Rationale
Students with disabilities need to experience a balanced education with
activities from all Key Learning Areas within the curriculum. All students
regardless of their disability learn to communicate in ways other than spoken
language. Communication is vital for students so they have control on their
learning and their environment. Educational Programs need to be developed
with the thought that all students can learn and communicate with others.
Today’s education system is an inclusive model, we as teachers will find
that in nearly every class we teach there will be a student who has a special
need in curriculum adjustments and some type of communication need.
Teachers notice students in their classroom when the educational
development of the child falls behind that of what is expected. Children that
have a diagnosed disability are easy to identify and a support plan usually
precedes their arrival into the classroom. It is the student that seems capable
yet has trouble understanding or using language, creating a reading/writing
difficulty that teachers find harder to recognise and program for.
For this reason I have developed a teaching resource that will assist
teachers in their classroom to provide a quality educational program for all
students regardless of the student’s difficulties.
My intention is to provide a description of the types of communication
disorders we are likely to face in our classrooms. As well as discuss some
strategies that will assist the classroom program by making adjustments and
adaptations to meet individual needs. Information has come from current
research but I am no means saying this is an exhausted list. There are many
strategies that you may have used that you could add to the list of useful
strategies.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
2
Philosophy
Communication is a complex process where we are able to express our
needs and interrupt the needs of others. It is a two way process of
‘transmitting and receiving messages to share and exchange ideas and
information’ (Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special)
Trainer’s Manual 1c. p6).
The primary communication use is speech and language with other aspects
enhancing the meaning that is being portrayed. Speech is only one mode of
communication that can be used. Bernstein and Tiegerman-Farber (2002)
state that speech is the verbal mode of transmitting messages in relation to
communication. There are many other modes of communication available to
us – writing, body language, gestures, drawing, manual signing and
augmentative communication boards. Students with disabilities may not
have the option to develop speech and alternative modes of communication
need to be developed.
We have many languages available to us as we attempt to share our ideas
through symbols and signs. Languages are governed by rules and this
ensures the understanding has been maintained and reached by all
recipients. Each language has 3 major components – form, content and use.
To understand the use of language we need to understand each component
and its features.
Form
-rules that control sounds and how they combine.
Phonology
-rules that control the internal organisation of words.
Morphology
-rules that control how the words should be ordered in sentences.
Syntax
Content
- rules that control the words and their meanings.
Semantics
Use
-rule that control the reason for communicating.
Pragmatics
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
3
Types of Communication Disorders
For the purpose of this resource I have developed definitions, characteristics,
implications and strategies for the types of disorders you may experience within
the regular classroom.
When we talk and think about communication disorders we immediately
refer to students with deafness, cerebral palsy, or cleft palates. In reality most
students with communication disorders do not have a disability but have trouble
with the development of communication skills.
In schools today we may see some of the following
1. Learning Disabilities
2. Intellectual Disabilities
3. Autism Spectrum Disorders
- Aspegers Syndrome
4. Hearing Impairments
-Otitis Media
-Cochlear Implants
-Speech disorders of hearing impairments
5. Expressive Language Impairments
-Stuttering / Stammering (Fluency Disorders)
-Dispraxia / Dysarthia
-Phonological Disorders
-Apraxia /Aphasia
-Articulation Disorders
6. Receptive Language Impairments
-language development delays
7. Voice Impairments
-voice and vocal nodules
I have discussed some of these disorders in the following pages.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
4
Development of Communication
Acquisition of speech, language and communication is a complex process.
Children acquire language early in their life by actively involving themselves.
Babies recognise voice and respond to the change in pitch and tone. Preschool
children develop rapidly in all areas of language. School age children continue
the development as their repertoire moves into different uses. By the beginning
of school most children build on prior learning and language experiences to
develop their reading and writing.
Early One Word Stage begins around 10-18 months
Focus: Development of first 50 words; variety of purpose; continuing
development of comprehension; speech development.
One word -2 word Stage 16 -20 months
Focus: expanding development of words; increase comprehension;
development of 2 word utterances.
Multi Word Utterances begins around 20 to 36 months lasts though
to 40 to 50 months.
Focus: develop 3 word utterances; develop word endings; phrase
development (little words); develop more interactive communication;
develop comprehension, and concepts; develop speech.
Complex Syntax and the development of Oral text begins around
3.6 to 6 yrs
Focus: complex clauses and phrases begin to combine;
comprehension and concept development; interactive communication
Primary School-Aged begins around 5-12 years
Focus: Language of Logic and reasoning; literate language;
metalinguistics; vocab develops; learning to read and write; humor
develops around 7-8years
Adolescent Communication Development begins around 12 -20yrs
Focus: Social/Peer group communication; slang, rap, dating, gossip,
being liked; academic demands; vocational demands
Hand, L. (1998). p296
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
5
Definitions of Communication
Articulation is the production of speech through the movement of the tongue,
lips, cheeks, breath and voice control.
Speech is the development of sounds which include articulation, voice and
fluency.
Language is the medium of communication through a set of symbols and rules
to manage these symbols. NB: All students communicate some may not use
language.
Expressive Language is how we express our thoughts and feelings. This may
be oral or written but it includes selecting the correct vocabulary, correct
grammar and correct sequences of ideas.
Receptive Language is how we comprehend information given through a need
to communicate. This may be understanding vocabulary and concepts, short
term memory and sequencing information.
Social / Pragmatics refers to the skills which allow someone to hold a
conversation with another person effectively. These includes active listening,
turn taking, topic maintenance, taking the listeners perspective, non
communication gestures (eye contact, facial expressions and body language)
Web of communication
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
6
Impact of Communication Disorders
on Society
Communication Disorders are considered one of the largest disability effecting
society today. Whether it be a Hearing Impairment or a Language Delay the
effects on society are growing. Communication is vital to being able to fully
involve oneself in society. School Education is vital in the development of
Communication and as the primary role of the education system is to allow all
children to acquire the required skills to participate in society.
Acquisition of language is a vital component in developing as a well rounded
individual capable of participating in society. Failing to acquire the necessary
skills to participate in society is critical to the individual and how they react to the
challenges that front them in their world.
People with a communication disorder often do not develop language as their
peers and this impacts on the way the see themselves as individuals. They often
appear withdrawn which heavily impacts on their social, academic and vocational
success (Weiner, 1985).
Today, as society changes and we see a rise in the incidences of a child with
language impairments in our classroom, together with the fall of therapists
available, especially in rural areas, we as teachers need to adjust our
programmes to meet the communication needs of children in our classrooms.
As children with a Language Delay advance through school they have an
increased chance of becoming a school drop out statistic, become unemployed,
a juvenile delinquent, or a develop substance addiction. A situation that any one
would prefer to avoid. Early Intervention and continuous language development
programmes for all students may create a situation where students choose to
create a positive life as they develop through the education system.
Many Early Intervention programs do not start before the age of 3 years as it is
sometimes impossible to know whether children have a developmental delay or
there is a specific language impairment. If early intervention programs provide all
children will a language delay we as a society may not have the impact on
welfare agencies as the children progress to adulthood.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
7
Intellectual Disabilities & Learning
Difficulties
Definitions
Hallinan, Hallinan and Boulton refers to an intellectual impairment as substantial
limitations in present functioning. It is characterised by significantly sub average
intellectual functioning existing concurrently with limitations in two or more…
adaptive skill areas.
Students with a Learning Difficulty are those that have significant difficulties at
school when accessing the curriculum due to their persistent problems in
Literacy, Numeracy, and learning to learn. Students with a learning difficulty are
seen to have temporary symptoms where a student with Learning Disability is a
child that has difficulties because of their neurological long term problems.
Characteristic of students with an Intellectual Disability.
Children tend to have
• Short attention span
• Are easily distracted
• Are self stimulated
• Short on-task behaviours
• No transfer or generalization of taught skills
• Withdrawn pesonalities
• trouble getting started on tasks
• trouble finishing tasks
• Difficulty with abstract concepts
• Resistance to change
• Anxiety and worry, excessive fears and phobias
See Appendix 1 for Common Behaviours of Children with Language needs
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
8
Characteristics of students with a Learning Difficulty
Children with a Learning Difficulty are more likely to be successful outside the
school community but will present with some of the following features
• Poor reading and comprehension skills
• Poor oral reading at times of embarrassment so tries to avoid the
situation
• Poor spelling
• Simple sentences when writing
• Untidy bookwork
• Disorganised
• Asks inappropriate questions with poor timing
• Completes work quickly with poor quality
• Does not finish some tasks
• Would rather draw than write
• Can not follow complex instructions
• Small retentive memory
• Low self esteem within academic circles
• Learned helplessness
• Limited oral communication
Students with a Learning Difficulty often have problems with
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Solving social problems
Predicting consequences for certain behaviours
Using meaningful and concise language
Interpreting or inferring language used in conversation
Using complex social interactions (persuasion, negotiation,
giving or accepting criticism)
Being aware of the listeners role in a conversation
Tolerance for failure and frustration
Being accepted by their peers
Adapting to new social situations
Interrupting and using non verbal language - Pragmatics
See Appendix 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7 for programming strategies
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
9
Developmental Language Delay
Definition
Often referred to as Specific Language Impairment, Language Learning
Disability or Dysphasia, Developmental Language Delay is a delay in the
language development without any disabilities being apparent. Children with a
Developmental Language Delay usually begin to talk at the same time as other
children but their progress is much slower. They often have trouble learning
language naturally (picking up a words from context), has trouble discriminating
sounds (phonological problem). The child usually does not have an articulation
disorder.
Implication for the classroom
When dealing with students with a Developmental Language Delay (DLD) it is
vital that all children are viewed as individuals and that programmes are
designed to meet individual needs. Children with a DLD are often seen as
disorganised with time and are usually found wasting time or are slow to get
started on the task at hand. You will also find that some children are untidy with
their possessions creating mess wherever they go. Students with a DLD will
need structure in the classroom with explicit and systematic instructions as they
will not always follow instructions easily. Vocabulary will be limited and will
need assistance when searching for the correct words to use in some Key
Learning Areas (KLA). Students often find it difficult to transfer knowledge from
one setting to another, so it is advisable to teach skills in a number of settings
and situations until the skills is transferred. See Appendix 8 and 9 for
Strategies that can be used in the classroom.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
10
Severe and or Multiple Disabilities
Definition
Children with severe or multiple disabilities may not develop speech depending
on the type of disability. Disabilities like Cerebral Palsy, Downs Syndrome, Motor
Neuron Disease all effect the communication of children.
Implications for the classroom
Students may not develop speech (expressive) but receptive language is within
normal range. Children with Cerebral Palsy often make attempts to vocalize and
produce unintelligible sounds and an alternate method of communication is
needed. Often children with multiple disabilities are non verbal and there is a
need to develop alternative communication. There is a strong push for total
communication where the child uses gestures, signs, finger spelling they will be
able to communicate easily with only those who know manual communication.
Computers with adaptations such as switches or touch panels are a useful
medium for communication.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
11
Articulation Disorders
Definition
Articulation is a set of motor skills learning where moving the muscles in the
mouth in coordinated sequences that becomes automatic. A child with an
articulation disorder has difficulty producing sounds; they may have trouble with
movement of facial parts to produce understandable speech.
It is always advisable to contact a child’s speech pathologist to see how you can
help in the classroom.
Implication for the classroom
A child with an Articulation disorder rarely asks questions in classroom
discussions especially when ambiguous statements are made. Children tend to
be less assertive and have less effective interactions with their peers. Relating
stories and messages can be a problem for some children as they tend to have
difficulty reasoning and relating a sequence of events. Children often seem to be
a ‘student of few words’. When ever you have activities that require them to
speak and relate to other members of the classroom they will forget to bring
items to avoid the need to talk to the class.
Students who have congenital disorders like Cerebral
Palsy, Downs Syndrome or a cleft palate often have
articulation disorders as well. See Appendix 10 for
Strategies to use in a regular classroom for children
with an Articulation Disorder.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
12
Fluency Disorders
– Stuttering and Stammering
Definition
They are a motor speech disorder that creates a disruption such as hesitations
and/or repetitions, in the flow of fluent speech. A child who stutters does not have
any natural tendencies to have an intellectual disability but as the condition
continues as the child ages he or she may become withdrawn, anxious and shy.
Types of stuttering that may experience repeat whole words, sounds or syllables
or block where they can’t speak.
Implication for the classroom
There is no easy treatment for stuttering as the symptoms vary from child to
child. It is also quite common that some children are unaware of their stuttering.
Many children also become quite embarrassed by their stuttering and become
self conscious and withdraw form classroom discussions.
Teachers can assist the development of fluency by providing a good speech
model, building the child’s self esteem and creating a rich language environment.
Children with a stutter tend to do more so when they are tired or very excited or
have long conversations. School aged students will
most likely feel embarrassment when answering
questions aloud or reading aloud in class. See
Appendix 11 for strategies and some do’s and
don’ts.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
13
Aphasia / Dysphasia
Definition
Aphasia is a language impairment affecting the production or comprehension of
speech and the ability to read and write. Aphasia is caused by a brain injury of
some description. Aphasia comes in varying degrees and it can affect a single or
multiple language aspects. Dysphasia is another disorder that creates a difficulty
in communicating to the language section of the brain.
Implication for the classroom
Children may get lost in conversations especially in a classroom situation where
there can be groups of people talking. They often have difficulty finding words
they need to converse in a conversation even though they know exactly what
they want to say. There is a tendency to say the same things over and over
again. Students often have difficulty reading articles and writing their thoughts
because they do not know what words to use or how to spell them. Maybe
unable to recognise that their speech is jumbled. Some strategies can be found
in Appendix 12.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
14
Phonological Disorders
Definition
Group of disorders that affect a child’s ability to develop easily understood
speech and their ability to learn to read and write. A phonological disorder is a
deficiency in the understanding and the implementing of rules for producing
sounds and sequences needed to convey a message through speech, reading
and writing. Caroline Bowen states that children often store the sounds in their
mind incorrectly, some children say the sounds incorrectly or even a combination
of both.
Implication for the classroom
A child often has problems with speech clarity in their preschool and early stages
of school. You will note that some children develop at the normal speech
developmental rate and then come to a stand still. When arriving in the
classroom they often present with speech difficulty as their development is not as
advanced as others in the classroom. Quite often you will notice that initial
sounds are missing form their speech. Even the pronunciation of a known word
have many different pronunciations or lots of different words could be
pronounced with the same word. They often have difficulty with learning to read,
comprehension, writing and spelling as research states that children with
Phonological Disorders are at a high risk of failing to learn these literacy skills.
Strategies for Phonological can be found in Appendix 13.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
15
Hearing Impairments effecting
communication
Definition
It is difficult describing language and communication for students with hearing
impairments as there are many factors that influence the child’s ability to
communicate. Factors such as the amount of loss and what age did the loss
begin. If the loss began at a certain age was it identified immediately? When and
how did habilitation ( fit out with equipment) begin and what type was it?
As language development begins early in an infants life it is important to identify
impairments early so language development can be given as much support as
possible.
Implication for the classroom
The type of device used in the classroom will impact your programming for all
students. You may have amplification devices, students with Cochlear Implants
or signing being the preferred method of communication. Performance in most
KLA’s can be quite difficult as much depends on comprehension of written
language and this directly relates to the understanding of the spoken language.
Student with Hearing Impairments will have limited access to subject vocabulary
which can impact on their understanding of subject matter
Characteristics of a child with a hearing loss
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
turning the ear toward the noise
favouring one ear over another
lack of follow through of instructions
seem distracted or confused
ask repeatedly for information
often mispronounces words
frequent earaches or sinus infections
See Appendix 13/14 for Types of Communication Systems and Strategies
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
16
Types of Impairments
Hearing Impairments are generally categorized into 2 areas.
- conductive
- sensorineural
- mixed (which is a combination of both)
Conductive Hearing Loss is an interference in the transmission of sound from
the other canal to the inner ear. The condition may fluctuate over time and can
affect one or two ears to varying degrees. This type of hearing loss is often
fixed by medical or surgical treatment.
Sensorineural Hearing Loss results from damage to the cochlea or to the
auditory nerve. It can affect one ear (unilateral) or two ears (bilateral). A child
with a sensorineural loss hears speech at a reduced level or loudness and they
may also have sound distortions. A sensory device or a cochlear implant is
often recommended.
See Appendix 18-19 for types of AAC systems and
Considerations for their use.
Most common type of hearing impairment
we are likely to see in regular classrooms
Otitis Media
Definition
Also known as middle ear hearing loss caused by constant infections. It will be
the most common cause of hearing loss at some stage through a child’s
education as all children will have at least one episode of Otitis Media.
Implication for the classroom
Children with Otitis Media will have varying degrees of impairment. Some
children that have recurring incidences will have frequent and long periods off
school. They will miss a huge amount of learning due to these absences.
Children with Otitis Media may also be sitting in your classroom not hearing
anything you are teaching because they are experiencing hearing loss. Children
suffering constant middle ear infections in their early years may have constant
visits to specialists and may have operations to fix the impairment creating a
higher incidences of absenteeism.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
17
Autism Spectrum Disorder including
aspergers syndrome
Definition
Autism is a developmental disorder that influences social, communication, and
vocational abilities. Autism Spectrum disorders include 5 disorders that have
similar degrees of deficits in 3 areas. These areas are social, communication and
behavioural. The disorders included in Autism Spectrum Disorders are Rhett’s
disorder, Aspergers syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) and
childhood disintegrative disorder.
Aspergers was first described in 1944 by an Austrian physician Hans Asperger.
The syndrome is considered part of the Autism Spectrum Disorder. Children with
Aspergers are quite often very challenged by formal education as they lack an
understanding of relationships and social etiquette .
Implications for the language classroom
Donna Williams (1992) claims that as a child she learnt better when the teachers
did not get in the way. Children with Autism have pragmatic disorders of
language as they have trouble with social communication resulting in
misinterpretation of their intent and meaning. They have trouble initiating
conversations and ask repetitive questions. Students have difficulty interpreting
emotional cues and social skills are not understood. Children with Autism do
understand emotions, reciprocity, self and others feelings or the intent to
communicate. Children with Autism often have poor comprehension ability as this
is related to syntactic delays. Their learning is orderly and structured. Computer
programs are often a favourite as they are logical and consistent and are often
seen as an ideal learning tool. There is no set ways to adjust and modify the
classroom program due to the ego-syncratic interests of each student.
Children with Autism usually have excellent memories, visual processing skills,
visual-spatial abilities, number skills, and musical abilities (Bernstein, K &
Tiegerman-Farber, E. p 538)
See Appendix 3 for Pragmatic Strategies and Appendix 16 for general strategies.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
18
Samples of Language
Supports
For the Regular classroom
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
19
Whole Body Listening
Looking
Good Listening
Quiet Mouth
Quiet Sitting
Quiet Body
I’m Ready
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
20
Communication Booklet
What did I do today at school?
Spelling
Literacy
Maths
H.S.I.E.
Writing
D.E.A.R.
Handwriting
Library
Shared Reading
BTN/Research
Craft/Visual Arts
Scripture
Music
Sport
Science & Tech
Assembly
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
21
Daniel’s
Communication
Booklet
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
22
What do I need to do for tomorrow?
Homework
Worksheet
Notes to
come in
read my book
mobile library
Library
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
23
Information Report on Kangaroos
What kind of Animal am I ?
Where does it live?
What does it eat?
How does it reproduce?
What does it look like?
Other Information
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
24
Use with Information Report for Visual Cues
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
25
Making Scones
You will Need:
1. Preheat oven 180 degrees
2. In a large bowl, mix the flour, sugar, baking
powder and salt. Cut in the butter until the mixture
looks like coarse crumbs.
3.Blend the egg and enough milk to form a soft
dough. Turn the dough onto a floured surface and
pat gently into a 10 inch circle.
4. Place on a lightly floured tray.
5. Cook at 180 degrees for 16-18 minutes or until
golden brown.
Serve with butter, jam, and cream.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
26
Making Scones
You will need:
1. prheat
2.
,
180 degrees
,
,
and
.
the
until the mixture looks like coarse crumbs.
3.Blend
and enough
Turn the dough onto a
10 inch
.
4. Place on a lightly
to form a soft dough.
and pat gently into a
.
5.
at 180 degrees for 16-18 minutes or until
golden brown.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
Serve
with
, Australia
and
.
School of
Teacher Education, ,
Charles Sturt University,
27
Food I Need:
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
28
Equipment I Need:
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
29
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
30
Social Stories using visual cues
When I am…………… I drink………………………
Sick
milk
………………………………….
School
Juice
………..……………………
Movies
Coca
Cola
………………………………
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
31
Hidden
Is found by joining together information from two or
more places in the text
Or
From information in the text and what I know already?
Head
Is the answer in my background
knowledge?
Is it something I already know?
Here
Is it here in one sentence in the text?
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
32
To be used for editing purposes so the
child has consistent messages from markers
X
+
!
??
**
I thought differently
New information
WOW
I don’t understand
Very important
Samples of Visual Aides
Tele
C
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
at)
(
33
I
I saw mum shopping.
cat………bat
All clips taken from free clipart programs of the internet
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
34
C
at)
(
Tele
I
I saw mum shopping.
cat………bat
When I don’t know the word.
I can………
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
35
Can I sound it out?
What is the first sound?
Do I know any other sounds?
Do I know the sounds of some groups
of letters?
Can I look for a little word in the
bigger word?
Read on to the end of the
sentence. Think about a word
that would make sense.
Think about what
word would make
sense. Does it
match the print?
Try it out
Look at any Pictures.
Re-Read the
sentence
Do I know a word that
looks like this one?
Can I change some of
the letters to make a
word I know?
When I don’t know the
word.
Types of Scaffolds available
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
36
To introduce a social story who need to;
• read the story to yourself first
• read the story to the student
• let them read it to someone
• initially read the story every time you want the student to do the task
• reward behaviour that has been a result of the story
• share the story with other adults
• fade out naturally whilst the behaviour becomes natural
• allow the story time to have positive results
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
37
Websites to visit
Australian Speak Easy Association
http://www.speakeasy.org.au
The stuttering Home Page
http://www.mankato.msus.edu/dept/comdis/kuster/stutter.html
National Stuttering Association
http://www.nsastutter.org/
Speech Pathology Australia
http://www.home.vicnet.net.au/~sppathau/
Felt Board Stories
http://www.preschoolprintables.com
Royal Deaf and Blind society
http://www.ridbc.org.au
About.com
http://www.specialed.about.com
Speech Site
http://www.ELR.com.au
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
38
Computer Software
Clicker 4 crick software
www.cricksoft.com
Boardmaker
www.spectronics.com.au
PET English as a second language
CD distributed by NSW DET in 2001
Write Aloud Don Johnston
www.donjohnston.com
Co writer Don Johnston
www.donjohnston.com
Phonics Alive 1,2,3,4,5 &6 software
Language classroom software
Writing with Symbols
www.spectronics.com.au
Talking and Listening assessment tasks for students needing additional support.
Open Training and Education Network. NSW DET (2003)
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
39
Appendix Contents
Page
Title
1.
41-42
Common Behaviours of children with Language Difficulties
2.
43
3.
44-47
4.
48
Strategies for enhancing Communication in your classroom
5.
49
Effective Teachers checklist
6.
50
Programming Strategies for the regular classroom
7.
51
Modifications and Adjustments
8.
52-56
Characteristics of students with a Language Learning
Difficulty
9.
57-59
Strategies for Children with a Language Learning Difficulty
10.
60
11.
61-63
12.
64
Strategies for Aphrasia
13.
65
Strategies for Phonological Disorders
14.
66
Types of Communication Systems for children with Hearing
Impairments
15.
67
General Strategies for teaching students with Hearing
Impairments
16.
68
Strategies for children with Autism
17.
69
Communication Systems to suit the need of the child
18.
70
Types of Augmenative and Alternative Communication
Systems
19.
71
Considerations when looking at AAC systems
Appendix
Language needs at school compared to home
Strategies for the classroom - General, Expressive, Receptive
and Pragmatic Language
Strategies for children with Articulation Disorders
Fluency Disorders – Stuttering and Stammering Strategies
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
40
Appendix 1
School Identification of Students with
language difficulties
Common behaviours teachers may see in the regular classroom
for children at risk of developing language difficulties.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Blank stares
Inappropriate smiling
Limited eye contact
Lost appearance
Not listening
Easily distracted
Withdrawn
Acting out
Clumsy
Common behaviours seen in children with receptive language
difficulties
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tangential replies to questions ( can be interpreted as lying or evasive)
Slow to respond to instructions (watches others for cues)
Say yes to anything or change to no if that’s what you want to hear
Only carries out one part of an instruction
Quickly forgets
Repeats instructions
Takes things literally
Takes a long time to reply
Fails to make inferences from messages (spells everything out)
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
41
Common behaviours seen in children with expressive
language difficulties
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Overuse of gestures
Overuse of jargon
Rarely asks questions to clarify ambiguous statements
Less assertive and effective interactions with peers
Difficulty in relating stories, messages and complaints
Difficulty in reasoning and relating a sequence of events
A student of few words
May forget to bring items for activities to avoid the need to talk to the
class
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special) Trainer’s Manual 1c.
Module Language Cert 111 page 10
Common behaviours seen in children with pragmatic
difficulties
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Impaired relationships with peers/adults
Acting as if unaware of themselves as a person
Pre-occupation with objects
Resistance to change of environment or routine
Unusual response to sensory stimuli
Presence of unreasonable fears
Use of unusual fears
Use of unusual speech inflections
Presence of unusual body movement ( stiff and gaited)
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers
Aide (Special) Trainer’s Manual 1c. Page 11
Further investigation will be necessary before diagnosis is made on individual
students
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
42
Appendix 2
Language Needs @ School
Skills needed at school are more sophisticated than those skills that are
required for home. The table below looks at the type of language used in both
settings.
Language at Home
• Informal
• Has many cues
• Is familiar and in the present
time
• Context based – common
experiences
• Language is fine tuned to the
level of individual child
• Frequent pauses and checks for
understanding
• Is relevant and significant to the
individual child
Language at School
• Formal
• Fewer cues
• Becomes increasingly abstract
in meaning which is constructed
from what is said rather than a
common experience.
• Language is standardized for all
students
• High incidence of teacher talk
Pragmatic skill need to be proficient when students enter school. Families tend
to compensate for individual needs more so than school environments. Families
understand subtle messages and difficulties more so than newly formed peer
groups.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
43
Appendix 3
Strategies for the use in the
classroom for Students with Language
needs
-to enhance and develop communication skills for children in a regular classroom
General Language Strategies
• Positive environment encouraging a have – a – go approach recognising
genuine effort with praise and or rewards.
• Create a need to communicate by using naturally occurring incidents and
stimulated activities.
• Increase and encourage all opportunities to communicate by providing daily
routines that require communication interactions e.g. news time and
sharing experiences after a group activity. See resource section for news
plan.
• Create teacher discussions with students by asking questions about what
they are doing and by asking how they completed a task. Developing the
‘wh’ questions. See resource section
• Encourage chat times. Encourage students to chat with each other so they
are practicing taking communication risks. We always take a risk when
communicating- is the other person going to be engaged in my
conversation? – is the other person going to agree with me? – is the other
person going to respond to me?
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special) Trainer’s Manual 1c.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
44
Expressive Language Strategies
• Model correct grammatical forms – well formed sentences and phrases. It
is important to try and elicit the response you want from the student.
Student: I drawed at school today
Teacher: I drew a picture too. What did you draw?
Student: I drew a cat.
• Expansion – expand on the language to enhance the meaning.
Student: The tree moves.
Teacher: Yes the tree moves in the wind.
• Leading Questions – ask open ended questions which encourage the
student to provide more information rather than yes/no answer.
• Taking Turns – take turns and let the student take the lead in conversations
with children in the classroom. Make sure you allow processing time.
• Repetition – repeat new vocabulary and grammatical structures by
providing repetition, cues, and prompts and guided practice.
• Scaffold – use plans or scaffolds to assists students present their
information
Refer to My News Plan or My Science Report in resource section
• Adapt the environment for students in need. By moving furniture noise can
be minimised so students are not as distracted.
• Carefully construct scaffolds or plans and for oral / written work writing
things down in diaries, rehearsal techniques for oral presentations
• Provide an extra tool to support work like a dictionary, computer or even a
scribe.
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special)
Trainer’s Manual 1c. Cert 111 page 15
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
45
Receptive Language Strategies
• Appropriate level of language – use one or two words longer than those
used by the student.
• Repetition – repeat then rephrase questions and instructions.
1st repeat statement or question exactly giving time for processing.
2nd rephrase statement or question on more simplified terms.
• Explanations – provide an explanation of things that are happening in the
environment demonstrations / gestural prompts / visual cues
• Instructions – consider the number and complexity necessary to give one
at a time fewer and simpler instructions
• Be Explicit - explicit and specific instructions and teaching tasks will
assist all students
• Small Steps – breakdown tasks so students can achieve.
• Key words – pause , stress and emphasize key words to aid students
• Processing time – allow time for students to respond. A student may still
be processing the question when you have skipped to the next or moved
on to the next student.
• Gain Attention – always make eye contact and minimise any external
distractions
• Cues – teach students to watch others and to take cues from them. (be
careful this is not over taught)
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special)
Trainer’s Manual 1c. p18
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
46
Pragmatic/ Social Language Strategies
• Whole Body Listening- develop a students ability to actively listen with
their whole body. Reward with comments for Good Listening and Good
Looking.
• Ask questions – discuss what questions are and why we use them. Teach
children to identify when they need to ask questions to clarify information
and situations.
• Listeners’ Perspective – students need to be made aware of the feelings,
emotions and non-verbal behaviours of others so that they can take the
listeners perspective.
• Indirect Requests – children need to be taught how people make indirect
requests provide examples and assists the student to interpret the
underlying intent.
• Talking Strategies – discuss conversational skills greeting, turn talking,
listening, eye contact.
• Rules and routines – explain routines in order for the student to be able to
pretend what is to come and changes in activities. Role Play can help to
highlight.
• Incidental Training – use naturally occurring incidences to reinforce social
language skills.
Certificate 111 in Education Support, Teachers Aide (Special)
Trainer’s Manual 1c.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
47
Appendix 4
Strategies for enhancing communication
• Visual Timetables can be used for developing understanding of routine.
Provide a students with a consistent, tangible cues about the daily
routine. They provide an opportunity to reduce inappropriate behaviour
and increase independence, and provide an opportunity for them to see a
change in routine.
• Rule boards clearly display the class rules in a visual representation.
They allow the students to remember the specific rules and how to follow
them.
• Social Stories are used to help a student understand a situation and how
to behave in that situation. They need to be written carefully containing
descriptive language (who, what, where, when and why) direct language
telling the student how to act and perspective which states reactions and
feelings.
• Choice making – by using symbols the student can communicate their
needs by using real objects, symbols, and/or pictures.
• Home –School Diary – a link between school and home which allows the
student have a little independence with their communication
• Topic Boards are used to develop receptive and expressive language
skills.
• Natural gestures or keyword signing is great for students understanding
information given.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
48
Appendix 5
Effective teachers;
• Have well organised classrooms
• Provide students with the maximum opportunity to learn
• Maintain an academic focus
• Have high expectations of what students can achieve
• Show enthusiasm
• Use strategies to keep students on task, motivated and productive
• Present new material in a step by step manner
• Direct and explicit instructional procedures
• Use clear instructions and explanations
• Demonstrate appropriate task – approach strategies
• Monitor closely what the students are doing
• Apply high rates of questioning that checks on student learning
• Adjust work and instructions to meet individual needs a reteach when
necessary
• Use a variety of resources
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
49
Appendix 6
Programming Strategies
Student Learning Needs
Programming Strategy
Needs in common with whole class
Whole class programs with some
support
Particular needs in one or more key
learning areas which can be met within
the class program
Individualisation or modification of class
program
Specific individual learning needs.
An individual skills-based program in one
or more areas.
Modifications can include
Changing the form of
information given to the
student
•Use taped books
•Use a reader
•Cooperative learning groups
•Large print materials
•Audio visual materials
•Graphic displays
Changing the form of the
students’ response
•Oral instead of written response
•Demonstrate with an explanation
•Draw, graph, chart, web or tape
response
•Word processor
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
50
Appendix 7
Modifications and Adjustments can involve:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Breaking the task into smaller components.
Fewer examples to complete
Complete part of the class task
Write a sentence not a paragraph
Simplifying or
condensing
learning tasks
with similar
topics
Literal rather than inferential comprehension
Varying the time given to finish a task
Provide more time to finish a task
Shorten an activity, divide an activity into two
or more parts
Changing the
time given to
finish the task
High interest, instructional level reading material
Present with audio visual support
Read for main ideas instead of details
Assign basic maths problems instead of advanced
Changing
the level of
difficulty
of a task
Display a chart to describe the steps in editing
text
Display word banks on a particular topic
Alerting students when new or important
information is going to be introduced
Make important features of an activity more
noticeable by underlining or circling key words
Providing
Hints and
Prompts
Place new or difficult tasks in the same place
each time on a worksheet
Changing the form of information
Changing the form of the student’s response
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
51
Appendix 8
Characteristics of Students with a Language Learning Disability
(LLD)
The following summary is taken from Chapter Two, ‘One in Eleven – Practical
Strategies for Teaching Adolescents with a Language Learning Disability’ by M.
Brent, F. Gough and S. Robinson. Published in 2001 by ACER Press.
When dealing with students with LLD, it is important to remember that each
student is an individual with individual problems and that each student’s
language and learning profile is therefore different.
Disorganised in time
Students with LLD are often disorganised in time and they can have difficulty
understanding timetables.
Students with LLD:
• frequently turn up late to class and appointments;
• do not know where they should be at given times;
• can totally forget arrangements unless reminded
immediately beforehand; and
• need reminding to consult timetables to find out information
about rooms and times.
As well as being disorganised in such matters as timetables,
students with LDD are often inefficient with their use of time
in other respects.
• waste time in class;
• are slow to get started on tasks;
• do not achieve enough in the given time; and
• become excellent procrastinators.
They can also be unrealistic about the amount of time it takes to
complete tasks.
• do not appreciate how many steps there are in a task and how long
each one will take;
• might expect to complete a lengthy assignment in one night;
• do not realise that a two-week timeline means that they should
start working immediately, and not leave the work until the last
couple of days;
• do not leave enough time to check work; and
• do not allow time for the unexpected, and always presume that
things will go smoothly.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
52
Disorganised with possessions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
often have untidy lockers;
do not bring appropriate equipment and books to class and do not take such
things home to do homework;
are unaware of the books and materials that they do have;
lose things frequently;
have difficulty using folders;
often do not realise that things have been mislaid; and
do not take appropriate steps to locate lost property.
Difficulties structuring work
This aspect is a reflection of the students’ inability to organise ideas and
thoughts. It can be exacerbated by poor reading comprehension and poor
writing skills.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
have difficulty understanding what they have to do unless it is
carefully explained (even if written instructions have been supplied);
find difficulty in taking steps to assemble information from
suitable sources to complete a task;
have problems with seeing tasks through to completion unless
given help to structure the task step by step;
have difficulty breaking a task into steps
have difficulty in appreciating the overall need to plan tasks,
actually organising such a plan, and understanding the time involved
to finish each step;
not always persist with a task to completion;
drop a task completely when they strike an obstacle to completing it;
often lose track of where they are in a task, complete part of it, and
fail to return to it – often requiring encouragement to persist.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
53
Disorganised in place
Students with LLD can be very confused in secondary school:
•
•
have difficulty in locating classrooms and knowing what to do when
there are classroom changes;
can become proficient over time, but encounter difficulty when they
need to adapt to the unexpected.
Difficulties with comprehension
Students with LLD do not always follow instructions easily;
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
appear not to listen or appear to be daydreaming;
have difficulty in remembering spoken information;
in conversation, often grasp only the beginning or the end of a sentence;
grasp only some of the details they hear and cannot accurately combine
these fragments of information;
try to concentrate on what is being said but, because they do not
understand all the vocabulary, ‘tune out’;
can still be concentrating on the beginning and miss the end;
do not have a good overall scheme of the topic in mind;
jump to conclusions because of inadequate understanding and inaccurate
prediction based on incomplete past knowledge;
do not understand the meaning of all the words, terms, and concepts used;
attempt to make sense of what has been said, but put it together incorrectly;
and
do not realise that they have not understood and therefore cannot ask
questions to clarify matters.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
54
Difficulties with vocabulary
Students with LLD can have a restricted vocabulary.
•
•
•
•
need assistance to learn the special vocabulary of various subjects and
activities;
confuse words that have more than one meaning;
do not deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words from the context; and
confuse words that sound alike (for example, ‘conscious’/conscience’;
‘consistent’/’constant’;)
Difficulties generalising from specifics
Because they have difficulties generalising from specifics, students with LLD
have problems in applying knowledge of skills they have learned.
•
•
•
•
•
cannot automatically carry learned skills into a new situation;
have difficulty making connections between separate sources of information
have difficulty using aids provided by teachers unless someone is there to
show the students how to apply the information to the problem in a step-bystep process;
do not seem to understand cause and effect; and
do not appreciate the full significance of their actions or the full significance
of what they have said.
A long time to process information
To LLD students, a person speaking at a normal rate can seem to be speaking
too fast.
•
•
•
•
•
need time to think about what has been said;
need time to digest small portions of information;
can still be working out one part of the information long after it has passed
and can miss information that is presented later;
need to go over key information
often need spoken information to be supported with brief notes, diagrams
and key words.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
55
Frequently distracted
LLD students often find difficulty in concentrating. This can be because they:
•
•
•
•
have difficulty focusing attention in the face of competing stimulation in the
classroom;
cannot understand and therefore give up;
cannot complete set tasks and therefore lose interest; and
have difficulty learning to sustain concentration on tasks.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
56
Appendix 9
Strategies for teaching Language Learning Disability
students
The following checklist is designed to provide teachers with some general
points to keep in mind when teaching LLD students.
Organisation
•
•
•
Teach students how to file and organise handouts and work.
Acquaint students in a direct way with classroom rules.
Actively teach study skills. For example, teach note taking, time
management, organisational systems, summary lists and keywords.
Giving instructions to support comprehension
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Explain the purpose of an activity.
Emphasise information that is important to learn. LLD students are not very
good at filtering and cognitively organising information. Repeat advice if
necessary.
Restate, emphasising key points.
Deliberately slow down the rate of presentation.
Use shorter units of explanation.
Limit the amount of new material presented at one time.
Allow a longer pause time at the end of questions before expecting LLD
students to answer.
Provide a list of vocabulary for a new topic and check students’
understanding of these words. Limit the amount of new vocabulary.
Provide background information and discussion before expecting students
to answer.
Provide visual cues and concrete materials to assist learning and
remembering.
Use gesture and action to enhance the meaning of verbal material.
Give direct instructions rather than indirect instructions.
Avoid sarcasm and ambiguity.
A teachers resource pack
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School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
57
Presenting assignments
•
•
Provide clear written directions and expectations for assignments and
projects.
Support spoken information with written information. Remember that LLD
students are slow and inaccurate at transcribing notes from the board.
Completing set work
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Directly teach the skills underlying reading comprehension, maths problemsolving, and so on. This might require the breaking-down of tasks into small
steps and the formulation of a plan of action.
Talk students through a task, describing it step by step while students are
performing the task or while the task is demonstrated.
Provide peer modelling.
Negotiate an appropriate amount of work for students to complete.
Be aware that LLD students might have difficulty with writing. Negotiate
other ways of collecting and presenting information.
Provide a range of materials and activities – from very simple to more
difficult so that information is accessible to students.
Have reasonable time expectations for the completion of the work.
Emphasise metalinguistic skills to foster independence and analysis.
Encourage and teach a variety of memory strategies: mnemonics, charts,
visuals and so on.
Preserving self-esteem
•
•
Provide private negotiation time for LLD students.
Encourage and reward students when they seek help
and clarification.
:
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
58
Tests
Tests are a daunting experience for students with LLD. If teachers modify tests,
students are supported, their stress is reduced, they can perform to their best
and they are learning the skills to approach the test situation.
Teachers can consider the following strategies:
•
open-book tests in which students bring prepared notes or books into the
test;
• substitution of oral test for written tests;
• providing an opportunity for students to ask for test questions to be read;
• providing an opportunity for students to ask for a clarification of questions;
• providing a scribe to write down students’ answers;
• providing the possibility of underlining or circling alternatives, rather than
writing them out;
• preparation of alternative tests that have some more difficult questions
deleted;
• alteration of multiple-choice questions to give only two or three choices
• putting all questions in the positive rather than the negative
• on appropriate occasions, allow students the option of not taking a given
test
• allowing the use of ‘props’ (such as calculators, tables cards, wordprocessors, and spell-checkers);
• marking the test out of questions answered, rather than out of the total
number of questions asked;
• not penalising spelling or grammar errors;
• not giving tests verbally, and
not imposing time limits that pressure students to work quickly; rather,
encouraging students to complete what they can within the given time.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
59
Appendix 10
Strategies for Articulation Disorders
• Always receive and respond to a message first with correct speech. It is
very important that all messages are responded to.
• Try to find out what specific instruction the child has been given by their
specialist to produce the correct sound or pattern. Never try to develop
cues for yourself if the child is already receiving therapy as this will confuse
them.
• Try to integrate practice into everyday activities. If they are developed as
part of your program they are more likely to be completed.
• If you are confused as to whether sounds were said correctly be honest
with the child and ask them to repeat what they have said. ‘I am sorry I did
not quite understand that` can you please repeat it for me’
• Try to fit in at least 5 minutes a day of specific speech time. This can make
a big difference to a child’s program and it can be slotted into your
timetable relatively easily.
• Avoid the temptation to correct everything. Worry about the focus they are
working on at the present moment.
• Create an atmosphere and culture of self esteem and pride. Positive
reinforcement is preferred in all classrooms.
An unsuccessful task should not be persevered with beyond three tries. Drop
down a level if the task is presenting as to hard.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
60
Appendix 11
Strategies for Stuttering and Stammering
Provide a good speech model
• Reduce the speed of your speech. Parents of a child that stutters often speak
faster than a child that does not stutter. Slower speech will allow the child to
organize their thoughts, choose the correct vocabulary and grammatical
terms.
• Create pause in your interactions with children in appropriate places in your
conversations.
• Model simple vocabulary and grammatical forms – stuttering is more likely to
occur in longer words.
• Uses normal nonfluencies like “ooah” or “um” in your conversations.
Improve Self Esteem
• Disregard moments of nonfluency. Reward fluency and ignore nonfluency.
Avoid giving instructions on how to be fluent. Don’t say “slow down”, “take a
deep breathe” or “stop and start over”. This could give the message that what
they are saying is incorrect and a sense of guilt may take over.
• Accept what a contributes to a conversation not how it is delivered
• Treat a child that stutters like every other child in the class
• Use the words that the child uses to describe their nonfluencies like bumpy
words or hard words. Also assure the child that it is OK to have nonfluencies
as everyone has them.
• Help the child take control of the convers ation and their speech. Speech will
more than likely be more fluent on topics of interest. Avoid asking lots of
questions.
• Adjustments needed when children are reading out loud.
A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
61
Create Good Speech Environment
• Establish Conversation rules, these are to be employed by all students in the
classroom and the same rules apply to all students.
• Listen actively – avoid the uninterested response of “uh-huh”
• Make suggestions that the child cease all other activity whilst speaking. Also
reduce the need to speak when actively involved in some classroom activities
• Prepare the child for events that are coming as some may be overcome with
excitement.
Stuttering and Stammering Do’s and Don’ts
a
r
aAcknowledge the difficulties without
labeling them
rDon’t pretend the disfluencies are
not there
aTry to model slow speech
rDon’t tell the child to “think before
you speak”, “take a breathe”, “ Stop
and start again”
aOccasionally rephrase what he/she
has said
rDon’t fill in words or supply answers
aRemain calm and maintain eye
contact
rDon’t avert your eyes, turn your
head, or look pained, pity, or impatient
aTry to act as you would for other
children
rDon’t be unusually attentive with
disfluent speech
aTalk openly with the child about
stuttering if they want to
rDon’t discuss the child’s speech in
his/her presence
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Some frequently asked questions
1. Can I do anything to help the child through difficult time?
Yes, provide successfully speaking experiences. Fluency can be developed
through choral reading, saying rhymes together, singing songs, and the use of
puppets.
When there is a very bad day try and minimise the number of times you call on
him/her to talk. Maximise them on good days.
2. What about reading aloud?
Something that can’t be avoided. Try to start with books that can be read
together. Big Books read-a-longs are good examples to begin with. Never single
the child with a stutter call on everyone equally.
3. What about calling on the child for answering questions?
Call on them when they volunteer to answer questions. Cues could be used to
indicate to the teacher that they are ready to answer the question after they have
been given time to process their words and grammatical response.
4. Should the child be asked to give oral reports?
Talk to the child privately and let them decide. This is always up to the child and
they should always be asked. A report could be previously put onto a computer
to allow the student visual cues and a lot of the message could be placed onto a
presentation that will reduce the amount of speech required. Always think of the
purpose of the activity.
5. What about tape recorders?
We have all heard ourselves on the tapes and been overwhelmed by the sound.
It is never a good idea to tape disfluent times and especially not to play them
back in a group situation. The child may like to be the same as all other
students and doing the same activity gives them a feeling of normal.
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Appendix 12
Strategies for Aphasia
• Talk as you normally would using concise, explicit sentences. Use speech
that allows the student to take in ideas that are conveyed in the conversation.
• Make sure background noise is kept to a minimum to benefit conversation
• Have rules in the classroom that one person talks at a time and adhere to it
• Use body language where ever possible in conjunction with speaking
• Allow processing time for the student to respond to ideas and don’t interrupt
or guess what they are trying too quickly
• Try to read body language and the situation around them to interpret the
message without interrupting them.
• Always attract the child’s attention before speaking
• Always check that the student has understood the instructions or the intention
of the message given
• Be careful of changing topics too quickly
• Be aware of sarcasm, jokes and other abstract language may be difficult to
understand
• Always encourage communication regardless of the time it takes
Be sensitive to frustration
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Appendix 13
Strategies for classrooms
Phonological Disorders;
Adapted from English K-6 Literacy Interim Support Document for Students
Experiencing Learning Difficulties
• A strong phonemic awareness program that introduces
* Rhyming – ability to recognise and produce words that
rhyme
• Developing an awareness of initial and final sounds
* Alliteration – identify words that begin with the same sound
(phoneme)
* Isolation – say phonemes and its position in the word
• Sequence of phonemes in a word
*blending – involves joining extended units of continuous sound to
form a whole word
*segmentation- awareness that words are made up of one or more
phoneme
• NSW Department of Education English Syllabus K-6 provides a scope and
sequence of Phonological and Graphological skills on page 78 taking into
consideration
* Visual processing
* Sound awareness
* Letter Sound Relationships
* Spelling
* Handwriting
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Appendix 14
Types of communication systems used for children with hearing
impairments
• Sign Language
- Auslan - Australian Sign Language
- American Sign Language
• Speech Auditory/Oral Communication
- use hearing aids/cochlear implants to help them understand spoken
language
- many need to combine with lip reading
• Visually coded Spoken English
- signed English/ cued speech. It is a system that makes spoken
English more visible
• Signed English
- signing as well as speaking
• Cued Speech
- makes sounds more visible on the lips
- hand shapes are used near the face to help the child with a hearing
impairment identify sounds being used
• Finger Spelling
- used more with signed English for names and word endings
• Total Communication
- promotes use of all channels of communication signing and speech
• Simultaneous Method
- uses both speech and signing at the same time.
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Appendix 15
General Strategies for teaching students with
Hearing Impairments
• Face the hearing impaired student directly and at the same eye level (avoid
getting the students attention by using a hand to turn his/her head.
• Try to reduce the background noise
• Find alternative ways to get a point of view across if you are not getting
yourself through. A student may still have trouble understanding speech
even with a hearing aide
• Allow more space than normal between people communicating as you nee
to leave room for use of a hand.
• Maintain good eye contact during conversation
• Keep your hands away from your face
• Make sure of good light when communicating
• Pre teach and post teach subject material
- pre teach subject vocabulary and concepts to assist in the
establishment of a knowledge base needed to understand new
concepts.
- Post teach can be used to review subject matter, clarify concepts
and misconceptions, and organise information.
• For students to succeed in our classroom it is important to master word
recognition and comprehension.
- development of word banks, word webs, word games
- comprehension strategies like self questioning procedures,
summarising, main idea procedures, predicting, drawing inferences,
- look at activities from the Programming and Strategies Handbook
for NSW Department of Education.
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Appendix 16
Strategies for students with Autism
Work Environment
• ensure a student can predict what will happen next in the sequence of
activities. A visual timetable is a very good way of helping students predict
the sequence of the day.
• use visual schedules
• allocate a specific area for student to work in to cater for
over stimulation
• ensure the student understands what is expected of them.
Communication
• communicate plans to teachers, parents, students, Librarian,
Support Teacher Learning Assistance (STLA) Release from Face
to Face teacher (RFF), and casual teachers.
• Students have literal understandings of language. Make sure they
receive implicit meaning and these are mad explicitly with no irony
or idioms as they are not understood.
• Instructions need to be brief, precise and with concrete
examples. Break down complicated instructions into manageable
steps.
• Give the student time to process the language. Children can not
be rushed whilst processing what has been said.
• Develop a communication booklet for school, teachers and home.
See resources
• Develop an emotions booklet (what is happy, sad, fear, etc) (what is a
friend?) (How do I listen with my whole body?)
• Develop a How to have a conversation booklet. (How far do I stand from
others?) (How to interpret body language?) (How do I end a
conversation?) (What we can and can’t say to strangers?)
• Teach comprehension skills. Specifically teach strategies for
comprehension like Here Hidden Head, 3 Level guide. See resources
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Appendix 17
Developing a Communication System
to suit the need of the child
For students who have a language impairment a communication system needs to
be set up so the students receives the full benefit of his or her education.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) Systems are an
alternative for all students with a language impairment. AAC is a system that
improves the level of communication using both verbal and/or non-verbal
language. Augmentative Communication Systems are used for students with
some spoken language but is impaired. An Alternative Communication system is
used when there is no speech. It is an alternative system of communication.
Who may use a AAC
• Students with speech problems which may include articulation disorders,
trouble with fluency of speech – slurring speech.
• Students with a congenital conditions like Cerebral Palsy, Downs Syndrome or
even a Cleft Palate
• Students who have difficulties understanding and /or using symbols and rules
of language. Children with Autism and Asperger’s usually have language
problems as with children with Developmental Language delays.
• Students with voice difficulties
• Cognitive impairments that affect all skills. A child with an intellectual disability
may be delayed in cognitive, communication, gross motor skills and social
skills.
• Students with acquired conditions that a student has for example a brain injury
causing Aphasia
• Students with progressive disorders like Motor Neurone
disease.
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Types of Augmentive & Alternative
Communication Systems
ACC system have 2 categories aided and unaided systems.
Aided
• Low Technology
-objects
-photos
-picture symbols
-letters for spelling
-visual timetables
Unaided
• manual sign language
• key word signing
• natural gestures
• High Technology
-voice output communication
devices, system for a student who
activates a button and generates
speech
• Computer based systems
A teachers resource pack
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Appendix 18
Considerations when looking at AAC
systems
All factors should be discussed with the Learning Support Team including
therapist relevant to the individual student. Considerations should benefit the
child’s communication as well as the educational function.
• Size of the photos/ symbols to be used, can they be seen from a
distance?
• Position of the objects, photos or pictures
• Spacing of symbols, photos or pictures
• Colouring – background contrasts, background distractors, colouring of
symbols etc. Which colours motivate the child.
• Access to support – touching/reaching eye gazing/scanning/switch
access
• Portability it is important that the system goes with the child all the time for
effective use
• Function of vocabulary
• Frequency of use
• Is there teaching opportunities
• What are the future implications
• Staff awareness of the system
• Functional across all KLA’s
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A teachers resource pack
developed by Sharelle Baily, (2004). Master of Education (Special Education) student,
School of Teacher Education, Charles Sturt University, Australia
78