Dr. Jakub Basista
Modern European State Formation
Meeting 4: The good Father-Monarch? Enlightened Absolutism in Europe.
Reference: Fragments of Jeremy Black, Eighteenth Century Europe, chapters enlightened despotism
and political thought.
Synopsis
Enlightened Absolutism/Despotism – what was it? Did it exist? Many historians
rightly argue that such a system never really existed.
By definition:
“The enlightened ruler governed his subjects as the ‘1st servant of the state’ in
accordance with the principles of the reason (nothing by the people, everything for the
people). Revolution from above created the absolute and sovereign welfare state with
a modern bureaucracy and an ordered system of law” The Penguin Atlas of World
History, vol. I, 1974, p. 187.
In reality it is very hard to point to a state, which would fulfil the “ideal” model.
The discussed Enlightened Absolutism sometimes is also referred to as benevolent
absolutism or enlightened despotism. Monarchs embraced the principles of Enlightenment, in
particular rationality and applied them to their home countries. Thus they would consider
religious toleration, freedom of speech and the press, and the right to hold private property, as
long as it did not threaten seriously their rule. Most fostered the arts, sciences, and education.
Most monarchs tended to follow absolute rulers, refusing to grant any constitution. All of
them ‘applied’ the understanding of Enlightenment in differing ways. Joseph II is said to
have taken social contract literally, Catherine took up many ideas, but rejected social contract
In effect, the monarchs ruled with the intent of improving the lives of their subjects in order to
strengthen or reinforce their authority. For example, the abolition of serfdom in some regions
of Europe was achieved by enlightened rulers. In the spirit of enlightened absolutism,
Emperor Joseph II said, "Everything for the people, nothing by the people."
Question of „Enlightenment” and „Despotism” – are they not contradictory?
The term / notion „Enlightened absolutism” was devised by Germans/Prussians in the
19th century and it was intended as a positive term pointing to the achievements of
Prussia as opposed to the French absolutism.
Does it exist? A Polish historian – Emanuel Rostworowski does see place for the
term; an English historian – Jeremy Black doubts whether it makes sense.
It can be interpreted as the „rationalisation of the state”
Outside Attributes
Founding of industry / manufacturing and mercantilism
Breaking of monopolies and particular interests of various groups
Centralised administration through state clerks and officials
Role in architecture and art
Universities and academies of sciences
Elements of enlightened absolutism:
• Social contract (people as the source of power)
• Individual or civil freedom of subjects
• Law of nature
Enlightened monarchs were rulers who distinguished themselves from traditional
monarchs in the way they governed. Specifically, enlightened monarchs embraced the
principles of the Enlightenment, especially its emphasis upon rationality, and applied
them to their territories. They tended to allow religious tolerance, freedom of speech
and the press, and the right to hold private property. Most fostered the arts, sciences,
and education.
Reality:
• Stronger centralized power
• Attempt to control the church; attack on orders and monasteries
• Religious toleration
• Humanitarian regulations in courts
• Development of schools and institutions of higher education
Prussia under Frederick II the Great (1740-86) – KING PHILOSOPHER. He
became known as Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed
der alte Fritz ("Old Fritz").
Frederick II: Essay on the Forms of Government
A sovereign must possess an exact and detailed knowledge of the strong and of the weak points of his
country. He must be thoroughly acquainted with its resources, the character of the people, and the
national commerce....
Rulers should always remind themselves that they are men like the least of their subjects. The
sovereign is the foremost judge, general, financier, and minister of his country, not merely for the sake
of his prestige. Therefore, he should perform with care the duties connected with these offices. He is
merely the principal servant of the State. Hence, he must act with honesty, wisdom, and complete
disinterestedness in such a way that he can render an account of his stewardship to the citizens at any
moment. Consequently, he is guilty if he wastes the money of the people, the taxes which they have
paid, in luxury, pomp, and debauchery. He who should improve the morals of the people, be the
guardian of the law, and improve their education should not pervert them by his bad example....
The sovereign is the representative of his State. He and his people form a single body. Ruler and ruled
can be happy only if they are firmly united. The sovereign stands to his people in the same relation in
which the head stands to the body. He must use his eyes and his brain for the whole community, and
act on its behalf to the common advantage. If we wish to elevate monarchical above republican
government, the duty of sovereigns is clear. They must be active, hard-working, upright and honest,
and concentrate all their strength upon filling their office worthily. That is my idea of the duties of
sovereigns.
he was a correspondent of Voltaire
He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance
throughout his realm
patronized the arts and philosophers
COLONIZATION OF THE INTERIOR
Drainage of marshes of the Oder, Warta and Nysa valleys
Road and canal construction
Established over 900 villages for 300,000 new settlers
Promotion of rotation of crops
Potato cultivation
Improvement of animal husbandry
Tree care, forestry
SOCIETYT\
Rids of social estate privileges; they are to serve the state
Active care of society through inspections and controls
Schools for the poor and peasants (Bauer schule; Industrie schule)
Employment of nobles in the bureaucracy and the army
Freedom of thought and religion for all subjects
LEGAL
Elimination of torture
Reform of courts: centralised, homogenous, simple
Purge of courts
Law codification
Interference in legal proceedings and purchase of offices eliminated.
Effective system, but not a state of law
Russia under Catherine II the Great (1762-96) – SEMIRAMIS OF THE NORTH
Tsarina of German house of Anhaldt-Zerbst propagated the ideas of Enlightenment in Russia.
In fact all her reform attempts fail. Very good propaganda and excellent relations with
philosophers (Voltaire).
From Catherine II. Proposals for a New Law Code
6. Russia is an European State.
7. This is clearly demonstrated by the following Observations: The Alterations which Peter
the Great undertook in Russia succeeded with the greater Ease, because the Manners, which
prevailed at that Time, and had been introduced amongst us by a Mixture of different Nations,
and the Conquest of foreign Territories, were quite unsuilable to the Climate. Peter the First,
by introducing the Manners and Customs of Europe among the European People in his
Dominions, found at that Time such Means as even he himself was not sanguine enough to
expect....
8. The Possessions of the Russian Empire extend upon the terrestrial Globe to 32 Degrees of
Latitude, and to 165 of Longitude.
9. The Sovereign is absolute; for there is no other Authority but that which centers in his
single Person, that can act with a Vigour proportionate to the Extent of such a vast Dominion.
10. The Extent of the Dominion requires an absolute Power to be vested in that Person who
rules over it. It is expedient so to be, that the quick Dispatch of Affairs, sent from distant
Parts, might make ample Amends for the Delay occasioned by the great Distance of the
Places.
11. Every other Form of Government whatsoever would not only have been prejudicial to
Russia, but would even have proved its entire Ruin.
12. Another Reason is: That it is better to be subject to the Laws under one Master, than to be
subservient to many.
13. What is the true End of Monarchy? Not to deprive People of their natural Liberty; but to
correct their Actions, in order to attain the supreme Good.
14. The Form of Government, therefore, which best attains this End, and at the same Time
sets less Bounds than others to natural Liberty, is that which coincides with the Views and
Purposes of rational Creatures, and answers the End, upon which we ought to fix a steadfast
Eye in the Regulations of civil Polity.
15. The Intention and the End of Monarchy, is the Glory of the Citizens, of the State, and of
the Sovereign.
16. But, from this Glory, a Sense of Liberty arises in a People governed by a Monarch; which
may produce in these States as much Energy in transacting the most important Affairs, and
may contribute as much to the Happiness of the Subjects, as even Liberty itself....
33. The Laws ought to be so framed, as to secure the Safety of every Citizen as much as
possible.
34. The Equality of the Citizens consists in this; that they should all be subject to the same
Laws.
35. This Equality requires Institutions so well adapted, as to prevent the Rich from oppressing
those who are not so wealthy as themselves, and converting all the Charges and Employments
intrusted to them as Magistrates only, to their own private Emolument....
37. In a State or Assemblage of People that live together in a Community, where there are
Laws, Liberty can only consist in doing that which every One ought to do, and not to be
constrained to do that which One ought not to do.
Despite Catherine's friendships with the western European thinkers of the Enlightenment (in
particular Denis Diderot, Voltaire and Montesquieu) Catherine found it impractical to
improve the lot of her poorest subjects, who continued to suffer (for example) military
conscription. The distinctions between peasant rights on votchina and pomestie estates
virtually disappeared in law as well as in practice during her reign.
Catherine had a reputation as a patron of the arts, literature and education
The leading economists of her day, such as Arthur Young and Jacques Necker, became
foreign members of the Free Economic Society, established on her suggestion in Saint
Petersburg in 1765. She lured the scientists Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas from
Berlin to the Russian capital.
1766, she endeavoured to embody in a legislative form the principles of Enlightenment which
she had imbibed from the study of the French philosophers. After holding more than 200
sittings the so-called Commission dissolved without getting beyond the realm of theory.
OTHER EUROPEAN ‘ENLIGHTENED’ MONARCHS
Austria under Maria Theresa ((1740-80) and Joseph (1765-1790)
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Attempts to reform and centralize the state: chancellery of the state; Merged Court
Chancellery; reform of Supreme Court.
6000 royal decrees directed at interference into religion; Germanisation; country reforms.
Codification of civil law.
Creation of royal administration.
Mercantilism.
Gustavus III of Sweden 1746-72
Charles III of Spain 1716-88
Leopold II Habsburg 1747-92
Joseph I of Portugal 1714-1777
Poland-Lithuania under Stanisław August Poniatowski
KEN – Komisja Edukacji Narodowej – first Polish ministry of education
1788-92 – Four Years’ Parliament and its constitution:
Polish Constitution – on 3rd May 1791, the Polish-Lithuanian parliament accepted a
document entitled Ustawa Rządowa (The Governmental Act), which became the first Polish
constitution. The parliament, which passed the constitution, was already in session since 1788
and is known in history as the Four Years’ Parliament or the Great Parliament.
The 3rd May Constitution consists of an introduction and 11 articles. Together with several
acts passed by the parliament earlier it introduced a new, modernized political system void of
the negative phenomena of the existing political system.
The text of the constitution is clear and systematic, reflecting the political thought of the age
of reason. Articles I-IV refer to the Catholic Religion and the clergy (I), the nobility (II), cities
and burghers (III) and peasants (IV). The next four articles (V-VIII) are devoted to the
political system of Poland-Lithuania (the government, executive, legislative, and judicial
powers). Finally the last three articles discuss regency, education of royal children and
military force.
The constitution, although based on the ideas of enlightenment, is not as democratic and
radical as the earlier American and later French constitutions. Although a significant change
in granting equality of rights to all citizens took place, the new constitution retained certain
privileges and class divisions in the Polish-Lithuanian society.
The new political system was based on Montesquieu’s division of power, separating the
executive power of the monarch, from the legislative prerogatives of the parliament and
independent courts. The legislative power of the monarch was weakened, while the executive
one became stronger. The executive was to be controlled and limited by a group of ministers.
The notorious Liberum veto, which allowed a single deputy to break the proceedings of any
parliament, was abolished. General election of the king by the nobles was replaced by
hereditary monarchy, with the crown offered to the Saxonian Vettin dynasty.
Parliamentary rights were limited to those nobles, who possessed real property and a limited
number of burghers were to sit in the new parliament.
The new constitution and accompanying laws changed local administration, the tax system
and introduced a standing army.
The 3rd May constitution limited the omnipotent power of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility in
favor of central offices and the monarch. As historians claim, it turned Polish-Lithuanian state
“from anarchy to a well-ordered state”.
The strengthening of political power was hard to accept for some Polish nobles, and Poland’s
neighbors. Catherine II, with a group of Polish nobles organized in a military confederation of
Targowica, initiated a war to stop the constitution from being introduced. In effect of a RussoPolish war the constitution of 3rd May 1791 was abolished. Soon later the Polish-Lithuanian
was partitioned and wiped off the map of Europe.