll Tax and Annual Registrations 629 ■ H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Percentage of Eligible Voters Voting in the 2008 Presidential Election 630 White Primary 630 Property Ownership Restrictions 631 Gender Discrimination in Voting 631 Factors That Affect Voter Participation Today 631 Effects of Social and Economic Status on Voting 632 Party Competition and Voter Turnout 632 Regional Variations in Voter Turnout 632 Timing of Elections 632 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Do Politiqueras Play a Beneficial Role in Texas Politics? 633 Types of Interest Groups 634 Economic Organizations—Promoting Business and Professionalism 634 Citizens’ Groups—Promoting Ideas and Causes 635 Government Organizations—Promoting Local Interests 637 Interest Group Tactics and Their Regulation 637 Lobbying 637 Electioneering 638 Grassroots Lobbying 639 The Strength of Interest Groups in Texas 639 Economic Diversity 639 Political Party Competition 639 ■ H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Classification of States Based on the Overall Impact of Interest Groups 640 Professionalism of the State Legislature 640 Fragmented Government Structure 640 22 POLITI CAL PAR TI ES AN D ELECTIONS IN TE X AS 646 State Party Systems 648 H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Party Competition in the United States 649 State Party Ideologies 649 Political Parties in Texas 650 Democratic and Republican Party Strength in Texas 650 The One-Party Era in Texas 650 Party Realignment in Texas 651 Straight Ticket Voting 654 Socioeconomic Factors in the Political Parties 654 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Texas Pass a Voter ID Card Law? 656 The Death of the Yellow Dog Democrat 656 Third-Party Movements in Texas 657 ■ xii Party Organization in Texas 659 Party Strength 660 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Top Donors to Political Candidates 661 Primary Elections 662 Crossover Voting 662 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Primary Systems Used in State Elections 663 Conventions—Election of Delegates, from Precinct to State Level 663 Runoff Primary Elections 664 Delegate Selection Systems 665 The Administration of Primary Elections 665 Campaigns and Elections 666 The Role of the Media 666 Political Consultants 668 Money in Campaigns 668 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Limitations on Campaign Contributions by PACs in Statewide Races 669 23 TH E TE X AS LEG ISL ATU R E Methods of Election 676 Reapportionment and Redistricting Issues 678 Redistricting in the 1990s and 2001 679 Re-redistricting in 2003 679 Getting Elected 683 The Impact of Informal Qualifications 684 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Competition in Texas House and Senate Races 685 Competition for Office 685 Legislative Turnover 688 Legislative Procedures 688 Leadership Roles 688 The Role of Committees 691 How a Bill Becomes a Law 691 Rules, Roles, and Styles 695 Rating the Texas Legislature 697 Staff Assistance 697 Salary and Building Facilities 697 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Legislative Salaries in the Ten Most Populous States 698 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should the Texas Legislature Meet Annually and Be Better Paid? 699 Annual Sessions 700 Contents har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd xii 11/19/10 12:36 PM 24 TH E O F F I CE O F TH E G OVE R N O R AN D STATE AG E N CI E S I N TE X AS 706 The Roles of the Governor 708 Rules of the Gubernatorial Office 709 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Women Governors 710 ■ H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Term Limits for Governors 713 The Governor’s Powers 713 Executive Powers 713 Legislative Powers 717 Judicial Powers 718 Military Powers 718 ■ H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Powers of the Governor 719 Informal Powers 719 Administrative Agencies of State Government 720 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Texas Eliminate the Plural Executive? 721 Agencies with Elected Officials 722 Single-Head Agencies 725 Boards and Committees 726 Legislative Agencies 727 Other Agencies 728 Citizen Control and the Sunset Review 728 25 TH E CO U R T SYSTE M IN TE X AS 734 The Structure of State Courts 736 Local Trial Courts 737 County Courts 738 District Courts 738 Appellate and Supreme Courts 738 Judicial Selection and Removal 739 Issues in Judicial Selection 739 Removing and Disciplining Judges 743 Juries 744 Grand Jury 744 Petit Jury 745 Issues in the Justice System 745 Racial Disparity 745 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should Victims’ Rights Groups Be Able to Influence Parole Board Decisions? 746 The Effect of Punishment on Crime Rates 747 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Who Is Arrested for Crime? 748 ■ H OW TE X A S C OMPARE S : Incarceration Rates 749 Death Penalty 749 Tort Reform 750 26 PU BLI C POLI CY IN TE X AS 756 27 LO CAL G OVE R N M E NTS IN TE X AS 778 Economic Policies 758 Expenditures: Where Does the Money Go? 758 Revenue Sources: Where Does the Money Come From? 759 Taxation: Who Is Targeted? 761 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : State Tax Capacity 762 Budgeting and Crises 763 Education Policies 764 College Tuition and Funding 764 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : How States and the National Government Raise Revenues 768 Affirmative Action 767 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should the Texas Legislature Reform the Top 10 Percent Law? 768 Social Policies 768 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Policy Liberalism 769 Sex and Abortion: Upholding Texas’s Conservative Tradition 770 Gay Rights and Gender Equality 771 Environmental Policies 772 State and Local Authority 780 Municipal Governments 781 General-Law and Home-Rule Cities 782 Incorporation 782 Forms of Municipal Governments 783 Municipal Elections and Voter Turnout 786 Challenges to Cities: Revenues and Mandates 788 ■ H OW T E X A S C OMPARE S : Property Taxes 790 County Governments 791 The Structure of County Government 791 Challenges to Counties: Weak Authority and Limited Financial Resources 794 Suggested Reforms of County Government 795 Special District Governments 796 ■ THINK ING C R I T IC ALLY A BOUT D EMOCR AC Y : Should an Alternative to Evolution Be Taught in Public Schools? 797 School Districts 797 Challenges to School Districts: Financing, Quality, and Curriculum 798 ■ A NALY Z ING THE S OURCE S : Measuring Progress in Education 801 A PPE N D IX E S A: B: C. D: The Declaration of Independence 807 Federalist No. 10 809 Federalist No. 51 813 The Declaration of Sentiments 815 G L O S SA RY 817 R E F E R E N C E S 833 C R E D I T S 848 I N D E X 849 har42143_fm_ppi-xxv.indd xiii Contents xiii 11/19/10 12:36 PM
