CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Overview (1):
Before We Begin
Administrative details
Brief review from last week
Winter 2012
Theoretical Basis of Simulation /
Serious Games and Design – Part I
Friday, February 17 2012
Bill Kapralos
CSCI 5530, Winter 2012 Bill Kapralos
Theoretical Basis of Simulation
Overview
Learning theories
Designing Games as Learning Tools
Designing games as learning tools
Understanding your player
Selecting a game style
Overview (2):
Games as Learning Tools (cont.)
Game elements
Offering a choice
Understanding your content
Choosing your learning activity
As an Aside
Selecting a game style
Course Website (1):
I’m Assuming You are taking a Look at the
Course Website
Lecture notes + relevant material
Announcements
Assignments…
Theoretical Basis of
Simulation
http://faculty.uoit.ca/kapralos/csci5530/overview.html
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
1
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Overview (1):
Various Theories of Learning and Instruction
Behind the Design/Delivery of Simulation
Learning Theories (1):
Behaviorism
Basis → everything organisms do (acting, thinking,
Can be used to affirm educational credibility and to
and feeling) can and should be regarded as behaviors
develop appropriate research questions
A model where a stimulus is used to produce a
We will look at these theories briefly and examine
response that may be rewarded or punished to
their relevance to simulation/serious games
reinforce or weaken the response → conditioning
Of course, this is not intended to be an exhaustive
review of teaching theories → just a brief overview!
Knowledge → seen as a repertoire of behaviors
Ignores the “black box” of the mind
Main influence was Ivan Pavlov → investigated
classical conditioning
Learning Theories (1):
Behaviorism (cont.)
How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?
Feedback is used extensively to bring about new
behaviors → these behaviors can be “overlearned” thus making the behaviors automatic
Learning Theories (2):
Cognitivism
All learners develop new ideas, constructs, decisions,
and hypotheses based on their interaction with the
world and their own prior knowledge as an internal
mental process
Learning is assimilated or accommodated into a
cognitive structure that gives meaning and
organization to the knowledge
Assimilated → experience fits into the existing
structure and adds to body of examples
Learning Theories (3):
Cognitivism
Learning is assimilated or accommodated into a
cognitive structure that gives meaning and
organization to the knowledge (cont.)
Accommodated → the experience doesn’t fit into
existing structure, which must be changed to
incorporate the new knowledge
How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?
The tutor can help facilitate the learners’ learning
by establishing their preconceptions, presenting a
cognitive conflict, asking questions…
Learning Theories (4):
Cognitivism (cont.)
How does it relate to simulation/serious games (cont.)
The tutor can also help facilitate the learners’
learning by drawing attention to the discrepancy
between learners’ expectation and experience of
the event, engaging in dialogue
By doing above, tutor prepares the learners to be
receptive to new ideas, teaching the new ideas
and drawing attention to the way in which they are
better than the learners’ previous knowledge
structures
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
2
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Learning Theories (5):
Cognitivism (cont.)
In contrast to behaviorism
Cognitivism argues that the “black box” of the mind
should be opened and understood
Learner is viewed as an information processor
People are not “programmed animals” that merely
respond to environmental stimuli → people are
rational beings that require active participation in
order to learn, and whose actions are a
consequence of thinking
Learning Theories (7):
Social Constructivism
Learning Theories (6):
Cognitivism (cont.)
In contrast to behaviorism (cont.)
Knowledge can be seen as a schema (mental
structure that represents some aspect of the world)
or symbolic mental constructions → learning is
defined as change in a learner’s schemata
Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an
indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head
Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer → information comes in, is being
processed, and leads to certain outcomes
Learning Theories (8):
Social Constructivism (cont.)
Emphasizes social interaction as the means of learning
How does it relate to simulation/serious games (cont.)
Language and culture are central to human intellectual
Through discussion of salient points and problems
arising → tutor mediates social interactions
development and how the world is perceived
Knowledge is co-constructed as a social phenomenon
How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?
The tutor can work collaboratively to support
(“scaffold”) the learners’ development and in time,
remove such support to encourage independence
Learning Theories (9):
Situated Learning and Cognitive
Apprenticeship
Constructivism requires that the learning
environment be safe → definitely the case with
serious games
Ridicule and embarrassment do not follow mistakes
Learning Theories (10):
Situated Learning and Cognitive
Apprenticeship (cont.)
Situated learning → “Learners within a community of
Situated learning → “Learners within a community of
practice”
practice” (cont.)
The learning is described as a product of the activity,
culture, and context (the social interaction within the
workplace)
As learner moves from periphery towards the centre,
they become more actively involved and socialized
(accepting beliefs and behaviors), and take on more
senior or expert roles
The process is often not deliberate but evolutionary
Learning is a function of the activity, context and
culture in which it occurs → it is “situated”
Contrasts with most classroom learning which
involves abstract knowledge that is out of context
Social interaction is a critical component of situated
learning → learners become involved in a
"community of practice" which embodies certain
beliefs and behaviors to be acquired
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
3
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Learning Theories (11):
Situated Learning and Cognitive
Apprenticeship (cont.)
Learning Theories (12):
Situated Learning and Cognitive
Apprenticeship (cont.)
Cognitive apprenticeship → the processes of the task
Cognitive apprenticeship → can be used in teaching of
are identified and made visible
practical skills prior to its integration, application, and
Abstract tasks are situated in the context of
authentic settings
transfer the “actual” setting
Situations are varied to emphasize commonalities
environment where a junior learner increasingly
Transfer of learning is promoted through the process
of → modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation,
reflection, exploration/transferability
becomes “part of the team” and their learning would
Learning Theories (12):
Situated Learning and Cognitive
Apprenticeship (cont.)
How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?
Learning that takes place in the same context in
which it is applied → replicating the simulated
environment as closely as possible to the real
environment
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
process of cognitive development → this ties nicely
with the many web-based social interaction tools,
and multi-player/user environments currently
available
Learning Theories (14):
Experiential Learning (cont.)
Situated learning → more appropriate in the workplace
benefit from the socialization
Learning Theories (13):
Experiential Learning
Experience provides the main motivation for learning
New knowledge is established from reflection
Model of learning from experience includes
“Concrete” experience (apprehension) and abstract
conceptualization (comprehension) as means of
perceiving experience
Active experimentation (extension) as means of
transforming the experience
Learning Theories (14):
Experiential Learning (cont.)
Inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented
Can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of
Personalized reflection about an experience and the
which are necessary (cont.)
formulation of plans to apply learning to other contexts
Inferring or generalizing → principles are derived
are critical factors in effective experiential learning
Applying → plans are made to use learning in new
situations
Emphasis is on the process of learning, not the “product”
Can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of
which are necessary
Experiencing (an activity occurs);
Sharing → reactions/observations are shared
Analyzing/processing → patterns and dynamics are
determined
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
4
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Learning Theories (15):
Experiential Learning (cont.)
How does it relate to simulation/serious games (cont.)
Engaging learners in simulation provides both realism
relevant to the learner’s experience and the time in
which to analyze and interpret different potential
scenarios and their outcomes
Allows learners to reflect critically on how they felt
during the exercise → can begin to formulate
concepts and hypotheses concerning the experience
through discussion and individual reflection
Safe opportunity to experience dangerous situations
→ avoid putting trainees/patients etc. into danger
Learning Theories (17):
Reflective Transformative and Learning (cont.)
Transformative learning
Learning Theories (16):
Reflective Transformative and Learning
Reflection–in-action → thinking on your feet
Occurs during the event → little time is given or
available and recall of reflection may be limited
Prior experiences and knowledge are drawn upon
and applied within content of an unfolding situation →
adds to wealth of experience already in place
Reflection–on-action → evaluating after the event
More indirect and formalized
Writings, recording and other recall may be used to
analyze an event, actions, and outcomes
Learning Theories (18):
Activity Theory
Premise → collective work activity, with the basic
Involves the reconfiguration of ideas, knowledge and
meaning stimulated by a process of critical reflection
purpose shared by others (community), is undertaken by
Learners are empowered to identify and incorporate
new learning as their own
towards the solution of a problem (object), which is
Example of these educational experiences → use of
video recordings in learning of communication skills
used in order to achieve the goal (outcome)
Video can result in reflection both in- and on-action,
and via facilitated discussion after the event, can
result in a transformative restructuring and
development of action plan and new learning goals
people (subjects) who are motivated by a purpose or
mediated by tools and/or signs (artifacts or instruments)
Activity constrained by cultural factors including
conventions (rules) and social organization (division
of labor) within immediate context, and framed by
broader social patterns (of production, consumption,
distribution and exchange)
Learning Theories (19):
Learning Theories (20):
Activity Theory (cont.)
Activity Theory (cont.)
Provides a conceptual framework from which we can
Based on the premise that conscious learning comes
understand the inter-relationship between activities,
from activity
actions, operations and artifacts, subjects’ motives and
Activity denotes the forms of behavior that are socially
goals, and aspects of the social, organizational and
formed and conscious
societal contexts within which these activities are framed
Human activity is structured, dynamic and selfregulating, motivated by needs and objects
Activities create motor and mental actions directed by
conscious goals
Actions are implemented through operations that are
dependent on conditions in the external and internal
system
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
5
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Learning Theories (21):
Activity Theory (cont.)
Underlying principle
Learning, knowledge, and activity are intrinsically
interlinked → learning is socially mediated activity
How does it relate to simulation/serious games ?
Relationships between one activity system and
another (e.g., simulated environment and the actual
environment) may lead to greater understanding of
the issues surrounding the transfer of skills
Ideal for interprofessional education/training →
online, remote, multi-player simulation/game
environments…
Learning Theories (23):
Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition
Novice "rigid adherence to taught rules or plans"
No exercise of "discretionary judgment"
Advanced beginner limited "situational perception"
All aspects of work treated separately with equal
importance
Competent "coping with crowdedness" (multiple
activities, accumulation of information)
Learning Theories (22):
Models of Expertise
In addition to these learning theories, also important to
recognize the development of expertise and its impact
on any simulated exercise
Expertise may be considered as the end point in a
step-wise development of cognitive, psychomotor,
and affective skills
Considering the five levels of development of
expertise from novice to expert → experiences in
simulation should be modeled in accordance with the
levels of expertise expected of the learner
Learning Theories (24):
Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (cont.)
Proficient holistic view of situation
Prioritizes importance of aspects
“Perceives deviations from the normal pattern"
Employs maxims for guidance, with meanings that
adapt to the situation at hand
Expert transcends reliance on rules, guidelines, maxims
Some perception of actions in relation to goals
“Intuitive grasp of situations based on deep, tacit
understanding"
Deliberate planning
Has "vision of what is possible"
Formulates routines
Uses "analytical approaches" in new situations or in
case of problems
Learning Theories (25):
Dreyfus Model of Skills Acquisition (cont.)
A sixth category → Dreyfus model in its original form
does not account for innovation (how new skills come
into being and outcompete old ones)
Makes model relatively un-dynamic and unable to
grasp skill acquisition in full
Flyvbjerg proposed as a remedy a sixth stage for
innovation
Designing Games as
Learning Tools
Later, Hubert Dreyfus embraced both a sixth and a
seventh stage taking into account innovation and
practical wisdom in the Dreyfus model of skill
acquisition
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
6
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
As an Aside (1):
A Quote
Designing Games as Learning Tools (1):
Overview
“To be an entertaining and educational game , it must
Is it possible to take all the engagement of video
first be a game, and only then, a teacher”
games and the learning that takes place when one
Ashley Lipson → creator of the legal game
Objection!
plays them and design video games that produce
reliable learning of academic or training material ?
The ultimate quest of many educators since the
introduction of video games
As we previously saw → Edutainment era!
“Learning games” are generally not real games at
all in the commercial sense but rather short
multimedia pieces
Designing Games as Learning Tools (2):
Overview (cont.)
Designing Games as Learning Tools (3):
Why it is Hard
According to one game designer → “the instructional
It is definitely possible to combine the fun of a real
designers brought into the creation of a learning
game with educational content → but hard to do!
game because they supposedly know how to get
Designer for regular (new) entertainment game
people to learn, typically suck the fun out of any game
they get their hands on”
Main issue with learning games and it generally all
leads back to a lack of gameplay → the fun things
the player gets to decide, control, and do
Start with a blank slate and single goal → make
something that will engage players for as much
time as possible (30, 60, 100 or more hours)
Invents all the content of the game (worlds,
characters, puzzles, etc.) to help reach the goal
In the design process → any element or idea can
be accepted into game if it furthers engagement
Designing Games as Learning Tools (4):
Why it is Hard (cont.)
Designer for regular (new) entertainment game (cont.)
At the end of the process → write a “book” (often
done by the publisher) about the game’s content to
help players understand the world in the game and
succeed in it
Designing Games as Learning Tools (5):
Why it is Hard (cont.)
Designer for an educational game
The “book of content” already exists before the
designer starts → the game has to somehow be
about that “book”
Designer has two “prime directives” to follow
simultaneously
1. To make the game engaging
2. To follow the “book” → to be accurate
• Can’t simply “jiggle a concept here, add a fact there”
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
7
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Designing Games as Learning Tools (6):
Why it is Hard (cont.)
Designer for an educational game (cont.)
To complicate matters, designer has to think about
the game’s effectiveness → does the game cause
people to learn ?
How do we deal with these three issues → gameplay
Makes the difference between bad games, good
games, and great games
Players still expect great graphics, sound, etc. but
many examples of failed “pretty” games → many
good games with poor graphics thanks to gameplay
Designing Games as Learning Tools (8):
Combining Gameplay and Learning
How do we combine, what appear to be very different
phenomena, gameplay and effective learning ?
Helpful to think of digital game-based learning along
two dimensions that need to be combined to make it
work → Gameplay / Engagement and Learning
Designing Games as Learning Tools (7):
Why it is Hard (cont.)
How do we design “educational games that don’t suck” ?
It challenges us as digital game-based learning
designers/developers to take any material that is our
starting point and design a series of great gameplay
experiences to get it across
The games we design will involve graphics, sounds,
characters, etc. it’s what gameplay has those
characters do → more importantly, what gameplay
has you the player do
Designing Games as Learning Tools (9):
Combining Gameplay and Learning (cont.)
Game-based learning quadrant
Low gameplay and low learning → probably
traditional computer-based training or “e-Learning”
High gameplay and no “learning” of traditional
educational content → consumer games
High gameplay and high learning → DGBL
High learning and low gameplay → non-existent ?
Digital game-based
learning (DGBL) quadrant
Designing Games as Learning Tools (10)
Combining Gameplay and Learning (cont.)
DGBL part of the quadrant
Even within this area, there can still be very much
variation → each dimension is a continuum and each
project has different amount of learning & engagement
Ideally → move out continuously on a 45o line
How about a slider as part of the
interface so that user can choose
his/her own mix between learning
and engagement based on their
mood at that time ? (Prenskey)
Designing Games as Learning Tools (11)
Combining Gameplay and Learning (cont.)
As we design serious games we must consider both
learning and engagement dimensions
Not enough emphasis on learning → risk sliding into
being “just a game”
Not enough emphasis on gameplay/engagement →
risk of becoming nothing more than a computerbased training (e-Learning) application
Better to keep thinking about keeping both
dimensions high than to think about trading them off
as has been suggested by some
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
8
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Designing Games as Learning Tools (12)
Combining Gameplay and Learning (cont.)
Process of developing a DGBL (or serious game)
Find or create a game with great gameplay that will
engage the intended audience
Understanding Your Player (1):
We Usually Start with the Audience
Most learners will be excited when they hear you are
designing a game for them
But they may also be quite skeptical → so much
learning is boring that people need to be clear that
the game is being made to engage them and that
they will have a “say” in the design
Find the learning activities that will teach what is
required → doing each with the other in mind
“Successfully” blend the two
Ultimately audience will quickly determine whether
game is engaging and if not, they will “throw it away”
→ don’t want to waste our time and money so it is
best to consider your audience!
Of course, we must also take into account the political
context, the technology, and the available resources
Understanding Your Player (2):
We Usually Start with the Audience (cont.)
Understanding Your Player (3):
We Usually Start with the Audience (cont.)
Of course, once we consider our target audience, we will
If audience is diverse amongst one of those variables,
select a representative group whom we will work with
there are alternative strategies for dealing with creating
Some audiences are reasonably homogenous →
simplifies matters considerably
Some audiences are more diverse → more difficult
Typically, audiences are diverse and the following
variables are amongst the most important to consider
Age, gender, competitiveness, and previous
experience with game
Understanding Your Player (4):
We Usually Start with the Audience (cont.)
If audience is diverse (cont.)
2.
3.
Create more than one game, for example one
competitive game and one more competitive →
Games 2Train created a template in which the user
can choose from eight different games to learn the
same content
Provide a non-game alternative for those in the
audience who are not engaged by the game you
choose
games for such groups
1.
Seek a “lowest common denominator” game style
such as a game format that appeals to both men
and women, or to both competitive or noncompetitive people → potential game formats that
serve this purpose include detective games,
adventure and puzzle, and strategy games
Understanding Your Player (5):
We Usually Start with the Audience (cont.)
If audience is diverse (cont.)
Danger with first strategy → may involve too much
compromise resulting in a game that doesn’t please
anyone
The second option may be too expensive
Very important to get representatives of the audience
involved early on in the design process → consider
conducting focus groups, informal interviews,
including audience members on the design team
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
9
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Selecting a Game Style (1):
All Standard Game Genres can be Used
Game Elements (1):
Game Elements for Learning Games
Action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role-playing,
List of game elements devised from a number of people
simulation, sports, and strategy
studying games
Selecting a game style/genre can be done by
We will look at some these here…
May be a commercial game you are aware of that
immediately makes sense in terms of the content →
best not to stop with games you know but to look at
wide variety of options , speak with a lot of gamers
“What Makes Computer Games Fun” 1981 Tom Malone
Recall → the reason hit games are good models is
that their gameplay is proven!
Robert Ahlers, and Rosemary Garris from US Navy
Of course, you can still create entirely new game from
scratch and combine gameplay elements from many
for fun learning and gameplay”
Game Elements (2):
Game Elements for Learning Games (cont.)
Robert Ahlers, and Rosemary Garris from US Navy
Submarine School, devised list of “critical characteristics
for fun learning and gameplay” (cont.)
Imaginary situation, rule governed goals specified,
competitive/cooperative, progressive difficulty, sound
effects, dynamic graphics, user control, outcome
uncertainty, simulated danger, performance
feedback, high response rates, informational
complexity
Offering a Choice (1):
Offering the Player Options a Good Idea
We all don’t like the same games → one option is to give
users a choice of more than one game, and/or nongame alternative
Developing more than one game may sound difficult
and expensive but in some cases it is not → can
create parallel interfaces that allow you to create
content once and have it flow into a number of game
formats, offering player a choice of style
Checklist of elements for designing enjoyable
educational experiences whose overall categories are
→ challenge, fantasy, curiosity
Submarine School, devised list of “critical characteristics
Game Elements (3):
Game Elements for Learning Games (cont.)
Problem with a list of game elements/element approach
Although such elements are found in “good” games,
just having a list of elements doesn’t imply you will
have a good game → one of the reasons why so
many bad educational games exist!
Better approach → look at “good” games and try to
capture their style of putting the elements together
Don’t take this phase lightly and consider many
options → type of game you choose, and your skill in
integrating it with learning will determine the level of
engagement
Understanding Your Content (1):
Need to Consider the Type of Learning you Are
Trying to Make Happen
Select your interactive processes for doing so
“Learning doesn’t happen incidentally. You have to
set out to teach those specific skills” Ray Perez,
cognitive psychologist
Many different types of content to learn and the types
of content and learning require different
methodologies → the type of content will also have
an effect on your choice of game
Whatever the subject, begin by looking generically at
different types of learning content you want to teach
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
10
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Understanding Your Content (2):
Need to Consider the Type of Learning you Are
Trying to Make Happen (cont.)
Select your interactive processes for doing so (cont.)
Determine what types of learning are actually
happening → learning knowledge (facts), skill,
judgments, behaviors, theories, reasoning, process,
procedures, creativity, language, systems,
observation, or communication
Understanding Your Content (3):
Types of
Learning and
Potential Game
Styles
For any subject there will be more than one → can
then take the different types of games and “line them
up” against these requirements to decide if game can
support these types of learning
Choosing Your Learning Activities (1):
Overview
Choosing Your Learning Activities (2):
Practice and Feedback
For the “learning” part of game-based learning one can
Computers are good at presenting a series of problems
employ many interactive activities techniques that have
and keeping track, statistically, of how people answer
been shown to work in both games and non-game forms
Used poorly → often labeled “drill and kill”
of interactive learning
Should also invent and devise new interactive
learning techniques as they are needed
But practice has its place in game-based learning →
in the right context, an excellent way of learning
things that require plenty of repetitive practice
Continuous addition of interactive activities and
learning techniques to our repertoire will make gamebased learning increasingly effective as time passes
Examples can include facts (e.g., anatomy), physical
skills (e.g., typing), and reflex skills (e.g., many
aspects of language)
More acceptable with the advent of adaptive games
that shift difficulty depending on performance
Choosing Your Learning Activities (3):
Learning by Doing
Works well in game-based learning
“Doing” is one of the things the computer and games
are good at → we interact with them
Common element is active participation and decision
making by the learner
Choosing Your Learning Activities (4):
Learning from Mistakes
User moves towards their goal until they come to a
“failure point” and then get some form of feedback
This essentially happens in many video games → trial
and error inherent in video games and motivates the
user to keep trying
A difference between video games and serious
games is the manner in which the feedback is
presented → in serious games, it is through some
form of “telling” whereas in video games, it’s through
actions, something happens
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
11
CSCI 5530: Serious Games Development
(Simulations and Serious Games)
Choosing Your Learning Activities (5):
Goal-Oriented Learning
Some interactive learning designers distinguish between
Fact-oriented learning → learning about something
Selecting a Game Style (1):
All Standard Game Genres Are Available
Action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role-playing,
simulation, sports, strategy…
Goal-oriented learning → learning to do something
Goal-oriented, or goal-based learning
Concept that has been in games since the beginning
Goal → key element of a game and the goals in a
game, which the players usually consider worth
reaching are what motivate the players to keep going
even in the face of repeated failure
Selecting a Game Style (2):
How do we Select a Game Style/Genre ?
As an Aside (1):
The Heart of Serious Game Design
There may be a commercial game you are aware of that
immediately makes sense in terms of the content
Other “hit” games are a good model as their
gameplay has been proven
No need to stop at the games you know → look at a
wide variety of options and speak with a variety of
gamers and play as many games as possible!
It is possible to create a new game from scratch
combining gameplay elements from other games
Winter 2012
Bill Kapralos
12